Country Profiles: China
Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Theoretical Background 2.1 Soft Power 2.2 Public Diplomacy 3. Historical Overview 4. The Dragon’s Embrace, China’s Soft Power 5. Case Studies 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Kansas City Chinese New Year Celebrations 5.3 The Hanban: NOCFL 5.4 Confucius Institutes 5.5 The Chinese Government’s Scholarship Programme 5.6 Beijing International Book Fair 5.7 Chinese Orchestral Exchange 5.8 Cultural Exchange Between China and Taiwan 5.9 ‘Die Kunst der Aufklärung’ Exhibition in Beijing 5.10 World Expo Shanghai 2010 5.11 Beijing Olympic Games 2008 3. Analysis and Conclusions 4. Bibliography 5. Acknowledgements
1. Introduction
The term ‘soft power’ was first coined by Joseph Nye in his 1990 book Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, and was further defined in 2004. However, the idea of attraction and imaginary vulnerability as a form of power dates back to ancient Chinese th 1 philosophers such as Laozi in the 7 century BC , who said:
"Water is fluid, soft, and yielding. But water will wear away rock, which is rigid and cannot yield. As a rule, whatever is fluid, soft, and yielding will overcome whatever is rigid and hard. This is another paradox: what is soft is strong." (Laozi)
Alongside the great inventions of ancient China (papermaking, the compass, gunpowder and book-printing), soft power as a recent concept in international affairs is also deeply rooted in Chinese culture. In China, however, the term soft power (as defined by ancient Chinese philosophy) took some time to gain traction in contemporary Chinese politics. Since emerging in official party newspapers in 2001, the idea of soft power, in particular cultural diplomacy, has become a widespread phenomenon. Its first use in China’s official party media came on 15 November 2001 in Ganging Daily, a newspaper published by the Central Propaganda Department. The article in question celebrated China’s successful bid to host the 2008 Olympic Games, and concluded:
“In sum, the true nature of the ‘humanistic Olympics’ [a term China used during its bid] is, while emphasizing the ‘hard power’ of our country, to place a stronger emphasis on improving and raising our nation’s ‘soft power’” 2
Since then, soft power has gained a prominent place in Chinese media coverage. Nowadays, it can be said that the international arena recognises how China is moving away from its established status as an economic power in its aspirations to become a cultural giant.
This research paper aims to capture contemporary Chinese cultural diplomacy in its entirety, and thus provide theoreticians as well as practitioners with a thorough picture of ‘soft China’ on the world stage. The paper presents a theoretical introduction to the topic, elaborating on the definition of soft power, public and cultural diplomacy, and thereafter shedding light on the historical evolvement of Chinese cultural diplomacy since Laozi.
The paper then aims to elucidate the particularities of the Chinese cultural agenda through the presentation of real-life examples. The eleven projects were chosen for their level of influence in shaping the character and scope of Chinese cultural diplomacy. The focus lies on local events by Chinese communities worldwide, cultural events of the Chinese government, state- sponsored educational projects and exchanges, as well as sports and arts exhibitions.
We hope that this paper will contribute to the emerging body of literature on Chinese cultural diplomacy and that it will provide scholars, theoreticians, practitioners and policy- makers with valuable insights on how China is about to shift from an economic giant to a cultural superpower.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1 Soft Power According to Joseph Nye, the concept of soft power is “the attractiveness of a country’s culture, political ideas and policies. When our policies are seen as legitimate in the eyes of others, our soft power is enhanced.”3 Nye adds that soft power “[aims at] getting others to want the outcomes that you want [and] co-opts people rather than coerces them.” In his opinion, the ability to pursue soft power politics requires “intangible assets” such as “[an] attractive personality culture, political values and institutions, and politics that we see as legitimate or having moral authority.”
Power can be divided into two categories: ‘hard power,’ which is defined as military and economic forces and ‘soft power,’ which is the ability to get what is desired through various incentives. Hard power and soft power are surprisingly closely related to each other in many cases. Therefore, in some situations it can be very difficult to differentiate between the two in the actual process of exercising power.
According to Hans Morgenthau ʻhard powerʼ is the ability to coerce, and ʻsoft powerʼ is the means to attract and persuade. In addition, he explains how cultural exchange gives us the chance to appreciate points of commonality and, where there are differences, to understand the motivations and humanity that underlie them.4
Soft power can also be described as ‚the power of a nation “[which] depends not only upon the skill of its diplomacy and the strength of its armed forces, but also upon the attractiveness for other nations of its political philosophy, political institutions, and political policies.”5 This is one of the reasons why China as a global power prefers to present itself as stable, reliable and a responsible partner. In the case of China in particular, it is also necessary to recognize that soft power is still power, and [thus] can still make enemies (Joffe, 2006). Therefore, to understand China’s rise from regional power to global actor, it is necessary to carefully examine its soft power and how it is implemented. Thus, it will be studied in three main areas: culture, political values and ideas, and foreign policies.
2.2 Cultural Diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy as a tool for international relations was first used in the West in the 1960s, when it was associated with the role of the US Information Agency in countering Soviet propaganda. Cultural diplomacy can be defined as “the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture, with the intention of fostering mutual understanding.”6 What is more, cultural diplomacy is a domain of diplomacy concerned with establishing, developing and sustaining relations with foreign states by way of culture, art and education.
Cultural diplomacy can also be defined as a method to achieve a greater degree of soft power. It is a proactive process of external projection in which a nation’s institutions, value systems and unique cultural personality are promoted at a bilateral and multilateral level. However, as Cummings writes, despite the myriad benefits of using cultural diplomacy, “we should never fail to recognize the cultural identity of the target nation. This includes psychology, mentality, way of life, customs, traditions and history. The success of cultural diplomacy is dependent on intercultural dialogue and mutual respect.”7 A. Heigh feels that the trust in the notion of cultural diplomacy has its roots in cultural relations, and thus defines it as “undertakings taken by states in a sphere of international cultural relation.”8
One of the questions that scientists ask is -how can cultural diplomacy be successfully measured? How can one define what factors a successful culturally diplomatic programme consists of? The most reasonable way of measuring cultural diplomacy is to study the perception of the country’s image abroad, along with what public criticism it faces. Undoubtedly, it is a very difficult and complex task, which requires a great deal of effort and time.
Over the years, a number of different institutions and organisations have emerged, which are dealing with these questions, whilst promoting and reinforcing culturally diplomatic activities. One such example of is the Institute of Cultural Diplomacy, an international, not-for-profit, non- governmental organisation with headquarters in Berlin, Germany. The goal of the ICD is to promote global peace and stability by strengthening and supporting intercultural relations at all levels. Over the past decade the ICD has grown to become one of Europe’s largest independent cultural exchange organisations, hosting programmes that facilitate interaction among individuals of all cultural, academic and professional backgrounds, from across the world.9
It is clear that the role of cultural diplomacy in international relations is increasing. However, it must be borne in mind that cultural diplomacy does not concern itself with the promotion of its own culture alone, it rather facilitates understanding and reconciliation, as well how nations and cultures can learn from each other. Over the past 15 years, a higher interest in cultural diplomacy issues in Europe has been observed. According to Demos “cultural exchange gives us the chance to appreciate points of commonality and, where there are differences, to understand the motivations and humanity that underlie them.”10
2.3 Public Diplomacy
Public diplomacy is connected with all aspects that fall outside of traditional diplomacy. Traditional diplomacy focuses on ‘government-to-government diplomacy,’ which is mainly an attempt by politicians of one country to persuade politicians of another country to take action. On the contrary, public diplomacy focuses not only on sending messages to the public and influencing public opinion abroad, but also reporting on events abroad and their impact on politics and creating and maintaining communication between diplomats and citizens.
The term, public diplomacy appeared for the first time in 1965 and was used by E. Guillon. He suggested that the aim of public diplomacy is to influence citizens of other countries to achieve a positive attitude to a particular country. What is more, public diplomacy deals with the influence of public attitude on the formation and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations that are beyond traditional diplomacy, such as the governmental cultivation of public opinion in other countries, the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with those of another, the reporting of foreign affairs and its impact on policy, communication between those whose purpose is communication itself, as between diplomats and foreign correspondents and the process of inter-cultural communications.
Another definition describes public diplomacy as “the active, planned use of cultural, educational and informational programmeming to achieve a desired result that is directly related to a government’s foreign policy objectives.”11 The main aim of public diplomacy is to create a positive image of the country within the target country and familiarize them with the given country and its citizens.
To conclude, public diplomacy is there to shape opinion abroad in a favourable way to the policy of the government concerned. There are three dimensions of public diplomacy which are worth mentioning: ‘short-term,’ ‘ long-term’ and ‘ lasting relationships.’ All three are crucial and require different relative proportions of direct government information and long-term cultural relationships.
In 1972 in Beijing on the Great Wall Richard Nixon spoke the words:
“What is most important is that we have an open world. As we look at this Wall, we do not want walls of any kind between people. I think one of the results of our trip, we hope, may be that the walls that are erected, whether they are physical walls like this or whether they are other walls, ideology or philosophy, will not divide peoples in the world; that peoples, regardless of their differences and backgrounds and their philosophies, will have an opportunity to communicate with each other; to know each other, and to share with each other those particular endeavours that will mean peaceful progress in the years ahead.”
3.Historical Overview
China has a long and unique tradition, culture and heritage, and a long history of diplomacy. As early as the second century BC the Chinese government in the Han Dynasty sent ambassadors and officials to countries in Western and Central Asia, both to establish the relationship between the countries, and to encourage cultural exchange. For example, during China’s Imperial past, cultural envoys went to neighbouring countries to learn their cultures and disseminate Chinese culture, particularly with regards to Buddhism, such as Xuan Zangʼs visit to India and Jian Zhenʼs voyage to Japan.
During the fading feudalist society and semi-colonial time in China, cultural exchanges were passive and few. After the establishment of the new communist party, the government tried many diplomatic methods to initiate its position on the world stage. This included cultural exchanges on the one hand between other communist countries, and newly created nations in Asia and Africa on the other. Whilst on cultural exchanges between France and China, Japan and China contributed a lot in bilateral diplomatic relations. However this cultural exchange declined dramatically during first half of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ unrest from 1966 to 1976. Then in 1971, when the People’s Republic of China replaced Chiang Kai-Shekʼs government of the Republic of China as permanent member state of UN Security Council, different cultural exchanges and visiting groups started to rise again. As statistics show, from 1971 to 1976 there were about 30 art troupes that visited China, and 40 Chinese art and performance troupes involving around 3000 people, that visited more than 50 countries.12 The Ping-Pong diplomacy between China and United States in 1972 is also one of the most successful and important cases of Chinese cultural diplomacy.
In 1978, the Chinese government carried out an open-up policy, with the principle to “establish and develop national, diplomatic and economic relations with all countries, based 13 on the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence.” Today Chinese government leaders hope to gain better recognition; making the best use of its unique cultural heritage has gradually become one of its main strategies.
It must be noted however, that most cultural exchanges and culturally diplomatic activities have thus far been with developing countries. For example, from 1980 to 1990, among the 79 Chinese cultural cooperation agreements, 71 of them are with developing countries, as are 14 159 of the 220 executive plans for cultural exchange. The then leader Deng Xiaoping reiterated that China must learn advanced science and technology, management method, and all other helpful knowledge and culture from developed capitalist countries. In 1979, he signed the cultural exchange implementation plan of 1980 and 1981 with the then Vice President of the United States, Walter F. Mondale.
After the Tiananmen Square Protest of 1989, the communist Chinese government was isolated from the world. To counter the China threat argument, the Chinese government has attempted to project a positive international image as a benevolent international actor, to 15 showcase its peaceful rise. Next to politics and economics, culture has thus become the an important part of China’s modern diplomacy.
The Chinese Communist Party’s Eleventh Five-year Plan called for a larger presence of China in 16 the international cultural market. Today China undertakes 1,360 cultural exchanges a year, a five-fold increase compared to a decade ago. Specifically, China has signed 752 executive plans for cultural exchange with 145 countries. It also has established cultural exchange with 1,000 international cultural organisations. China’s 80 embassies overseas encompass 95
cultural sections, and in addition, the government has set up Chinese cultural centres in 17 France, South Korea, and Egypt. The country also works to export its culture, in particular art, film, music, and sport, targeting its immediate neighbours, European countries and the U.S., as 18 well as third world nations. Through bilateral exchanges, China is also promoting its successful model of state-led development based on incremental economic reform as an alternative to the Washington model of aggressive marketisation and extensive privatisation. China has also hosted visits for elite members from Vietnam, Myanmar, North Korea, 19 Zimbabwe, Venezuela, and even India to study the Chinese model.
Perhaps one of China’s biggest and most high profile efforts in building its cultural soft power has been the establishment of the Confucius Institute, which is equivalent to the United Kingdom’s British Council, Germany’s Goethe Institute and Spain’s Instituto Cervantes. They aim to promote the learning of the Chinese language and culture to the world, and promote cooperation between Chinese universities and foreign schools.
The Year of Chinese Culture in France and Chinese Cultural Festival in the U.S. also attracted a great deal of public attention, as do Chinese New Year celebrations worldwide. The Chinese government has sponsored such celebrations in New York, Paris, London, Sydney and Bangkok. It also organises arts exhibits, performances, speeches by influential natives, exhibits on social customs, and movie weeks overseas to showcase the uniqueness of Chinese 20 culture. Other cultural events such as Chinese Bridge and the International Buddhist Forum have contributed to the soaring numbers of non-Chinese visitors to China.
4. The Dragon’s Embrace; China’s Soft Power
China is currently the second largest economy in the world, and is still experiencing rapid growth.21 The country’s economic success has led to praise and imitation by similar governmental systems, especially in South America, with regards to both hard and soft power. Sutter and Huang comment that “Beijing’s ability to present an alternative political and economic model is said to be a telling indicator of a growing Chinese ideological influence, which is countering Western perspectives who insist democratic principles are a requisite for economic prosperity.”22
Such a model of governance can be surmised with the statement “you can modernise and not westernise at the same time” by a Chinese official in the BBC broadcast ʻChina’s soft power.ʼ Such affinity for Chinese administration has also assisted in the promotion of Chinese culture and language throughout the world, and can be said to have contributed to the holding of the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008, the success of the Shanghai Expo in 2010 and the establishment of the more than 282 Confucius Institutes in countries worldwide. This is absolutely consistent with the "non-threatening" character that Beijing wishes to put forward and emphasize in its interactions.23
So what are the aims of China’s pursuit of soft power? Thus far, four potential uses may be recognised: the diplomatic recognition of Taiwan; access to foreign markets (especially on resource-rich continents such as Africa and Latin America); the protection of Chinese investments as well as Chinese nationals abroad and finally; expanding on their position as an alternative to the USA without putting any cooperation at risk. It can be said that China’s engagement in developing countries, for example, takes the approach of giving aid almost unconditionally rather than expecting good governance as demanded by France, Germany and Great Britain. These diplomatic strategies are proving to be successful. Additionally, in the United Nations, support for Chinese positions on human rights issues has risen from 50 percent to well 24 over 70 percent within one decade.
5. Case Studies
5.1 Introduction This section of the research paper will elaborate on a number of practical examples of how China is using cultural diplomacy to enhance its soft power on the global stage. It will focus on eleven major Chinese projects in the field of arts, music, sports, education, public policy, trade and economics. Some of them operate locally and some have a global impact, but all of them have contributed significantly to the increase of awareness of Chinese culture and language.
The Chinese New Year is perhaps the most widely known event of Chinese culture in the world. Kansas City in the American state of Missouri regularly takes the opportunity of the New Year’s celebrations in order to promote Chinese culture among Americans. One of the many British equivalents of the event is the Liverpool Chinatown Chinese New Year whose purpose is, among others, to strengthen the ties to China among the citizens of one of the oldest Chinese communities in Europe.
The ‘Hanban,’ the Chinese government’s proxy for cultural diplomacy in the world, often lends financial support to Chinese cultural events in other countries. Its largest project to date is the Confucius Institute. The aim of the Confucius Institutes around the world is to facilitate Chinese learning and cultural exchange. Cultural exchange as such is often administered by governmental agencies other than the Hanban. Much of Sino-World mobility is covered by the Great Wall Fellowship Scheme, the Chinese Government Scholarship Programme for the EU, and the Study in Asia Scholarship Scheme.
Another formation-related project is the Beijing International Book Fair, whose objective is to present officially licensed Chinese literature to the world. It is a meeting spot of international and Chinese publishers, which immensely contributed to the East-West books transaction. Apart from educational projects, the Chinese cultural diplomacy agenda has also underlined the importance of arts and sports. The art equivalent to the student mobility is the Orchestral Exchange, supporting mobility between Chinese and Western orchestra houses. Surprisingly, Taiwan and China cultivate a certain level of cultural diplomacy as well. Their common project is an analogy to the Orchestral Exchange, which in this essay will be known as the Museum Exchange.
Arts are represented by the project – “Die Kunst der Aufklärung” – an amazing idea of three German museums to exhibit pieces of art promoting the European Enlightenment. The exhibition took place in the National Museum of China in Beijing. A connection of arts, trade and sustainable development could have been seen at the internationally renowned World Expo in Shanghai. This visionary event not only drafted a plan for future urban planning, but also exposed China to roughly 80 million visitors. The Beijing Olympic Games of 2008 was an event of similar scope. Watched by millions of people worldwide, Chinese culture and virtues could not have been promoted in a better way.
5.2 The Kansas City Chinese New Year Celebration Country: USA Website: www.kcca-ks.org/wordpress/?s=new+year Sponsors: Among others, the Ministry of Education for the People’s Republic of China
SPONSOR DESCRIPTION The Confucius Institute of the University of Kansas (CIKU) is a cooperative project of the University of Kansas, the Office of Chinese Language Council International, and Huazhong Normal University. The Confucius Institute is an educational organisation designed to promote Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchange. It was founded in 2004, and is headquartered in Beijing. The Confucius Institute is sponsored by the Office of Chinese Language Council International, a non-profit organisation associated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. The institutes operate in co-operation with local colleges and universities around the world in their mission to make the Chinese language and culture resources and services available to the world.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION The Kansas City Chinese New Year Celebration is organised by the Kansas City Chinese American Association, the KU Confucius Institute and the Edgar Snow Memorial Fund. The Kansas City Chinese American Association promotes the festival with the slogan “Connect Local Communities & Celebrate Chinese Heritage.” The organisation works to promote Chinese culture, not only among local Chinese people but also among Native Americans.
The Kansas City Chinese American Association (KCCAA), in cooperation with the Confucius Institute, organises the Chinese New Year’s Celebration at Yardley Hall located on the campus of Johnson County Community College in Kansas, USA. KCCAA President CJ Wei and KU Confucius Institute Executive Director Sheree Willis introduce a diverse set of Chinese acts to Kansas City citizens, which encompass everything from famous martial arts and lion dances to Chinese drum rollers. American students from the Confucius Institute of the University of Kansas also present their engagement in getting involved each year in the festival.
AIMS OF THE PROJECT The project aims to promote Chinese culture internationally, in order to create strong a bond between Chinese people living in the USA and the Americas. The project also aims to highlight the unique aspects of Chinese culture, and create a sense of belonging of Chinese people to the local community. In addition, the project works to transfer knowledge of Chinese culture to next generation.
WHO PARTICIPATES? More than 1,300 people from all over the world take part each year in the Chinese celebrations in Kansas City. It is assumed that 300 people also watch the KC Chinese Dance Competition & performances. 200 performers are on stage each year at Yardley Hall for evening gala, and 100 volunteers support the festival.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY The Chinese New Year, also called the Chinese Lunar New Year, is one of the most important traditional Chinese holidays. It is widely celebrated in East and South-East-Asia. The dates of this festival depend on a combination of lunar and solar movements. Most of the time, it occurs in January or February.
The Chinese New Year celebration in Kansas City is a symbol of the enthusiasm and excitement
presented by new and old residents of the town. During this day Chinese and other ethnic groups are joined and ready to welcome the New Year together. Undoubtedly, Chinese Americans and other residents with Chinese ancestors have made tremendous contributions to the success of Kansas City. Mayor Funkhouser commented that “we know from the wisdom of generations, that all the flowers of all of the tomorrows are in the seeds of today. May we all become successful gardeners this year.”25
The Chinese New Year festivals are organised to send messages to ethnic Chinese in various countries, and more non-Chinese to join the celebrations together to get a closer look at Chinese culture. For many years “people to people diplomacy” interactions between societies of various countries were neglected by Chinese government. Therefore Chinese New Year festivals are there to create a positive image of Chinese culture abroad. According to J. Nye, public diplomacy is the possibility of communicating through culture values and ideas. What is more, it is there to reach the largest possible audience by whatever means such as informing local audiences of any activity. Furthermore J. Nye claims that public diplomacy is the ability to achieve what is desired by attractiveness rather than money. Achievement of this is usually determined by the attractiveness of a given culture, its political ideals and the substance of the country’s policy.
Educational and cultural exchanges are a sign of China’s change in attitude towards their image abroad and its promotion. For instance, China has become an eager organizer of big events such as the Olympic Games. Undoubtedly, worldwide interest in Chinese culture has increased; Chinese cultural events draw the attention of many people. This can be observed in the number of Chinese events organised outside the country, for example the Chinese Culture Weeks in Berlin (2011), St Petersburg (August 2003), Festival of China in Washington DC (2005) and China Year in Russia (2007).
5.3 Liverpool China Town New Year Celebrations - Country: UK - Website: http://www.lcba.net/ - Contact: Telephone +44 (0) 7916 414 759, email [email protected] - Sponsors: Among others, Bank of China
SPONSOR DESCRIPTION The Bank of China was formally established in February 1912 by the Government of the Republic of China. It is the oldest bank in the country, and one of the big four state-owned commercial banks of the People's Republic of China. From its establishment until 1942, it issued banknotes on behalf of the Government of the Republic of China. The Bank of China was the country’s central bank until 1928, and was then replaced by the Central Bank of China. Subsequently, it has become a purely commercial bank. However, as the most international and diversified bank in China, Bank of China provides a diverse range of financial services to customers across China, and 29 overseas countries.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION Liverpool Chinatown Chinese New Year is organised by the Liverpool Chinatown Chinese New Year Coordinating Committee with the city council and the Bank of China. This festival takes place only for one day. Undoubtedly, Liverpool is a home to one of the oldest Chinese communities in Europe, and this is why this particular festival is so important to local society. Chinese New Year is celebrated in the streets around the Chinese Arch on Nelson Street. Various activities are organised for the festival, such as the march of a 70ft dragon through Chinatown. What is more, the Liverpool Hung Gar Kung Fu School provides the lions, unicorns and dragons to play for children. Visitors to Chinese New Year in Liverpool should be prepared to be entertained by dancing dragons, unicorns and lions, special firecracker performances and Tai Chi demonstrations. The event is also a great opportunity to enjoy a variety of Chinese food and traditional New Year delicacies.
AIMS OF THE PROJECT - To promote Chinese culture internationally - To create a strong bond between Chinese people living in the UK and English people. - To point out the unique aspects of Chinese culture. - To create a sense of belonging of Chinese people to the local community. - To transfer knowledge of Chinese culture to next generation.
WHO PARTICIPATES? More than 20,000 people from all over the world take part each year in the Chinese celebrations.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY The Chinese New Year, also called the Chinese Lunar New Year, is one of the most important traditional Chinese holidays. It is also widely celebrated in East and South-East-Asia. The date of this festival depends on a combination of lunar and solar movements, and generally occurs in January or February. According to tradition, Chinese New Year symbolizes new beginnings. Chinese proverb states that all creations are reborn on New Year’s Day, however within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of Chinese New Year vary widely. In Far East Asia, the New Year is also the end of winter and the beginning of spring; farmers tend to take this opportunity to welcome spring as they plant for the new harvest. Therefore, the Lunar New Year is also called the Spring Festival.
Chinese New Year is generally regarded as a public holiday in parts of the world where a large number of Chinese live. It is therefore celebrated annually in many western cities which have significant Chinese populations. Chinese New Year is therefore celebrated in San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York City, London, Sydney and Toronto. Both London and San Francisco claim to host the largest New Year celebration outside of Asia.
Liverpool Chinatown Chinese New Year plays an important part in the local traditions and customs in Liverpool, serving to emphasise the role of Chinese people in the city. In addition, it also enables them to become a part of local history, and get more involved in local issues. What is more, it is a way for Chinese people to express their core values and traditions to British nationals.
For many years ‘ people to people diplomacy,’ interactions between societies of various countries were neglected by the Chinese government. Chinese New Year festivals can therefore be seen as a positive initial step in the creation of a positive image of China. Undoubtedly, Chinese public diplomacy has significantly changed, and from now on it appears that the country wishes to be seen as a responsible member of the international political community, and as willing to contribute to peace in the world.
5.4 The Hanban: National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (NOCFL) - Country: China - Website: http://english.hanban.org - Contact: Telephone +86 (0) 105 859 5859, email [email protected] - Sponsors: Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China
ORGANISATION DESCRIPTION ‘Hanban’ is the colloquial abbreviation for the Chinese National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (NOCFL). NOCFL is administered by the Office of Chinese Language Council International, a non-government and non-profit organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. Hanban sponsors a variety of programmes related to Chinese language and culture, including the worldwide Confucius Institute and the Chinese Bridge, a competition in Chinese proficiency for non-native speakers. The current President of the Council is State Councillor Chen Zhili. There are twelve state ministries and commissions represented in the NOCFL.26
AIMS OF THE ORGANISATION - To promote Chinese culture and language. - To cultivate knowledge and interest in the Chinese language and culture in nations around the world that are not native speakers of Chinese. - To contribute to the development of multiculturalism, and the building of a harmonious world. - To draft international Chinese teaching standards, develop and promote Chinese language teaching materials and provide its services worldwide. - To support Chinese language programmes at educational institutions of various types and levels in other countries - To train Chinese language instructors and provide them with teaching resources. - To meet the demands of overseas Chinese learners to the utmost degree.
WHO PARTICIPATES? The Hanban, a state-run organization, has a wide network of contacts in all strata of public administration. Not only is the Hanban collaborating with foreign Ministries of Education and its cultural diplomacy institutes (Goethe Institute, French Institute, Cervantes Institute etc.), but it also runs myriad educational programmes at universities worldwide. Thus, the NOCFL reaches disparate participants and partners from all around the globe.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY China’s National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language has proven to be an unequivocal struggle for China with regards to ‘catching up’ with other countries in the field of cultural diplomacy. Drawing from the experience of the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain and France, China began its own promotion of Chinese language and culture through establishing the Hanban. Like the organizations of the above-mentioned European counterparts, the Hanban is state-run, which may imply a certain level of bias.
On the one hand, the Hanban provides opportunities for people all over the world to learn and engage in Chinese culture and language. Without the Hanban-sponsored programmes, it could be perceived as onerous for Chinese learners and lecturers to source proper learning materials. The Hanban provides formal training of teachers of Chinese as a foreign language, thus meeting the demand for the increasing interest in Chinese language learning in neighbouring countries and in the United States. Furthermore, the NOCFL serves as a platform for Sino- world cultural exchange, ensuring financing and organizational framework for cultural
exchanges, seminars, or conferences. In addition the cooperation with universities and other educational facilities is not negligible either.
5.5 Confucius Institutes - Country: Worldwide - Website: http://english.hanban.org/node_7716.htm - Contact: Telephone +86 (0) 105 859 5859, email [email protected] - Sponsors: Funded by the Chinese Government
ORGANISATION DESCRIPTION The Confucius Institute is funded by the Chinese government, and works to promote cooperation between Chinese universities and foreign schools. Unlike its counterparts such as the British Council, Franceʼs Alliance Française and the Goethe Institut, the Confucius Institute focuses on cooperation with foreign education institutions, which mainly comprise Universities and public schools.
Having seen the UK, France, Germany and Spain's experience in promoting their national languages, China began its own exploration through establishing non-profit public institutions abroad in 2004. The first Confucius Institute was established in Seoul, South Korea in 2004. By 2010, 322 had opened their doors in 96 different countries alongside a number of ‘outpost’ positions, raising the total to nearly 700 locations worldwide. The purpose of the Confucius Institute is to primarily to teach the Chinese language, and secondly to promote Chinese 27 culture, history and art.
AIMS OF THE ORGANISATION - To provide scope for people all over the world to learn about Chinese language and culture. - To train lecturers of Chinese language and publish teaching materials. - To provide non-native Chinese learners with learning materials. - To adopt flexible teaching patterns which adapt to suit local conditions when teaching Chinese language. - To become a platform for cultural exchange, as well as a bridge reinforcing friendship and cooperation between China and the world. - To hold cultural festivals, exhibitions, and competitions to promote Chinese culture.
WHO PARTICIPATES? People all around the world who wish to learn Chinese, and become familiar with Chinese culture along with universities and cultural organisations.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY With its growing economy and political influence, it can be said that China must increase its use of soft power in order to foster international understanding. Conversely, China’s general growth may also be one of the main reasons why an increasing number of people are starting to learn of its language and culture. Investors in particular are keen to learn Chinese, since Asian markets have boomed in recent years. The Confucius Institute has not only successfully filled in the gap in Chinese learning and teaching, but has also made Chinese culture readily accessible.
5.6 The Chinese Government Scholarship Programmes - Country: China - Websites:http://en.csc.edu.cn/Laihua/e31c1db5e5734072b54e1ddfdad88ee9.shtml http://en.csc.edu.cn/Laihua/e31c1db5e5734072b54e1ddfdad88ee9.shtml http://www.chinamission.be/eng/lxzg/ofzz/ http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Elementals/InBeijing/StudyingInBJ/Scholarships/t1058193.ht m - Sponsors: Various
THE GREAT WALL FELLOWSHIP SCHEME Under the co-sponsorship of UNESCO, twenty-five fellowships for advanced studies at undergraduate and postgraduate level have been set up by the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE). These fellowships are for the benefit of developing member states in Africa, Asia, and certain countries in the Arab States. The scheme is sponsored by the MOE and the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMME FOR THE E.U. This program is a full scholarship scheme set up by the MOE for European students, with the goodwill to expand student exchanges between China and the European Union. The Chinese Government launched the scholarship program as a follow-up to the 2006 China-EU Summit in January 2007. The program provides 100 full scholarships per academic year from 2007 to 2011. The programme is sponsored by the Chinese Ministry of Education in conjunction with the Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the European Union
THE STUDY IN ASIA SCHOLARSHIP SCHEME The programme is a full scholarship scheme established by the MOE aiming to stimulate the mobility of Asian students and scholars within Asia. It aims to strengthen mutual understanding among people in Asian countries, develop education cooperation and exchanges, and promote Asian education quality. It is only available to applicants who come to study as general scholars and senior scholars. The programme is sponsored by the Chinese Ministry of Education, in conjunction with the Chinese diplomatic missions in other Asian countries.
ORGANISATION DESCRIPTION International students under Chinese Government Scholarship Programmes are allocated to Chinese HEIs or Chinese research institutes, designated by the MOE to pursue their proposed studies in areas related to science, technology, agriculture, medicine, economics, law, management, education, history, liberal arts and philosophy. The Ministry usually formulates scholarship plans on an annual basis, and entrusts the China Scholarship Council to manage recruitment and carry out the routine management of the Programmes.
The full scholarship includes: exemption from registration fees, tuition fees, fees for laboratory experiments, fees for internships, fees for basic learning materials, accommodation fees for a dormitory on campus as well as a living allowance, a one-off settlement subsidy after registration, outpatient medical service, comprehensive medical insurance for international students in China, and a one-off inter-city travel subsidy.
AIMS OF THE ORGANISATION - To strengthen mutual understanding and friendship between Chinese people and people from all over the world. - To develop cooperation and exchanges in the fields of politics, economy, culture, education and trade between China and other countries. - To train Chinese language instructors and provide information about contemporary China.
WHO PARTICIPATES? People welcome to apply must be aged between 18 and 35, and have passed the senior high school diploma. In some cases special requires like undergraduate studies and special citizenship apply.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY When the ‘bamboo curtain’ was still drawn closed, educational exchanges were limited to China’s allies and friends. The first group of 33 students from East European countries arrived in 1950, thus it was not until 1978 when Deng Xiaoping promoted market forces and foreign trade that the opening-up policy was initiated and international student exchange took the next stage. The total number of international students studying in China reached 265,090 in 2010.29 Reasons for this rise are not only to do with the force with which China is promoting itself as a soft power, but also the public embrace by hard powers like the USA. The enrolment of self- financed students has made such a big stride, that it has surpassed that of scholarship students. China is increasing in popularity as a destination for tertiary education, but in comparison with 671,616 in 2008/200928 international students in the USA, there is still a long way to go.
Interestingly, exchange programmes have largely been written out of the documentation of diplomacy, as Giles Scott Smith states, due to the “interpersonal nature of the exchange experience, coupled with its inherently private character.”29 Hence, exchange programs as means of cultural diplomacy, and their impact on the building of sustainable relationships are sparsely covered by social sciences. Through its announcement of more and more scholarships, it can be said that the Chinese government is expressing a strong belief that educational exchanges can support its long-time goal of soft power.
Until now China seems to have abstained from engaging direct political influence with regards to student exchanges, other than what was expected from many Western countries. This attitude follows Scott-Smithʼs suggestion, as independence needs to be upheld “in order to maintain the integrity of the participants and the programs themselves.”30 Cultural diplomacy is a two-way avenue; in most cases student exchanges can help to enhance the image of a country, strengthen economic and academic ties and establish long-lasting relationships. However, the risk of not achieving what was initially intended is much higher for academic exchanges than for any other tool of cultural diplomacy. While cultural diplomacy always intends to nurture a favourable perception of a country, its values and its systems, it is entirely dependent on intercultural dialogue, mutual respect and the personality of the participant. As Konrad Adenauer felicitously said, “all of us live under the same sky, but we donʼt all have the same horizon.” Yet psychological researches have highlighted that critics will rarely be swayed, but doubters may become believers and even supporters. In the case of China we can see a definite rise not only in prominence of Asian culture in target nations as both an economic partner and holiday destination, but also as study subjects.
5.7 Beijing International Book Fair - Location: Beijing, China - Website: http://www.bibf.net - Contact: Telephone +86 (0) 106 506 3080, fax +86 (0) 106 508 9188 - Sponsors: State Press and Publication Administration (State Copyright Administration), the Information Office of the State Council, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Culture, the People's Government of Beijing, the Publishers Association of China, and the Chinese Writers Association.
ORGANISATION DESCRIPTION The fair was created and initially hosted in 1986 by the China Book Import and Export (Group) Corporation, and has been successfully held 17 times since. It is an important exhibition receiving special support from the state's 11th and 12th Five-year Plans.31 Over the past 25 years, BIBF has received attention and recognition from the international publishing community, and writers all over the world.
The 18th BIBF was held at the new China International Exhibition Centre from August 31st to September 4th 2011, with 2,155 booths over an area of 53,600 m and a 24% increase in overall scale over last year. The fair is divided into five sections: Domestic Publications, Overseas Publications, Digital Publishing, Library Purchasing and Delivery, and Domestic and Overseas Periodicals. Since 2005 every book fair picks one country as its guest of honour; this year (2011) it was the Netherlands.
AIMS OF THE ORGANISATION - To form an international platform for book transaction. - To create a vehicle for exchange and cooperation between Foreign and Chinese publishers. - To present officially licensed Chinese literature to the outside world.
WHO PARTICIPATES? The participants are over 2,000 publishers from 60 countries and regions.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY When it comes to the evaluation of the relevance of the Beijing book fair as one of China’s soft power tools in its foreign policy, it is of course extremely difficult to assess its real impact on foreign audiences. It could however, as a part of China’s cultural diplomacy, be seen as a valuable asset in China’s strategy to change foreign perceptions in the long run, and also foster mutual understanding.
Thus it must be discussed, whether the Beijing International Book Fair itself increases the attractiveness of China’s culture, political ideas or even its policies. Generally speaking, the aims of international book fairs match the broader/basic idea of cultural diplomacy, i.e. the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture (Milton C. Cummings). The BIBF is, as stated earlier, one of the largest of its kind in Asia and also one of the biggest and most important book fairs in the world. Targeting publishers around the globe, it is designed to be a platform to present officially licensed Chinese literature to the outside world.
It must be noted, however that the State Press and Publication Administration, which acts as the main censoring agency in China, must authorize not only the Chinese exhibitors but also the foreign ones. Therefore the basic idea of cultural diplomacy, as a two-way avenue of equal
exchange, is limited in the sense that both local and foreign critical literature is strictly censored. Governmental critics and literature written by dissidents like the environmental activist and writer Dai Qing or Bei Ling are two more famous examples of prohibited literature. Nevertheless, for westerners the fair remains an important gateway to the Chinese literature market, and a good opportunity for exchange and cooperation between Foreign and Chinese publishers.
5.8 Chinese Orchestral Exchange
- Countries: China, America - Website: Unlisted - Contact: Telephone +86 (0) 106 506 3080, fax +86 (0) 106 508 9188 - Sponsors: State Press and Publication Administration (State Copyright Administration), the Information Office of the State Council, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Culture, the People's Government of Beijing, the Publishers Association of China, and the Chinese Writers Association.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION The Chinese Orchestral Exchange first took place in September 1973, when the Philadelphia Orchestra travelled to Beijing and Shanghai, to put on six concerts during a two-week visit.32 The aim of the visit was to facilitate the exchange of ideas and culture through the medium of music. The event was warmly received by the Chinese audiences and paved the way for other American orchestras to tour the country.
Another significant development was the realization that orchestras could be used as a tool of soft power. In January 2010, the Education Association for China Tomorrow invited Chinaʼs Jade orchestra to visit Washington DC to perform for the local people.33 Its aim was to enhance the recognition and understanding of Chinese traditional folk culture among American folk culture.
Furthermore, in February 2012 the Shanghai Chinese orchestra are scheduled to perform at the Bass concert Hall in Texas, playing traditional and contemporary Chinese music. The Chamber Ensemble of the Shanghai Chinese Orchestra is the first modern native orchestra in China. This is part of a major multi-year cultural exchange between Minneapolis-based arts Midwest, the Chinese ministry of culture and the US major University presenter’s consortium.34 The Chinese government has provided financial support.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY The culturally diplomatic relevance of orchestral exchange is that China has learnt how classical music can be used as an effective tool as part of its overall soft power approach. Gerald Mertens, chairman of the German Orchestral Union argues, “only through exchange, especially with the universal language of music can it be achieved to enhance mutual understanding and 35 two-way acceptance.” Initially the exchange helped the Chinese government to improve its image with the United States, and they recently launched a new public relations campaign. This included a promotional video that featured celebrities such as Lang Lang, a Chinese piano virtuoso, which was aired in Times Square.36 Its purpose was to counter the negative American views that perceive China as a threat.
Today, however, due to the contemporary spread of classical music, China has also been able to use orchestral exchange to influence states within the East Asian region. For instance the Hong Kong Youth Chinese Orchestra (HKYCO) will make its first visit to Taiwan from 6th- 12th September 2011, performing contemporary Chinese music at the Orchestra Festival in Changua County,37 a festival of accomplished musicians from the Chinese mainland and Taiwan. The HKYCO has also toured in Singapore, Malaysia, France, Israel, and Australia.
Furthermore China has used orchestral exchange to target other neglected parts of the world. For instance at the beginning of 2011 the Chinese government funded an Azerbaijani orchestra show.38 Azerbaijan has been a target of Chinaʼs diplomatic ambitions, primarily due it being an
oil-producing nation. Thus this was a good move in terms of showing a little interest in order to win China business in the future. This economic relationship can be illustrated by the 39 increase in trade turnover between the two, from $200 million in 2004 to $368 in 2006. Ultimately China has used orchestral exchange as an effective tool in fulfilling its primary economic interests.
In conclusion, orchestral exchange was first used as a form of cultural diplomacy by the U.S. to build relations with China. Today, as Chinaʼs economic power increases and its influences spread, they have adopted orchestral exchange to build a new image to its rivals and new relations with economic partners.
5.9 Cultural Exchange between China and Taiwan - Countries: China, Taiwan - Websites: http://www.npm.gov.tw/en/home.htm - http://www. dpm.org.cn/www_oldweb/English/default.html
PROJECT DESCRIPTION In February 2008, the directors of Beijing’s Palace Museum and Taipei’s National Palace Museum met for the first time in 60 years to talk about possible museum exchanges in the future. As part of the exchange, the Beijing Palace Museum has agreed to loan twenty-nine artefacts to Taipei's National Palace Museum. In a show scheduled to open in October, the pieces will be reunited with objects taken by the nationalists under Chiang Kai-Shek, when they fled the mainland after losing China's civil war.
WHO PARTICIPATES? The director of Beijing’s Palace Museum and his delegation, as well as the director of Taipei’s National Palace Museum and her delegation. Furthermore museum exchanges have already been conducted by minor Chinese and Taiwanese museums.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY Cultural exchanges can often be a way to bypass political disagreements, and the China/Taiwan cultural exchange was significant in that it dealt with a very old dipute. Chiang Kai-Shek moved nearly all important artefacts to Taiwan in 1950, making the National Palace Museum the owner of the biggest collection of Asian artefacts in the world. China has since claimed the artefacts as stolen, and has tried to recover them for quite some time. Therefore it is understandable that Taiwan refuses to lend objects to a Chinese museum unless it gets a legal guarantee that they will be returned.40
However, in the latest sign of warming cultural exchange between the peoples, the National Taiwan Museum in Taipei has agreed to loan a group of works to China’s Hubei Provincial Museum. In return the National Taiwan Museum will be lent more than 100 objects.
The trend seems to be toward greater openness: the Chinese Zhejiang Provincial Museum in Hangzhou agreed to loan a fragment of Yuan Dynasty painter Huang Gongwangʼs "Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains" to the National Palace Museum, reuniting the two sections of the painting for the first time in 350 years. As Zheng Xinmiao, director of the Beijing Palace Museum said in Taiwan, "The road for cooperation has been opened, but things may be difficult at the start.”41
Analysts interpret Beijing's conciliatory approach as a bid to improve China's image in Taiwan, perhaps to soften opposition to reunification. Whatever the underlying case might be, Beijing's more amicable stance is welcome news: Chou Kung-shin, director of the Taipei museum says "Cultural exchanges are the most convenient and effective way to establish communications across the Strait."
5.10 ‘Die Kunst der Aufklärung’ Exhibition in Beijing - Countries: China, Germany - Website: http://www.kunstderaufklaerung.de/
PROJECT DESCRIPTION ʻDie Kunst der Aufklärungʻ Exhibition in China is a joint project of the Dresden State Art Collections, the National Museums of Berlin, the Bavarian State Painting Collections of Munich and the National Museum of Beijing. This joint exhibition, held at the National Museum of China in Beijing, is primarily financed by the German Foreign Office and marks the high point of the German-Chinese program of cultural events which were bilaterally agreed upon in 2005. After the celebrated completion in summer 2011 of renovation work by Hamburg- based architects Gerkan, Marg und Partner, the National Museum of China is set to become one of the largest museum buildings in the world. Along with its new architectural dimensions has come the demand of establishing the museum as a forum of art and culture for all continents. From 2 April 2011 on, the three German museum bodies will unveil nearly 600 exhibits spread over a total display area of 2,700m2. At its heart, the exhibition features artworks which best exemplify the great ideas of the Enlightenment, its influence on the fine arts and its effective history, from the artistic revolutions of the 18th century right up to the present day.
AIMS OF THE PROJECT - To demonstrate the educational ambitions of the National Museum of China as a place of enlightenment itself. - To display the art of western civilisation. - To deepen relations between the respective countries and museums, as well as to raise the possibility of new cultural exchanges.
WHO PARTICIPATES? The Art of the Enlightenment is an exhibition presented by the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden and the Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen Munich, in conjunction with the National Museum of China in Beijing. The exhibition falls under the joint auspices of Hu Jintao, President of the People's Republic of China, and Christian Wulff, German Federal President. The Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden and the Bayerische Staatsgemälde-sammlungen München jointly present the exhibition of European art from the Enlightenment, in conjunction with the National Museum of China.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY "For élites and those who visit museums, artistic exchanges can contribute to soft power," says Joseph Nye, the co-founder of the international relations theory neo-liberalism and the theory of soft power.42 Cultural diplomacy has the potential to create a unique atmosphere of openness, often through a shared experience of a cultural event. By bringing a collection to another country, even another continent, intercultural dialogue is already prevalent. The success of cultural diplomacy is dependent on intercultural dialogue and mutual respect.
For Martin Roth, general director of the Dresden State Art Collections, cultural exchange with China will be a great field of the future for the European museums. “For European Art and Culture it is a must to be presented there,“ the cultural scientist said.43 Cultural diplomacy can establish, develop and sustain relations with foreign states by way of culture, art and education. At the opening of the ‘Die Kunst der Aufklärungʻ the guest list proved once again that these ties do not necessarily need to be forged in the fields of the cultural event, but in the fields of economy and politics as well. The front row was peppered with CEOs and CFOs of automobile companies and other listed German businesses.
5.11 World Expo Shanghai 2010 - Country: China (with 246 participating countries) - Website: http://en.expo2010.cn/ http://en.expo2010.cn/c/en_gj_tpl_85.htm - Dates: 1st of May to 31st of October 2010 - Number of visitors: 7.3 million
PROJECT DESCRIPTION The World Expo is an international fair where countries showcase their latest economic, scientific and cultural developments. The first event took place in London in 1851, and has been hailed by many historians as marking the beginning of the western race of industrialization.44 Today it has become an opportunity for the host to promote its nation brand. The World Expos have a history of triggering economic advancement in the host country; for example the 1970 Expo held in Japan turned Osaka into Japan’s second largest financial centre.45 On 18 November 1999, the Chinese government officially decided that Shanghai would bid for the 2010 World Expo. With support from home and abroad, Shanghai won the bid on 3 December 2002, at the 132nd General Assembly of the International Exhibitions Bureau.
AIMS OF THE PROJECT - To promote better awareness of the environment and foreign cultures in China through the theme “Better city, better life.” - To represent the common wish of the whole humankind for a better living in future urban environments. - To have an impact on international policy-making in urban strategy and sustainable development. - To promote the idea that real change is happening and will continue to do so in China.
WHO PARTICIPATED? 246 countries participated in the World Expo 2010. Each country was given space in one or more pavilions, which were used in a variety of ways in order to promote the culture, language or business of the particular country. Pavilions were grouped geographically, thematically or otherwise. Examples of pavilions were the Europe Joint Pavilion, the Joint Pavilion of Central and South American Countries and China's Joint Provincial Pavilion. One of the main attractions of the event was the national pavilion, created in accordance with the event's theme, set by the host country.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY It can be argued that the World Expo marked China’s re-emergence onto the world stage as well as an economic focus on Asia, as traditionally it has been a western economic power that has held this event. Reinforcing this, Shanghai 2010 has been the most expensive expo to date, costing $55 billion, it has had the most participants at 64 million (FT.com), and it has been the biggest Expo ever taking up 5.28 sq kilometres of land.46 If anything, the expo has shown China’s ability to flex its economic might, contributing once again to increases in trade and investment throughout the world.
Ultimately the expo gave Shanghai the experience of hosting a major event and has acted as a stepping-stone toward increasing the city’s potential to develop into a world-class metropolis. It has gained international recognition by exhibiting major developments economically, environmentally and culturally. The Idea that a real change is happening across China has been achieved and this has been reflected in China’s increase in trade and investment throughout the world.
5.13 Beijing Olympic Games 2008 - Country: China (with 246 participating countries) - Website: http://www.beijing2008.cn/ - Dates: 8th to 21st of August 2008
EVENT DESCRIPTION The Beijing Olympic Games were organized by the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of XXIX Olympiad, which was established after Beijing won the hosting right for the 2008 Games in Olympics bidding session in Moscow. It was under the supervision of Liu Qi, the President of BOCOG. More than 30 departments were formed in preparation for the event, from venue and planning to environmental management. Morrison & Foerster and King & Wood were the international and domestic legal counsel of BOCOG.
The Beijing Olympics Games took place in the summer of 2008; the first time China had hosted such games. The Chinese government put a great deal of effort into their promotion, and also invested in improvements in its infrastructure for the sake of the games.
WHO PARTICIPATED? More than 11,000 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees competed in 28 sports. According to Nielsen, it attracted the attention of around 70% of the worlds population as both spectators present at the site, as well as watching on television.
RELEVANCE AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY It is hard to deny how the Beijing Olympic Games helped to change the impressions of the country for the outside world.47 The huge success of the Beijing Olympic Games gave a new image of China to the globe after the grand opening ceremony and two weeks of intensive sporting activities. The project was initiated in the summer of 2001, when Beijing won the bidding over Toronto, Paris, Istanbul and Osaka for the Games of XXIX Olympiad. The BOCOG spent almost 7 years in preparation. This international sports event provided China an opportunity to engage the country with the outside, promoting China in a new light. The Beijing Olympic Games was surrounded with a very rich cultural atmosphere from the logo of the event to the souvenirs they sold in stores.
The Beijing Olympic Games played an important role in nation branding. The central theme of the Beijing Olympic Games was “New Beijing, Great Olympics” followed by three additional core themes: ‘Green Olympics,’ ‘High-Tech Olympics’ and ‘Peopleʼs Olympics.’48 The Chinese government wanted to showcase its culture and development through these concepts. The slogan of Beijing Olympic Games, ‘One World, One Dream,’ which fits the ancient Chinese saying “heaven and earth meet when harmony is realized.”49
6. Analysis and Conclusions
In this research paper, contemporary Chinese cultural diplomacy was presented in two ways. First, the theoretical concept of soft power, public diplomacy and cultural diplomacy were introduced. The meaning of cultural diplomacy for the Chinese was clarified, and the main specifics of Chinaʼs approach to soft power were explained.
The core of the paper was formed by eleven case studies, each presenting an event or a project that has had a strong effect on the agenda of Chinese cultural diplomacy. The events of the Olympic Games of 2008 or World Expo in Shanghai were examined, and a number of more minor projects outlined. Whether it is the Beijing International Book Fair or Hanban- sponsored scholarship schemes, all initiatives of Chinese government aiming at non-Chinese learners have proven to be extremely popular and successful.
The objective of the research was not only to describe Chinaʼs projects in the field of cultural diplomacy, but also to analyze and evaluate their relative success. Therefore, a critical analysis in most of the case studies was included. Moreover, based on these studies, the ways in which China can use its increasing soft power abilities in the future were envisioned. It is hoped that this paper will help many to become more familiar with the programmes of Chinese cultural diplomacy and its relevance to the improvement of international relations.
7. References
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3. Joseph S. Nye, Soft power. The means to success and understand international conflict (New York: 2004)
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6. Multon C.Cummings, Textus Diplomacy
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10. Ibid
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18. Ibid.
19. For discussion on the topic, refer to Joshua Kurlantzick, China’s Charm Offensive, Carnegie Endowment Commentary (October 2006), pp. 36-8; and Bates Gill and Yanzhong Huang, ‚Sources and Limits of Chinese ‘SoftPower’, Survival,, (Vol. 48, No. 2), pp. 19-21. From Hongyi Lai: ‚China’s Cultural Diplomacy: Going for Soft Power
20. Hongyi Lai: China’s Cultural Diplomacy: Going for Soft Power‛
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30. Ibid.
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The Institute for Cultural Diplomacy expresses its profound gratitude to the following members and team for their contribution to this project:
Joanna Blazkowska
Léonie Xin Chao-Fong
Ed Freeman
Katarina Loksova,
Mattia Nelles
Friederike Pischnick
Julia Queen
Sai Yang