account of being one of only a handful Bibliography of full-time foreign students, these were Romani in : far outweighed by the benefits: the huge Eötvös Loránd . 17 Apr. 2009 , Observances and I’ve made with students and professors, Gionis A, Mannila H, Mielikäinen T, Tsaparas P (2006) as well as the benefits incurred by Assessing data mining results via swap randomization. Experiences standing out in a crowd. Regarding the In: Proceeding of the 2006 ACM SIGKDD international itself, I feel that much conference on knowledge discovery in databases (KDD’06), of the changes will come down to “only Philadelphia, PA, pp 167–176 time will tell.” It seems unlikely that Netflix Prize. Netflix. 17 Apr. 2009 . Eric Lopez dramatically unless more fundamental Zweig, Nina and Christian Groth. Experimental and theoretical changes take place; however, hopefully analysis of the expected co-occurrence in market baskets a few years’ time will assuage doubts of containing single-buy items. Pending Publication...... professors regarding the new curriculum. I would like to thank several individuals Hofstra University Central European University in particular: Kati Vesztergombi, Gyula Hempstead, NY 11549-1000 Nádor utca, 09., Károlyi, and Nina Zweig, for advising www.Hofstra.edu 1051Budapest, Hungary me in official and unofficial capacities; [email protected] Advisor: Dr. Anton Palinka András Gács and Zoltán Kiraly, for the Advisor: Dr. Linda Longmire time they spent attempting to educate me; and the Hungarian-American Fulbright ...... Commission for making this entire opportunity possible. As a former advocate for students in Harlem, New York, I arrived in Hungary with a set of expectations regarding the educational injustices faced by the Roma. However, my experiences could not have prepared me for what I would observe and experience during my time there. Researching articles, studies, reports, and statistics has yielded valuable information on the Roma, yet it was my observations at the Dr. Ambedkar School in Sajokaza and Hegymeg that clearly illustrated the challenges and issues faced by students, parents, educators, and advocates in Hungary today. After nearly one year of observation and research on the educational inequalities faced by the Roma in Hungary, one thing has become increasingly clear; Hungary’s efforts towards educational equality must rely more on Roma communities and organizations if it is to achieve harmonious integration between its Roma and non-Roma citizens. My observations at the Dr. Ambedkar School in the northern county of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, allowed me the unique opportunity to draw several comparisons between Hungary’s efforts towards providing a more inclusive educational environment for its Roma minority and some of the harsh realities faced by its economically deprived Roma communities.

168 169 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education: Observances and Experiences

most of Hungary’s Roma) have been failures to reconcile differences between The economic situation of Hungary’s Introduction historically denied access to traditional the two developed into cultural conflicts. Roma has been steadily worsening since educational resources which has fueled Increasingly violent confrontations the early 90’s.2 Between 1991 and 2001 the For nearly 600 years, Hungary’s citizens existing stigmas, discrimination, and resulted in some of the first institutional percentage of Roma considered to be poor have struggled with the integration of prejudice stemming from a pervasive policies aimed at social integration in had doubled.3 In that time, the percentage its Roma minority. Continued efforts at ignorance of the Roma’s economic the late 17th and early 18th century. of Roma living in extreme poverty had resolving issues stemming from failed hardships, history, and aspirations to Ever since, Roma integration has been risen to approximately one-third of attempts and flawed solutions have only continue contributing positively to a contentiously debated political issue Hungary’s total Roma population.4 As the recently led to a serious consideration world culture. In the following pages, between those defending Romani cultural number of impoverished Roma continues of education as a means of achieving I will attempt to show how historical autonomy and those who view the to grow, social welfare programs remain this goal. Many non-governmental circumstances and contemporary Roma as a threat to the pan-Hungarian persistent in their focus on dependency organizations (NGOs), government politics have led to the Roma’s current identity. Taking center stage at many creating assistance programs while access agencies and grassroots movements have educational situation and what the Dr. of these debates is the socio-economic to quality education remains a neglected initiated projects aimed at increasing Ambedkar School has done to counter gap between and Roma, resource.5 educational access for Hungary’s Roma. with criminality, unemployment, Despite receiving government stipends One of the leading heading some of the resulting negative trends. housing, and education often given as for meals and other cost of living expenses, this new approach is the Dr. Ambedkar explanations or causes for it. Of these, impoverished Roma families still struggle School in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén education is widely recognized as an area for access to educational facilities as early County. In just two years, the Dr. Issues Within the of improvement most likely to have a as pre-school. Inaccessibly distant schools Ambedkar School has turned itself into a Hungarian Educational greater long-term positive impact on both are a financial burden for indigent families major social forum for: System Roma and Hungarian communities alike. living in Roma settlements due to the Nevertheless, Hungary’s educational high costs associated with transportation, a. race issues in the Hungarian educational th, On March 30 2008 the Republic of system still has many defects to overcome while those with access to nearby schools system; Hungary and its people were recognized before it can take on an important role in are usually turned away because of b. reflections on the Roma’s migration thru by the Dutch civic organization “Unity is the struggle for Roma equality. overcrowding resulting from rapid over , particularly into Hungary; Strength” for their achievements in the utilization of this scarce resource.6 c. re-connections between the Roma and social integration of its Roma minority.1 Effects of Poverty on Equal Access their Indian heritage; While such international recognition in Hungary 2 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: d. and the study and application of for its efforts is fairly recent, Hungary’s Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, inspirational historic movements and struggles, achievements and failures with Hungary’s lack of attention and lack 2007, pg 8 figures. Roma integration are not. of governmental support for the 3 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Though the school’s work is of landmark Efforts towards peaceful integration educational needs of impoverished Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, significance, its success is dwarfed by in Hungary go back as far as the Roma’s Roma communities highlights a systemic 2007, pg 8 the everyday realities of its students. first contact with Hungarians in the failure to consider how significant an 4 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Already considered “dissatisfactory” 15th century. They had achieved relative impact poverty can have on equal access Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, by mainstream Hungarian society, prosperity among their Hungarian to education. To make matters worse, 2007, pg 8 the Dr. Ambedkar students have the neighbors as merchants and smiths, until the declining socio-economic status of 5 Development Program, The Roma in Central added disadvantage of being deprived many Roma communities has left them and : Avoiding the Dependency Trap, A Regional Human of most forms of social mobility. 1 Roma Education Fund, Decade for Roma Inclusion 2005-20015, politically vulnerable and unable to Development Report, available at The school’s students (along with Hungary Awarded “Certificate For Diversity”, April 16, 2008, available at advocate for the educational needs that http://roma.undp.sk/reports.php?parent_id=1&id=182&scroll=182 http://www.romadecade.org/index.php?content=252 would grant them equal access. 6 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the Progress of the , 2005-2006, Page 88

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Transportation related expenses, and marginalization.10 Those fortunate children in mainstream education from financial incentives are given to schools overcrowding issues and other access enough to have some access to the very beginning.13 that practice strategies of retention that barriers disproportionately affect the educational resources are likely to have Unfortunately, not all forms of maintain segregated and specialized number of impoverished Roma children to struggle with segregated schools segregation in the Hungarian educational schools disproportionately populated able to attend pre-school at an early and classes, non-welcoming school system are as overt as its specialized with Roma students.17 As a means of age. In most cases, children unable to management, low quality education, schools and classes. It is also common financing fair and equal education, attend pre-school by the age of five teachers that are untrained to work in for Roma children to be designated per-capita financing has already proven are automatically referred to special multicultural settings, and professional as private or study-at-home students to be ineffective.18 Several political and evaluation boards to test their school committees assigned to make “special should teachers and administrators deem grassroots movements have tried to readiness and detect the presence of education” placement decisions, among their behavior to be a disruption in their reverse the effects of this system but to intellectual disabilities.7 Due to a lack other economic and social barriers.11 classes.14 While study-at-home students no avail. Since there is currently little of knowledge in the school placement are able to take the examinations required oversight of the enrollment procedures process and their own educational of them to obtain their practiced by schools, and the collection of disadvantages, Roma parents often find School Segregation in Hungary , few of them do, since academic information based on ethnicity has been themselves intimidated by the expertise performance decreases dramatically once officially prohibited by the government of evaluation board members, resulting The continued placement of Roma they no longer have access to traditional since 1993, collecting the necessary data in their decisions to send Roma children children into specialized schools and educational resources and facilities.15 to effectively combat the trends created to specialized schools to usually go segregated classrooms are additional A disproportionate number of Roma by this form of funding has been difficult.19 unchallenged.8 Roma children placed examples of the systemic exclusion of students do not obtain their diplomas Nonexistent or flawed systems for into these schools follow a reduced the Roma from fair and equal access to due to the prohibitive study-at-home monitoring and evaluating the enrollment curriculum and receive an education that educational resources and facilities. Roma designation. Albeit, while some of in and financing of Hungary’s schools is, by most standards, of lower quality.9 students attending specialized schools or these students may be classified as have led to the current crisis in Hungary’s The quality of education received by segregated classes are unlikely to re-enter study-at-home for reasons arising from educational system.20 Realizing this, many Roma children in these specialized the mainstream educational system a genuine concern for unaddressed Hungary’s lawmakers have attempted schools increases the odds that they will or be prepared for competitive jobs in behavioral issues, others may be victims to create new laws or make changes to lack the necessary tools to achieve any Hungary’s labor market.12 To break the of a discriminatory and corrupt financing existing ones, in order to help bring socio-economic mobility and limits their cycle of exclusion created by - system that facilitates educational about educational equality for Hungary’s chances for peaceful integration with the alized forms of segregation and improve segregation. Roma. Since 2002, most reforms to the rest of Hungarian society. the socio-economic situation of the Some of Hungary’s schools currently Hungarian educational system have too The difficulties impoverished Roma Roma, the Hungarian educational system operate on a system of financing known narrowly focused on the elimination of families face attempting to gain access must make provisions for the elimination as per-capita funding.16 In this system, to fair and equal education, places of the systemic causes leading to racially based on the number of students attending. Open Society Institute, them in a seemingly inevitable cycle based discrimination by including Roma 13 United Nations Development Program, The Roma in Central Equal Access to Quality Education for Roma, Volume I, Chapter 5: of perpetual isolation, disadvantage and Eastern Europe: Avoiding the Dependency Trap, A Regional Human Barriers to Quality Education, 2007 Development Report, Chapter 5: Education available at: http://roma. 17 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for 10 Maxine G. Sleeper: Anti-Discrimination and integration of Roma in undp.sk/reports.php?parent_id=1&id=182&scroll=182 Roma, Volume I, Chapter 5: Barriers to Quality Education, 2007 7 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the Hungary 14 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: 18 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, 2005-2006, Page 88-89 11 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, Roma, Volume I, Chapter 5: Barriers to Quality Education, 2007 8 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, 2007, pgs 11, 45 19 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, 2007, pg 9 15 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for Roma, Volume I, 2007, pg 187 2007, pg 31 12 Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Roma, Volume I, 2007, pgs 230, 281 20 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for 9 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions, 16 Per-capita financing determines the amount of aid a school gets, Roma, Volume I, 2007, pg 276-277 Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, 2005-2006, Page 88-89 2007, pg 32

172 173 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences school segregation so that individual students will be encouraged to attend understanding their journey cannot be Afghanistan.28 India’s conflict with the remedies provided by Hungary’s judicial vocational schools which provide little to ignored. In fact, the persistence of several Ghaznavids resulted in major territorial system have proven unlikely to lead to no preparation for competitive jobs in the derogatory stereotypes, myths, and losses, forcing its rulers to quickly major systemic changes.21 Hungarian workforce.25 legends in popular circles requires a more assemble armies to defend its borders. In 2003 several amendments were Regardless of its many educational careful investigation into the Roma’s These armies were primarily composed added to the Act on Public Education issues, there are perhaps just many origins if an understanding of their plight of non-Arian (non-Brahmin) citizens, that would allow financial incentives to be dedicated and compassionate men and is to be truly attained. settlers and mercenaries who had been given to schools for the desegregation of women (Hungarian and Roma alike) Romani history and culture is not promoted to the Kshattriya warrior caste their classes. However, “[i]t appears that working tirelessly to correct the inherent taught to most children in Hungary. in exchange for their military service.29 closing down segregated schools brings flaws of the Hungarian educational Those who are exposed to it in schools Through a unique set of circumstances, about political liabilities that are greater system. Yet, despite all that is being are likely to get most of their information combining both triumphant and failed than the financial burden of maintaining done to improve Romani education in from textbook chapters titled “Roma military campaigns, the newly inducted them.” 22 Some independent reports even Hungary, little has been done to educate lifestyle, education, and criminality”27. Kshattriya armies spread further west suggest that there are schools receiving the Hungarian public on the Roma’s While textbooks and other media through the and . funding for the desegregation of their historical origins and their migration into encourage prejudice and feelings of Evidence of their westward journey classes and facilities, yet they are actively Hungary. otherness, the Roma’s out of the is illustrated in an ancient Persian maintaining them segregated.23 These battle fields of northern India and into the text written in the mid 10th century: findings bring to light the growing rest of the world is not unlike the voyages resistance with which Romani fair and A History in Brief taken many times before by people Hamza of Isfahan describes the arrival

30 equal access movements and initiatives The importance of understanding searching for freedom and prosperity. of 12,000 Zott musicians in Persia. are faced. Despite new and existing our collective experience has long The story may be to a large extent 24 legislation and the continued filing of been acknowledged. In ancient , legendary, but it informs us that suits against discriminatory practices historical knowledge was praised as Out of India there were many Gypsies from India in towns and villages, segregation will divine medicine by both Cicero and in Persia; they were already noted continue to be a major barrier against Livy while contemporary thinkers like Based on available resources, knowledge as musicians, allergic to agriculture, educational equality and justice for African American historian and activist, of the Roma’s origins is speculative at best; inclined to nomadism and somewhat 31 Hungary’s Roma. John Hope Franklin, likened it to however, it is now generally accepted that given to pilfering. Roma children who are not designated enlightenment. For the Roma, whose the Roma migrated out of India around Waves of westbound migratory groups th as study-at-home students, not placed already painful history continues to the 11 century A.D. continued to depart from India through into segregated classes, or into specialized be smeared and tainted by slanderous During this time the Buddhist, Jain, and the 11th century. Evidence of their arrival schools, are still likely to face many myths and legends, history has taken on Hindu kingdoms of northwestern India challenges in obtaining fair and equal were at war with the Islamic Empire of a different meaning. Their tumultuous 28 Berzin, Alexander, Berzin Archives, The Historical Interaction be- educational access. Many of these the Ghaznavids, centered in modern day journey across several continents has tween the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part been transformed into “a nightmare from III: The Spread of among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE) 21 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the which [they] are trying to awake” (James 29 Gypsyspirit.org, Hancock, Ian F. Origins of the , July Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, 2005-2006, Page 88 26 Joyce, Ulysses). Yet, the importance of to recall in the readers’ mind a picture of a journey whose beginnings 26, 2009 available at http://gypsyspirit.org/pages.php?menuid=7 22 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the were difficult and the continuity of this difficulty is something that some 30 word for Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, 2005-2006, Page 89 Roma are, only now, able to confront and liberate themselves from. 31 UNESCO Courier, October, (1984) deVaux de Foletier, Francois The 23 Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the 25 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for 27 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for World Their Homeland – Gipsies July 26, 2009 available at http://findar- Progress of the Decade of Roma Inclusion, 2005-2006, Page 89 Roma, Volume I, 2007 pg 208-211 Roma, Volume I, 2007 pg 239 ticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455603/ 24 Act on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities 26 I quote Joyce here not because he is speaking of the Roma in this (2003), Public Education Act of 2003, & The Civil Code line (in fact he is certainly not speaking of them). My intention here is

174 175 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences in Europe by the 12th century appears in a in hostile and warring regions, while these estates from leaving their new unions were automatically considered mention by canonist Theodore Balsamon simultaneously allowing them to maintain masters’ property. These institutional slaves as well.42 of Trullo who wrote of the cultural autonomy. Unfortunately for measures enacted to prevent their escape After years of enslavement, torture, (Roma) in a cannon to the council of the Roma, their impressive skill set could did not deter many of the Roma living and dehumanization, Romani slaves were Trullo in .32 Romani families already not replace their inability to quickly on these estates from attempting it, finally freed in 1856 in and residing in Europe along with those that adapt to cultural norms; leaving them despite the harsh penalties faced by the to which Romanian activist continued to pass into Europe through vulnerable to dehumanizing victimization many who would come to try. Some of Jean Alexandre Vaillant commented: the Ilkhanid Empire33 in the mid-13th throughout the next stage of their historic the penalties a Roma slave could be faced “…those who shed tears of century were eventually challenged to journey: enslavement. with as a runaway included flogging, compassion for the Negroes of Africa, undergo changes that would forever Before making their way through falague37, cutting off of the lips, burning of whom the American Republic transform them from India’s warrior caste Europe, the Roma split and parted with lye, and wearing a cangue.38 In the makes its slaves, should give a kind into Romani wanderers. ways near the Caspian Sea.34 Two main 16th century, Romani children were often thought to this short history of migratory routes resulted from this separated from their families and sold the Gypsies of India, of whom the separation; one route took the Roma at auction houses and lots for as little as European monarchies make their Into Europe north and west into Eastern Europe while 48 cents.39 By the 19th century, all Roma Negroes. These men, wanderers from the other took them in a south easterly born within the borders of Moldova and Asia, will never again be itinerant; Romani customs and practices have direction. The first Roma traveling Wallachia were simultaneously born into these slaves shall be free.”43 developed into their present forms over along these two routes are believed to a life of perpetual slavery.40 But, despite Vaillant’s kind words, centuries of change and adaptation. While have arrived in Southern and Eastern Like slaves in the Americas, Romani the Roma are still subject to prejudicial some of these traditions have become Europe through the slaves were divided into field slaves and and discrimination in hallmarks for a variety of regional and as free metal workers, rug makers, and house slaves. Field slaves were seldom and Hungary to this day.44 cultural differences, many have been used entertainers in the late 13th century.35 visited by their masters but were under While Romani enslavement in by non-Roma to formulate simplified and When the Roma arrived in Moldova and the strict supervision of a sometimes the is the most extensively standardized conceptions of the Romani Wallachia (modern day Romania) they brutally cruel vatav.41 House slaves (some documented, their Diaspora spans all of way of life. One of the most significant formed loose relationships with feudal were the property of land owners and Europe and “the New World”: and prevalent stereotypes has been the lords, providing them with crafts and others of the church) were forbidden “ sent a number of Gypsies Roma’s adaptation to a nomadic lifestyle. entertainment in exchange for the right to to speak Romani and female slaves were across the Atlantic, followed by Learning to survive while constantly live on their property. often used as sexual entertainment for which, from the end of the moving towards or away from conflict By the early 14th century, Roma who guests. Any children born out of such sixteenth century onwards, deported meant learning trades and customs that had associated themselves with certain large numbers of Ciganos to Angola, were mobile and adaptable. Adaptation estates were being sold as part of those 37 Shredding the soles of their feet with a whip to Sao Tome, to Cape Verde, and soon led to synchronization and the estates.36 Shortly after, laws were enacted 38 Three-cornered spiked iron collar above all to .”45 eventual incorporation of a variety of to prevent Roma inhabitants living on Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Slavery, skills and customs from the various Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 1997) 42 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of regions which the Roma temporarily 39 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 34 UNESCO Courier, October, (1984) deVaux de Foletier, Francois The called home. As they moved further west, Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 1997) World Their Homeland – Gipsies July 26, 2009 available at http://findar- Romani dexterity aided their survival 1997) 43 Vaillant, J.A., (1857), Histoire Vraie des Vrais Bohémiens. Paris: ticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455603/ 40 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Dentu & Cie. 35 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 44 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of 32 Fraser, Angus The Peoples of Europe: The Gypsies, (1995), pg 46 Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 1997) Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 33 “The Ilkhanids were originally the Mongol governors of Iraq and 1997) 41 Overseer 1997) . They established their independence from China in 1295, when 36 Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Hancock, Ian F. Roma Slavery Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of Slavery, 45 UNESCO Courier, October, (1984) deVaux de Foletier, Francois The they finally converted to Islam.” Information taken from: http://www. Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New York 1997) World Their Homeland – Gipsies July 26, 2009 available at http://findar- vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1342_islamic_middle_east/map/ 1997) 176 177 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences

Louisiana and in the U.S., Into Hungary repair its arms. “Eleven years later, in out the city’s executions.53 They were England, Cuba, , Scotland, 1487, King Matthias promised in writing also known for their manufacturing of Jamaica, and even their native India have One of the main routes through which the to protect the freedoms of the Roma of iron tools, horseshoes, and nails as well also had their share of Romani slaves. Roma arrived in Hungary passed through Szeben.”49 Matthias’ document, addressed as their locksmithery, blacksmithery, Yet, while slavery remains one of the key its southern borders. One of the earliest to the of , István and gold washing.54 While documents ways through which the mentions of the Roma in Hungary is a Báthori, outlined the protections to be show that the Roma were somewhat spread throughout the world, it was 1416 Brasso municipal accounts record granted to the Roma of Szeben as follows: acknowledged and respected for these not the only way it did. There were also for a certain Mr. Emmaus and his fellow We hereby order and command and a variety of other skills and services many that traveled through the various “Egyptians” and the donation of food that you at all times refrain from during the late 15th-early 16th centuries, migratory routes created out of their that was given to them.47 The following pestering, inciting or burdening the only the memory of their musical acumen separation near the Caspian Sea. For the year (1417) Holy Roman Emperor and aforementioned Roma, that is, the continues to survive to this day. branch of Romani wanderers that traveled Hungarian King, Sigismund I, welcomed Egyptians, and from extracting taxes southeast through the Middle East, a group of Roma “pilgrims” seeking a or other dues from them…50 Late 15th – early 16th century getting to Europe was a slightly letter of safe passage to travel across documents show us the kinds of more pleasant voyage. his empire. Unbeknownst to him at the In 1502, King Ulászlo II offered similar venues the Roma were requested to is a significant place in the time, Sigismund’s signature on a decree protections and freedoms to a group of play at: migratory history of the Roma. The guaranteeing safe passage for the Roma four wandering Roma in the service of - 1489 – the archbishop of Esztergom Greeks were the first to assign the Roma throughout his imperial domain was also Koloszvár in Transylvania.51 Eight decades pays Roma lute players the name “Atsinganos”, where modern an unintended institutional authorization later (1583), Zsigmond Báthory, Prince - 1525 – Roma were paid to play the names like the Hungarian “Cigány” are for the establishment of some of the first of Transylvania, reaffirmed Matthias’ cithara in front of the queen at the derived. From the Greek port of Modon, Hungarian Roma settlements. While document.52 Rákóczi I (1643), Ferdinand royal horse races known in the 15th century as “little many did continue west and north, those I, and Palatine Miklós Esterházy (1630) - 1532 – a request was made for Roma ”, modern names like “Gypsy” and that stayed underwent cultural changes are among the many kings, emperors, violinists by Pál Bakyth chief captain “Gitano” were also first coined.46 The that, over time, transformed them from , lieutenants, princes and feudal of the hussars Roma also came to learn the importance Pharaoh’s People or “Athingani” into lords that followed Matthias’ example - 1543 – a letter was sent to Vienna by given to special groups of travelers known Hungary’s “Cigányok.” Unfortunately in granting freedom and protection to the court of Queen Isabella telling of as pilgrims from the Greeks. Realizing for those that stayed, the new name came Hungary’s Roma in exchange for their the “Egyptian” violinists playing in that calling themselves pilgrims would get with its own set of troubles. valued service. the Hungarian court55 them better treatment allowed this group of the Roma began as There was a growing demand for Roma of Roma smooth passage north and west early as 1479 in , followed by labor in both the military and peaceful Hungarians were not alone in recognizing into Europe. virtually every European country with civil services during the 16th century. In the value of Roma skills in this era. From the exception of Hungary, Transylvania, the city of Brassó, the Roma had been 1541 to 1699, The Ottoman Empire and Russia.48 Both the Hungarians and the documented as having repaired the city’s occupied large portions of Hungary’s Transylvanians were too preoccupied with gates and bridges, manufactured arms southern territories. During this 158-year the invading Ottoman-Turks to bother and cannons, kept the streets clean, swept occupation, the Roma enjoyed relative with expulsion of their Roma populations. the market, cleared the sewers, dug the freedom among their Ottoman and In fact, when the Ottoman-Turks invaded graves, caught stray dogs, and carried Hungarian neighbors.56 In the regions Nagyszebén in 1476, the town employed occupied by the Ottoman-Turks, the its Roma to strengthen its municipal 49 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 4 ticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455603/ fortifications and to manufacture and 50 Pál Nagy as cited in Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, 53 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 6 46 UNESCO Courier, October, (1984) deVaux de Foletier, Francois The pg 5 54 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 6 World Their Homeland – Gipsies July 26, 2009 available at http://findar- 47 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 1 51 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 5 55 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 7-8 ticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455603/ 48 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 3 52 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 5-6 56 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 1 178 179 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences

Roma served as musicians, , than they were helpful for the Roma.60 national movement.”63 Roma musicians rapidly changing political, technological, firemasters, bullet casters, nailsmiths, Part of the reason for this outcome can even accompanied their Hungarian and economic climate in Hungary.69 One swordsmiths, gunpowder producers, be attributed to the motivation behind compatriots in the War of Independence of the only ways the Roma had to make weapon polishers, hangmen, surgeons, passing these decrees to begin with. of 1848.64 In fact, after the Hungarian a living during this time of economic soldiers, and guides.57 Rapid population defeat, Roma musicians were in great crisis was through their . Of the growth in the occupied regions in central and Joseph II were not just demand for the plaintive merriment of 100,000 Roma living in Hungary in and southern Hungary supports the claim altruistically motivated when they passed their music.65 It was through this passion 1927, it is estimated that most of the that the Roma thrived in these trades. many of these decrees in the 18th century. for both their music and freedom that the approximately 30,000 working age males Ottoman sources tell us that the Roma The true purpose of the policies of this Roma were able to gain the respect of at were raised in musical homes.70 For many population was relatively numerous period was: least some of their Hungarian neighbors. of Hungary’s Roma, music embodied the in these five sultanic municipalities However, Romani participation in the only possibility for social and economic of Hungary: Tolna, Pécs, Ráckeve, …to count, record, and monitor War of Independence of 1848 was not an advancement and few took this reality for Esztergom, and Buda.58 everything and everyone, to classify indication of their general discontent with granted. Yet, social mobility at the time By the time the Ottoman-Turks were the population and subordinate it the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Within depended on more than the desire to play. ousted in 1699, the Roma had reached to the purposes of the state, to settle Royal Hungary the Roma are said to have Unfortunately for many Roma musicians, all parts of Hungary. Documentation all unsettled issues, and to regulate found several ways to carve out a relatively noblemen with a passion for their music from this era tells us that there was still anything that was still unregulated. comfortable living.66 Then again, an and prosperous peasants who had once a growing demand for Roma crafts and Maria Theresa’s decrees were clearly 1893 census initiated by Minister of the invited them to play at their weddings services. However, despite the demand, impossible to implement. Landowners Interior, Károly Hieronymi, revealed that had fallen victim to the economic troubles there were regions that had decided were reluctant to grant land to Roma of 7220 communities with permanent affecting post-Trianon Hungary.71 At the to expel their Roma population due and guilds had no wish to accept Roma Roma residents 3750 were segregated.67 same time, Hungary’s middle classes had to growing accusations of destitution artisans as their members.61 Of the 275,000 Roma recorded in the become less receptive to , and vagrancy.59 Though the Hungarian 1893 census, 13,000 were said to be turning instead to and modern dance aristocracy was sympathetic to the Roma, These decrees even prohibited the unemployed and making a living through for entertainment purposes. incidents of violence and persecution Roma from playing their music as a way , soothsaying, fortune telling, Hungary’s Roma also made a living became more and more frequent. to administratively acknowledge the quackery, theft, and loafing.68 Based on the providing public services and crafts Hapsburg rulers Maria Theresa and her significance of the changes being made data collected in the 1893 census, it seems unrelated to music. One of the most son Joseph II enacted policies partly aimed from “Cigány” to “New Magyar.”62 But like, however “comfortable” their living respected Roma services was that of at integrating the Roma into mainstream the Romani spirit and culture could conditions may have been, the Roma lived the . There were also adobe society and curbing some of the hostility not be extinguished so easily. By the in a separate and unequal society worthy makers, agricultural day laborers, basket being expressed against them. Some of 19th century, Bálint Sárosi writes, “the of their contempt and protest. weavers, wooden spoon makers, and tin these policies, “provision of residency public saw them [Roma musicians] During the period between the first and smiths.72 But, despite all they had to offer, and trade permits (1760), provision of as the representatives of [Hungarian] second World Wars, the Roma faced great Hungary’s Roma “experienced a painful land plots (1761), forced adoption of national music, welded to the Hungarian challenges in trying to keep pace with the Roma children by non-Roma families, 69 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 prohibition of a nomadic lifestyle, etc,” 63 Sárosi, Bálint as cited in Kemény, István History of Roma in 70 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 44 were, unsurprisingly, more harmful 60 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 1-2 Hungary, pg 18 71 The signed after I was responsible 61 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 15-16 64 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 18 for the substantial loss of territory to the countries surrounding the 62 Cigány, the Hungarian equivalent for Roma, represented a set of 65 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 18 then (, Romania, , the former 57 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 9 ideas and customs that many thought were the source of the intolerance 66 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 Yugoslavia, and ) 58 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 9 and violence against the Roma at the time. For this reason a new iden- 67 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 28 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 44 59 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 13 tity, that of the “New Magyar”, was created by Austria-Hungary’s rulers. 68 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 32 72 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary

180 181 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences deterioration in their situation. They were of normalcy. The limited democracy created some opportunities for Hungary’s known as “the rust belt.” Given this simply too numerous for the professions available immediately after the war Roma. Northern Hungary experienced a name because of the now abandoned that constituted their livelihood.”73 extolled the principles of equality and period of rapid industrialization so quick and rusting industrial factories found Blacksmiths were completely pushed prohibited racial or ethnic discrimi- that it resulted in labor shortages.83 throughout the region, the rust belt is also out of the economy by Hungary’s rapid nation.79 This return to traditional living home to some of the poorest Hungarian industrialization and modernization conditions and lifestyles was, however, cut Thus the 1960’s brought great and Roma communities in all of Hungary. while the demand for adobe makers short and drastically altered in socialist changes to the lives of Roma It is here, perhaps, more than any other and day laborers was outpaced by their Hungary.80 Zsolt Csalog writes of this families: full was almost place in Hungary, that the effects of growing numbers.74 Yet, as if the Roma’s period as follows: achieved among adult Roma males. forced settlement and dependency are dire economic situation was not enough Roma families witnessed a dramatic most vividly experienced. However, the to worry about, the prevailing political The disappearance of the former improvement in terms of their rust belt is not a lone example of the ideology of the interwar period and its consumer groups in society resulted livelihood, standard of living, job failures of the forced indoctrination into application would soon come to threaten in the end of the age-old market for security, and general welfare. Such an unskilled labor force. their very existence as well. musicians, and the remains of the progress enabled many Roma families When the Roma entered, or in The of Transdanubia’s other traditional forms of employment to build “reduced-value” houses or some cases forced to enter, into cheap Roma was ordered by were swept away by the tide of to buy old peasant houses and thus agricultural and industrial jobs, they and Ferenc Szálas in the latter months history. The colossal and hard-won to move away from the isolated were also unknowingly entering into of 1944.75 Originally, the Nazi and historical capital of the Roma was thus Roma settlements to other towns and an impoverished and segregated social Hungarian Arrow Cross parties had destroyed…A strange contradiction villages.84 class.86 The privatization of state owned planned on simply deporting all of was that while the end of the second companies after 1989 led to the closure of Hungary’s traveling Roma bands, but world war had brought emancipation While many Roma did find employment many factories throughout the country; their search turned up very few of and removed the immediate danger of in the industrialized factories built and the first to become unemployed them. Instead, entire communities were extermination, it had failed to establish throughout Hungary, some sociologists during this time were unskilled workers uprooted and sent to concentration opportunities for making a living.81 believe that the rapid modernization dependent on the factories for their camps.76 “During the [transportation] characteristic of this era had counter- employment.87 Disproportionally, the process, some Roma were murdered close The post-war socialist regime regarded productive effects on the integration majority of those laid off were Roma. to their homes by Hungarian military the kind of private enterprise pursued of the Roma.85 As a result of the forced The political shift of 1989 did not just police and officials.”77 by the Roma as “pernicious, a threat to settlement, forced indoctrination into mark a new beginning for the economic The “Victims of Commission public welfare, and a public foe. Yet they unskilled labor, and dependency on and educational impoverishment of estimated the number of Roma victims were left out of the land distribution government assistance created during Hungary’s Roma, it also marked a political to have been 28,000”, but the exact process, were refused employment by this period, the Roma experienced further awakening for the Roma community in number that died during many farm co-operatives, and were left losses of their traditional crafts and Hungary as well. It was the beginning of (Porrajamos) may never be known.78 out of the participative process in many services. political organization and self-awareness For a brief time after the war, the Roma other sectors.”82 Today, in the north-central county of for the Romani community in Hungary. A were able to have some semblance While socialism had its faults, it also Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, there is a line process that started the discovery of a rich of former industrial cities and towns and unique identity rooted in the ancient 73 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 45 79 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 48 past. 74 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 45 80 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 75 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 47-48 81 Zsolt Csalog, “A cigánykérdés Magyarországon 1980 83 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 52-53 76 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 elõtt” [The Roma Issue in Hungary Prior to 1980]. In: Bibó 84 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 53 86 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 77 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 48 Emlékkönyv (, 1979), II: p. 291. 85 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 2 87 Blénesi, Éva The Roma of Hungary Case Study, 2002, pg 3 78 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 48 82 Kemény, István History of Roma in Hungary, pg 49

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century. Unfortunately most of these to become involved. It did not take long among them.94 Today a growing awareness Hindupen names: Tartars, Heathens, , after the emperor ordered an investigation and pride in their origins has led to a Greeks, Turks, , Jats, Athingani, into the validity of the accusations to liberation movement some have dubbed Through European Eyes Atzinganoi, Romiti, Bohemians, ‘Fools discover that the alleged victims of the “Hindupen” (Hindu-ness). In some ways, Styled Greek Bohemians’, Pharaoh’s Roma’s cannibalism were still alive.91 reconnecting with India highlights the For centuries the Roma were regarded People, Egyptians, Luri, Zingari, Of course Grellman is not the first, or the differences between the Roma and their by Europeans as an enigmatic people. Zigeuner, Zotts, etc., were given to last, to attempt to establish a connection western hosts, but, more importantly, Few Roma knew the far distances insult and derogate them.88 In his book, between the origin-less Roma and the it dispels long-existing stereotypes that their ancestors had come, making Die Zigeuner (1783), Heinrich Grellman macabre. In 1929 the Roma were still have been the basis for centuries of their presence in Europe all the more explains how from the many names the being accused of cannibalism in Slovakia, discrimination and fear. mysterious. Not knowing their place of Roma were given, many places of origin while in 1897 Bram Stoker made them the The fact that the Roma are ancestrally origin, the Roma took creative license were assumed. Grellman himself outlines servants and guardians of . Even connected to India has been known since over their identities, becoming Egyptians, a theory for Roma origins based on the has had its share of “Gypsy the mid 18th century. Hungarian pastor pilgrims, Greeks or whatever else suited German “Zigeuner”: myths.” To some Christians the Roma Istvan Vali first made the connection in their immediate survival needs. This Perhaps a mixture of all kinds of were the descendants of Cain, cursed 1753 while at the University of Leiden strategy allowed the Roma to migrate rascally people gathered together to forever roam the earth. To others, 1) in the . While there, Vali unimpeded throughout Europe and the having collectively no certain country, they were the people that denied Joseph met three students from Malabar, India, rest of the world, though not without its as their name Zigeuner indicates, and Mary assistance on their way out and through them began to collect a own consequences. While the Roma’s signifying, “to wonder up and down,” of Egypt; 2) the ones that told Judas to list of about a thousand words in their unknown history may have gained them for which reason, it is said, our betray Christ; 3) the descendants of the native . When Vali returned to the freedom to migrate throughout the German ancestors determined every murderers of the children of Bethlehem; Hungary, he discovered that the local world, it also empowered others to create strolling vagrant Zichegen…89 4) and the ones who forged the nails used Roma population understood them.95 harmful origin myths about them as well. in the crucifixion.92 The Orthodox Greeks It was later discovered that the names At first glance, it may seem like the Grellman establishes several other Roma called them “Athinganoi” derived from an they had been calling themselves for Roma were simply being deceitful liars stereotypes in his book. Of these he pays already existent group of heretics known centuries – “Rom”,” Dom”, and “Lom”, when they called themselves pilgrims, particular attention to their supposed for their fortune telling.93 Yet, despite the phonetically correspond with Egyptians, or any of the other names and taste for human flesh. Grellman explains names people came to call them, whatever and modern equivalents which refer nationalities with which they associated in detail how in 1782, the year before the history they decided to give them, one to a tribe of Indians called the “Dom.” themselves, but a closer examination of his book was published, 150 Roma were truth would ultimately come to reveal In Sanskrit “Dom”/ “” means their intentions reveals that they were accused of cannibalism in Hont County itself about the Roma. In due course, their “man of low caste living by singing and just telling people what they wanted to (then part of Hungary and now part of true ancestry, their place of inspiration, music.” Music plays an important role hear. Early Roma were more concerned Slovakia). Of the 150 Roma, “fifteen men empowerment, and origin would come to in Roma communities across the world with finding profitable markets for their were hanged, six broken on the wheel, light. today and, according to Roma historian trades than squabbling with the locals two quartered, and eighteen women and activist , its importance regarding their place of origin. The were beheaded.”90 The Roma of Hont serves as further evidence for their Indian resulting ambiguity over their existence County were treated so brutally that Through Romani Eyes origins.96 Hancock points out that the led to historic and systemic stereotyping Hapsburg monarch and son of Empress Roma still use the Indian bhairavi musical by many of the cultures they came into For the Roma, ancient history used to be Maria Theresa, Joseph II, was compelled scale “as well as a type of ‘mouth music’ contact with. the oldest memory of the oldest person known as bol, which consists of rhythmic The Roma have gone by many names 88 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) since their first mention in Hamza 94 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 89 Grellman, Heinrich Die Zigeuner (1783) al-Isfahani’s History of Kings in the tenth 91 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 95 Story of Vali’s discovery taken from Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” 90 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 92 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) in Bury Me Standing(1996) 93 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 96 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 184 185 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences syllables that imitate the sound of drum of liberation.99 Through their discovery of out of my mind any consciousness drafting committee, and became strokes.”97 In Hungary, the Roma have Dr. Ambedkar and the movement that I was an untouchable, and that independent India’s first law minister.107 a dance called roviliako khelipen which many Roma today identify themselves as an untouchable wherever he went in Each of these accomplishments saw an also has Indian parallels. It comes as no the Dalit of Europe. India was a problem to himself and increase in his popularity and following. surprise, based on all the linguistic and Born the 14th child in an Untouchable, to others. But when I came out of By the time he formerly converted cultural evidence discovered thus far, or Dalit, family, Ambedkar faced many the station (located in Vadodara in to , Ambedkar was able to that many experts have concluded with challenges growing up in a time when the state of Gujarat), my mind was call together an estimated 500,000 of confident certainty that the Roma are was both religiously and considerably disturbed by a question, his supporters to convert with him in the descendants of India. In the past, legally sanctioned in India. Like many of ‘Where to go? Who will take me?’102 solidarity. not knowing their origins has had an Hungary’s Roma, Ambedkar had to attend From an early age Ambedkar knew alienating effect on the Roma; today, segregated government schools where he His return and subsequent reminder of the importance of education as a tool however, connections with their Indian could not even sit in the same class with the harsh reality faced by all living for liberation among the oppressed. His heritage have shed light on their customs upper-caste children. As a Dalit, he was in India were the driving forces behind father, seeing the unique opportunity and practices, while simultaneously viewed as an object of horror, disgust, the political career he would come to his children could have, used his unique providing them with a source of contempt, and loathing by teachers and develop. For years he fought the social,103 position in the Indian army to obtain pride, community and inspiration. classmates alike.100 Though there were religious,104 economic,105 and educational106 access to schools his children could not many obstacles before him, Ambedkar oppression of the Dalits but by 1935 he have attended otherwise. As a student at eventually graduated secondary school. had realized that the only way out of the Columbia University he was inspired by Dr. Ambedkar and the He went on to earn a law degree and caste system was through its elimination. one of his professors, John Dewey, who Buddha multiple in law, economics, It was then that he publically announced is quoted as saying, “Education is not and political science from Columbia his condemnation of Hindu philosophy a preparation for life; education is life The Roma have expressed pride in their University in New York and the London and his decision to convert to another itself”. Ambedkar seems to have taken Indian heritage through identification with School of Economics. religion. Dewey’s words to heart and dedicated India’s public and historical figures. About Although a Dalit, Ambedkar was Before he formerly converted to the rest of his life to the improvement of four years ago, a group of Hungarian considered to be one of India’s foremost Buddhism on October 14th, 1956 India’s “depressed classes.” Roma began to seek information on the scholars by the time he returned from Ambedkar had founded the Independent Today, Hungary’s Roma have taken to Indian nationalist, jurist, political leader, England in 1917.101 When he returned, he Labour Party, had several books and Ambedkar’s message to “educate, agitate, and Buddhist revivalist, Dr. Bhimrao recorded his impressions in the following pamphlets published, was appointed and organize.” They too have taken Ramji Ambedkar. In their search for way: chairman of the Indian constitution on Buddhist philosophy as liberation more information on Dr. Ambedkar, My five years of staying in Europe theology and have started several schools they discovered many parallels between and America had completely wiped in the hopes of giving Roma children 98 Hungary’s Roma and the Dalits of India. 102 A Timeline of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar by Professor Frances Pritchet – their lives back through their right to The group became inspired by Dr. Columbia University available at http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/ education. Decades after his death, Ambedkar’s story and his struggle for Dalit 99 Ambedkar Studies in Heidelburg by Maron Bellwinkel-Schempp, pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/index.html Dr. Ambedkar’s life and legacy live on equality. They were convinced, just as Dr. available at http://www.sai.uni-heidelberg.de/saireport/2003/pdf/1_ 103 ex. Dalits are at times forced to live outside city walls near sewers in the dreams and aspirations of a new Ambedkar had been seven decades earlier, ambedkar.pdf 104 ex. Dalits are not allowed to step foot inside of temples and are not generation of Hungarian Roma. that Buddhism offers a unique approach to 100 Many of the Roma I have interviewed have told me tales of experi- allowed to hear the holy scriptures (Vedas) issues faced by the oppressed as a theology encing these same kind of attitudes from their teachers and classmates 105 ex. Dalits are traditionally not paid for their work. Their occupa- today. tions are considered by many to be a religiously sanctioned form of 97 Fonseca, Isabel “Hindupen” in Bury Me Standing(1996) 101 A Timeline of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar by Professor Frances Pritchet – slavery. 107 A Timeline of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar by Professor Frances Pritchet – 98 word that means “the oppressed”. Also known as the Columbia University available at http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/ 106 ex. Many Dalits are barred from going to school creating genera- Columbia University available at http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/ Untouchables. pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/index.html tions of ignorance and illiteracy. pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/index.html

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Unfortunately, if some of the school’s Out of the 30 students that were population there. But challenges The Dr. Ambedkar School students’ stories are any indication of evaluated, only five returned to the like these are not limited to Joszef’s in Sajokaza, Hegmegy, and how close they are to achieving these integrated class with Joszef. The experiences. Students attending the Dr. Ozd goals, then it appears that they have a realization that a lesser fate had befallen Ambedkar School face many tribulations long way to go. Take Joszef Nagy, one his former pupils had a negative impact few students in cities like Budapest have Today’s Romani students, like Ambedkar of the school’s students, for example. on Joszef. He had all but given up on to even consider. Statistics coming out of himself decades ago, face prejudice and Born in the northern Hungarian town education when a teacher, seeing his the Dr. Ambedkar School demonstrate discrimination in their daily lives. It is of Kazincbarcika in 1987, Joszef has promise, began to question him on his that there are certain hardships their within this modern reality of oppression known segregation all his life. While he goals. She re-invigorated Joszef’s desires students must overcome to reach their that the Dr. Ambedkar School was was lucky enough to attend integrated to excel. He began to take extra classes goals. Of the 61 students that registered founded. Located in a region of northern classes growing up, being in the last age afterschool and saw his grades improve into the school in 2007, 19 were entitled Hungary popularly known as the ‘rust group of integrated students in the entire significantly. One day, his teacher brought to an orphans’ annuity, acknowledging belt’, the Dr. Ambedkar School provides village always kept segregation present as in a Roma educator from a neighboring that approximately one-third of that educational services to a population a reminder of his second class status. village to give a talk to her students. year’s students had no parents. Many of that sees less than 1% of its high school Joszef’s luck seemed to have run out Seeing what he had never seen before, the students at the school have children students pass their matriculation when he, along with 29 other students a well educated and successful Roma, of their own at an early age, but the lack examinations.108 In some areas, such as in integrated classes, were chosen to changed Joszef’s perspectives on his of prenatal, pediatric and other healthcare Sajokaza, Lak, Alsovadasz, and Homrogd, be evaluated in order to determine if he possibilities. services in Romani villages is a major Romani residents have no other access to was mentally capable of staying in an By the time the Dr. Ambedkar School problem. Eight percent of students .109 The school aims integrated class or if he belonged in a ‘C’ founders and activists, Janos Orsos attending the school have experienced to raise the percentage of matriculated class.110 Joszef was aware of the fact that and Tibor Derdak, visited the school the added challenge of child mortality to students in these areas through the he would not be taught the same way in Joszef was attending, Joszef had become obtaining their matriculation. In one of application of a culturally-receptive a ‘C’ class, and that the text books would determined to continue his education the neighborhoods within the catchment that prepares them for the be entirely different. With this in mind, and not be just another statistic in his area of the school the child mortality rate challenges and discipline essential in Joszef nervously went to the evaluation. At community. Noticing that Joszef was is as high as Africa’s poorest nations.111 today’s job market. the evaluation, a psychiatrist asked Joszef driven and determined encouraged It is this reality that has brought Janos Another of the school’s goals is to a series of questions on several topics. Janos and Tibor to take him under their Orsos to say that Hungary is only a show its students that education is Fortunately for Joszef, the psychiatrist wings. Since their first encounter, Joszef western country if Romani villages are an effective, enjoyable, and fulfilling eventually asked him about the kinds of has received several grants to attend not counted and, based on my experiences means out of poverty. By raising their food that he ate. He told the psychiatrist vocational schools; he is now a student at one of these villages, he’s right.112 standards and expectations, the school about noodles and beans being a common at the Dr. Ambedkar School where one hopes to see significant changes in the meal at his home. The psychiatrist did day he too may obtain his matriculation confidence and lifestyles of its students. not understand how this could be a meal, certificate and perhaps even attend My observations and Ultimately, the school hopes that some but since it was a common dish in poor university. experiences of these changes will lead to a more Roma households, Joszef was able to give Though Joszef has been successful, integrated, more understanding, and a detailed explanation of what it was and his success was earned in a difficult Since 2007 the Dr. Ambedkar School more evolved community for both Roma how it was served. Joszef explained his environment, unfriendly to his pursuit has set out to do the impossible; to and non-Roma residents. favorite dish so well that it convinced his for fair and equal access to education. evaluator that he was intelligent enough His latest challenge involves the Roma 111 Obtained from “The Brutal Reality” available at http://www. 108 Statistics obtained from “Our School” available at http://www. to stay in the integrated class. population of his village experiencing an ambedkar.eu/ the-brutal-reality/ ambedkar.eu/our-school/ increase in conflicts with their Hungarian 112 Statistics obtained from “The Brutal Reality” available at http:// 109 Obtained from “Our School” available at http://www.ambedkar. neighbors due to the rise of the Roma www.ambedkar.eu eu/our-school/ 110 ‘C’ is short for Cigány. Hungarian for Gypsy.

188 189 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences provide educational opportunities to studies in the secondary level.114 Many teaching was clearly not the van owner’s classes are one of the most pervasive young Romani men and women after others get screened out as “unwanted” only job. I knew how common it was for forms of segregation in Hungary. (pg a lifetime of denied fair and equal children during the application process or Hungarians to have more than one job to 218) access to educational resources. Most wind up attending vocational schools that help make ends meet especially since taxes Havas and Liskó observed that the of the school’s students come from provide virtually no prospects for further withheld from an average paycheck can be higher the proportion of Roma students families living in dire circumstances, in educational opportunities. as high as 36 percent.116 But what is not so in a class is, the more likely the class is neighborhoods with inadequate housing To better understand the common is having a job on the margins, to follow a catch-up curriculum, or to conditions, without running water, and circumstances, people, and communities one that commands little respect from the be a remedial class teaching an inferior economic situations that don’t allow them where Hungarian Roma face these rest of society and one in which you are curriculum, thereby enhancing the to own a pair of shoes to call their own.113 adversities, I spent several weeks over the almost certainly not prepared to provide a relative educational disadvantages of Romani advocate and one of the founders past six months living in one of the Dr. desperately needed service. children attending. 118 of the Dr. Ambedkar School, Janos Orsos, Ambedkar School buildings in the town Like Janos did over a decade ago, many knows the situation his students are of Sajokaza just a few kilometers from the of the school’s students were forced or An earlier survey by András Kádár coming from all too well. Slovakian boarder. In this time, I was able encouraged out of Hungary’s mainstream explains to what extent this form of Like most of the students at the school, to observe some of the challenges faced educational system. According to Janos, segregation has caused access issues for Janos grew up on a poor Gypsy street. by the school and the success it has had a prejudicial attitude toward their mental Borsod County’s Roma: Growing up, he shared a house about 27 in bringing educational opportunities to capacity is just one of the reasons why square meters with eight other family the Roma communities surrounding the Roma children are often not accepted A 1998 survey in Borsod County members where only Beas (a Romanian towns and villages of Sajokaza, Hegymeg, in mainstream Hungarian schools, “We showed over 90 per cent of students ) was spoken. At age six Janos began Ozd, Lak, Alsovadasz and Homrodg.115 can’t learn properly, they think, because attending schools with special learning Hungarian in a local elementary we have less mental capacity…”117 A curricula to be Roma. Most experts school where he also discovered that most 2004 survey conducted in Borsod- agree that a good number of Roma teachers focused their efforts on students Abaúj-Zemplén County (where the Dr. children attending special schools are based on their ethnic origins. Janos was Challenges Ambedkar School is located) confirms not even slightly mentally disabled and continually discouraged by his teachers. Five thirty in the morning on the very Janos’ suspicions: are only relegated to such institutions They told him that he had no real chance first day I was to observe classes, I was due to the negligent failure to take at continuing with his studies so there still a little tired from staying up the In a school in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén into consideration their specific was no point in teaching him, a Gypsy, night before discussing some of the County, which 19 Roma students socio-cultural characteristics and who’d never amount to anything anyway. school administrators’ concerns about attended altogether, every single owing to – conscious or unconscious – 119 At age 15, after years of having his spirit their budgetary issues. By six I was in Roma student was placed in remedial discriminatory considerations. continually broken, Janos dropped out of the back of a small European van with classes. Only one student in the school and went to work in a factory. several tools strewn around but no seat. remedial classes was non-Roma. This Up to this point Janos’ story is research clearly indicates that remedial Making myself comfortable for the half 118 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for typical of what most Hungarian Roma hour ride on top of the van’s wheel, I Roma, Volume I, 2007, pg 218 experience early on in schools. Research began to consider how it might be to have 116 Tax and Finance Control Administration (APEH), Short summary 119 András Kádár, Legislative Review for the Hungarian Roma suggests that up to 10 per cent of Roma a job as a teacher at the school. Judging on the taxation of individuals, July 1, 2009, available at http://en.apeh. Note, available on the children do not continue with their by the van’s conditions and its contents, hu/taxation/summary_individuals.html OKI website at http://www.oki.hu/oldal.php?tipus=cikk&kod=eselyaz- 117 FWBO, Following in Babasaheb’s Footsteps: Janos Orsos Tells of kadar-legislative (accessed 113 FWBO, Following in Babasaheb’s Footsteps: Janos Orsos Tells of 114 Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for His Life and Struggles as a European Dalit, pg 2, available at www.fwbo- on 24 February 2007) as cited in Open Society Institute, Equal Access to His Life and Struggles as a European Dalit, pg9, available at www.fwbo- Roma, Volume I, 2007, pg 208 news.org/features Quality Education for Roma, Volume I, 2007, pg 220 news.org/features 115 List of villages available at http://www.ambedkar.eu

190 191 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences

Knowing this, it was unsurprising to find the realization that, unlike me, many, if Because the communities surrounding Roma populations in Hungary and the out that many of the children coming to not all, of these young men and women the school are primarily segregated due in most supporters for the extreme right the Dr. Ambedkar School who had begun will not have the same opportunities I had part to the labeling of the Roma as, among wing political party, . I remember their educational careers in this hostile growing up. other things, mentally handicapped, the the shock Janos expressed once news of the environment lacked the foundation to As the teachers tried to go through with school has made it one of its objectives to election results began to trickle in. In his succeed in Hungarian secondary schools. their lesson plans, I noticed the different act as a platform from which to integrate face I could see the defeat, the fear and the Once the van had arrived in Hegymeg, levels of educational preparedness and these communities. However, recent anger that came with the realization that we hurried into the school. I thought we development in each of the students’ faces. events foreshadow challenging setbacks their fight for equality was not getting any were late and that the students had been Some were confused and lost, some were for the school’s vision of a multicultural easier. To him the news was a reminder of waiting for us, but I noticed that only paying close attention and participating, community. In just over one year, at just how difficult integration will continue teachers and administrators were present. while others were acting out because the least seven Roma have been killed in to be for the Roma students of the Dr. In the school’s main office teachers lessons were not challenging enough Hungary; violent acts widely suspected Ambedkar School. hurried themselves about, trying to come for them. As all these emotions played to have been committed by extremist During my last week of observations up with comprehensive lesson plans that themselves out in a small countryside groups “…playing on old stereotypes at the school I noticed some efforts would be receptive to all of the students. classroom, I remembered what Janos had of Roma as petty criminals and drains being made to strengthen the school’s A challenging task since each student said about the students in the school: on social welfare systems at a time of relationships with its political friends has been denied equal access in ways rising economic and political turmoil.”122 and supporters. In one of my last that require individualized plans that …most of them know virtually Earlier this year I attended a funeral for conversations with a teacher at the school, address each of the students’ needs. Once nothing – most of them cannot read or Robert Csorba and his five year old son we talked about the possibility that the a lesson plan was decided on, keeping it write or calculate. Some of them have in Tatarszentgyorgy (approximately 60 school may have to put metal bars on challenging for the students was the next been declared mentally handicapped Kilometers southeast of Budapest). Both its doors and windows for the safety of challenge teachers would be faced with. on the basis of their social situation. father and son had been gunned down those inside. The surmounting issues After introducing myself to the class, Those who were considered normal after trying to flee their home that had faced by administrators, teachers and I sat in the back of the classroom and were usually in segregated classes for been deliberately set on fire.123 students (pedagogical problems stemming observed how some of the lesson plans gypsies with very inadequate teaching. From that grey and solemn day when I from a lack of the students’ educational went. In just a few minutes of observing, Even those in normal unsegregated attended a funeral in March to last month’s foundation, prejudice, segregation, one thing clearly stood out to me. My classes could not learn because the European Parliament elections, I have violence, inadequate funding and child first encounter with actual Roma children teacher made no effort to understand noticed an increase in the fear and sense of mortality among many other issues) will and I did not see the stealing, lying, them or to appreciate the situation urgency among the Roma in and around truly be a test for the hope that one day the cheating, smelly, dirty Gypsies so many from which they came. The gypsy the Dr. Ambedkar School. The school is Roma will be seen as equals in Hungary. people warned me about.120 What I saw children are taught by teachers located in a county with one of the largest were reflections of my own experience who are not properly trained, with as a teenager. Kids being kids. I almost educational programs that are very His Life and Struggles as a European Dalit, pg 2, available at www.fwbo- Successes felt like I was in the Bronx again, but dated. What they are taught, even news.org/features was brought back by a combination of at best, doesn’t touch them because 122 New York Times, Kulish, Nicholas “As Economic Turmoil I recently interviewed one of the strange sounding Hungarian words and it isn’t aimed at them. It is education Mounts, So Do Attacks on Hungary’s Gypsies” April 26, 2009, avail- Dr. Ambedkar teachers on what are designed for the middle classes given able at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/27/world/europe/27hungary. some of the school’s successes. First, to students from the under-class…121 120 FWBO, Following in Babasaheb’s Footsteps: Janos Orsos Tells of html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=Robert%20Csorba&st=cse he pointed out the uniqueness of the His Life and Struggles as a European Dalit, pg 2, available at www.fwbo- 123 Budapest Times, “Roma Man, Son Murdered”, February 23, 2009, school’s relationship with the members news.org/features 121 FWBO, Following in Babasaheb’s Footsteps: Janos Orsos Tells of available at http://www.budapesttimes.hu/content/view/11096/219 of the community it serves. The school’s

192 193 AY 2008-2009 Eric Lopez: Romani Education in Hungary: Observances and Experiences leadership has successfully combined be what many consider them incapable contribute positively to society makes the Dr. Ámbedkar Gymnázium, “Our School” available at http://www. their roles as respected and accomplished of being. School director Tibor Derdak school, and organizations like it, invaluable ambedkar.eu/our-school members of the Roma and non-Roma told me once that each student’s education resources in the fight for equality and Dr. Ámbedkar Gymnázium, “The Brutal Reality” available at http:// communities, with an open door policy is the equivalent of the education of the educational justice. Like Dr. Ambedkar www.ambedkar.eu that allows Romani women’s association entire community, Roma and non-Roma decades ago, Hungary’s Romani Dalit have Fonseca, Isabel, Bury Me Standing (1996) meetings, internet access for students alike. I believe their success will be fought long and hard for the educational Fraser, Angus M., The Peoples of Europe: The Gypsies, 1995, and other community members, and Hungary’s success. rights they currently have. Through the Wiley-Blackwell even infrastructure projects in the Roma efforts made by Hungary’s educators the FWBO, Following in Babasaheb’s Footsteps: Janos Orsos Tells of His settlement to be easily organized. On Roma may one day have the tools to break Life and Struggles as a European Dalit, available at www.fwbo-news. one of my visits to the Roma settlement, Conclusions and reflections the painful cycle of ignorance surrounding org/features I was shown a recently cleared patch of their existence. Grellman, Heinrich, Die Zigeuner (1783) land leading out to the main road. Turns Today, as Romani advocates, non-profit Gypsyspirit.org, Hancock, Ian F., Origins of the Romani People, July out it is the settlement’s first semi-paved organizations and community 26, 2009 available at http://gypsyspirit.org/pages.php?menuid=7 road. The road’s construction was representatives continue their centuries Hancock, Ian F., “Roma Slavery” Excerpt from The Encyclopedia of made possible by funding provided by old struggle for equality and access to Slavery, Paul Finkelman and Joseph Miller, eds. (Macmillan, New friend of the school and consultant for educational resources, there are those York 1997) advocacy and community working just as hard to deny them of http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/ organizing, Michael Simmons. More these rights. This hostile social, political, microsites/1342_islamic_middle_east/map/ important than the money the school was and economic climate has been a threat Kádár, András, “Legislative Review for the Hungarian Roma to organizations like the Dr. Ambedkar Education Policy Note”, available at http://www.oki.hu/oldal. able to raise for this project was its use of Bibliography the opportunity for community building. School and is responsible for creating a php?tipus=cikk&kod=eselyaz-kadar-legislative Bringing the community together for culture of fear and existential uncertainty. Kemény, István, “History of Roma in Hungary” Act on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities (2003) projects is not difficult for the school. Yet, despite these challenges, the school Kulish, Nicholas, New York Times, “As Economic Turmoil Mounts, Bellwinkel-Schempp, Maron, “Ambedkar Studies in Heidelburg”, Major projects are being worked on continues to be a beacon of hope and So Do Attacks on Hungary’s Gypsies” April 26, 2009, available at available at http://www.sai.uni-heidelberg.de/saireport/2003/ that will teach community members opportunity. For those young men and http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/27/world/europe/27hungary. pdf/1_ambedkar.pdf construction skills while, at the same time, women attending, the Dr. Ambedkar html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=Robert%20Csorba&st=cse Berzin, Alexander, Berzin Archives, The Historical Interaction between providing them with the opportunity to School is a place of preparation and Open Society Institute, Equal Access to Quality Education for Roma, the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The give back to their community. awareness. Through its ability to give Volume I (2007) Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE) But the most important opportunities Romani educational issues a historical Pritchet, Frances, “A Timeline of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar” – Columbia Blénesi, Éva, “The Roma of Hungary Case Study” (2002) provided by the school are to the Roma perspective that both empowers and University available at http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/ Budapest Times, “Roma Man, Son Murdered”, February 23, children living in and around Sajokaza. inspires its students, it is also able to equip pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/index.html 2009, available at http://www.budapesttimes.hu/content/ Students at the Dr. Ambedkar School, them with the critical skills they’ll need to Public Education Act of 2003 view/11096/219 regardless of their socio-economic status, be competitive participants in Hungary’s Roma Education Fund, Advancing Education of Roma in Hungary: Csalog, Zsolt, “A cigánykérdés Magyarországon 1980 elõtt” [The decisions to drop out of mainstream labor market. Country Assessment and Roma Education Fund’s Strategic Directions Roma Issue in Hungary Prior to 1980]. In: Bibó Emlékkönyv educational institutions, classification as Their added ability to bring (2007) (Budapest, 1979) mentally challenged, or any of the other international attention to the lack of Roma Education Fund, Decade for Roma Inclusion 2005-2015, deVaux de Foletier, Francois, UNESCO Courier, October (1984), prejudicial labels that have been attached educational resources that has fueled “Hungary Awarded ‘Certificate For Diversity’”, April 16, 2008, “The World Their Homeland – Gipsies” July 26, 2009 available at to them over the years, are accepted as existing stigmas, discrimination, prejudice available at http://www.romadecade.org/index.php?content=252 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ equals and treated with the confidence and ignorance of the Roma’s economic Roma Education Fund, Decade Watch: Roma Activists Assess the Progress ai_3455603/ creating dignity that will allow them to hardships, history, and aspirations to of the Decade of Roma Inclusion (2005-2006)

194 195 Sleeper, Maxine G., Fulbright Student Conference Papers: and Eastern Europe: Avoiding the Dependency Trap, A Regional Human Back to Basics: The Social Academic Years 2002/2003 and 2003/2004, “Anti-Discrimination Development Report, available at http://roma.undp.sk/reports. and integration of Roma in Hungary”, (2004) (Budapest, Hungarian php?parent_id=1&id=182&scroll=182

– American Commission for Educational Exchange) (1857) (Paris, Dentu and Cultural Implications of Vaillant, J.A., Histoire Vraie des Vrais Bohémiens

Tax and Finance Control Administration (APEH), “Short summary on & Cie.) the taxation of individuals”, July 1, 2009, available at http://en.apeh. Hungarian Modern Classical hu/taxation/summary_individuals.html United Nations Development Program (UNDP), The Roma in Central Composers and Their Music

Randall Scotting

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University of Colorado at Boulder Liszt Ferenc Academy/Independent Research Boulder, Colorado 1061 Budapest, Liszt Ferenc tér 8 www.colorado.edu www.lfze.hu [email protected] Adviser: Eva Marton ......

Introduction

“We don’t see things as they are, we see them as we are.” -Anais Nin

Living in Hungary has allowed me an insight into better understanding Hungarian composers and their world. This, in turn, has given me a more complete comprehension of their music. My original goal was to better grasp what I perceived to be a sense of honesty in Hungarian classical music, an immediacy and direct purpose that classical music from some other areas of origin does not often display. I found that this honesty does indeed exist in the works of many varied Hungarian composers, and I began the interesting process of trying to determine why. Why did these composers search for a direct means of expression and unusual uses of instruments and the voice to display with greater accuracy the exact mood they meant to communicate? Not a simple question to answer and one which I will continue to explore; however, I have learned that the musical exploration of these composers is tied largely to the political and governing history of Hungary. The changing borders and shifting governmental structures led many to look inward for a sense of defined purpose and personal clarity.

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