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Home , Auxiliary electrode, Bulk electrolysis, Coulometry, Electrogravimetry, Potentiostat, Reference electrode

Chapter 22

Bulk : and

Definition z deals with methods that involve electrolysis producing a quantitative change in oxidation state z Example: In a mixture solution of Zn2+ and Cu2+, convert all Cu2+ to Cu metal and leave Zn2+ in the solution. Æ Hold the working (e.g. Cu) potential at a certain value (positive than that for Zn reduction) Cu2+(aq) + 2e Æ Cu(s)

Features of Bulk Electrolysis Cells z Big working and counter — ~100 times larger than normal electrodes (e.g., in CV) z Large cell currents (mA vs μA-nA) z Stirring Solution (mainly convection) z working and counter electrode placed in two separated cell compartments (avoiding by-products produced at the counter electrode)

1 An example of bulk electrolysis cell produced by Bioanalytical System, Inc.

Classification z Three Types z Electrogravimetric analysis M2+ + ne Æ M(s) Metal is electrolytically deposited onto a inert electrode (e.g., Pt)—the increase in mass of the electrodes gives the concentration or amount of the metal in the solution z Constant potential coulometry z Constant current coulometry

Effect of Current on Cell Potential

IER= / (Ohm's Law) I − current (, A)--flow of positive charge. E − potential () (,V) R − resistance (ohms,Ω) Direct current (dc)--one direction current Alternating current (ac)--current reverses periodically

2 Ohmic Potential; IR Drop

Eapplied (-) = Ecell(-) – IR(+)

(A)Ag|AgCl(s), Cl-2+ (0.200 M),Cd (0.00500 M)|Cd(C)

How to reduce the IR drop?

z Always use inert supporting electrolyte (0.1 ~ 1.0 M concentration); z Reduce the current (using small electrode); z Use three-electrode system; z Compensation

Polarization Effects z Polarization is the departure of the from its theoretical value on the passage of current. z Factors that influence polarization: (a) Electrode size, shape, and composition; (b) Composition of the electrolyte solution; (c) Temperature of the stirring rate; (d) Current level; and (e) Physical state of species involved in the cell reaction.

3 (Overvoltage), η z Overpotential (overvoltage) develops as a result of electrode polarization: (1) concentration polarization - mass transport to/from electrode limited (2) Kinetic polarization - rate of reaction at electrode z Overpotential means must apply greater potential before redox chemistry occurs

η =−EEcurrent reverible/equilibrium

Reversible E Reversible E

η η i i η η

E E

Galvanic Cell Electrolytic Cell

Due to , for a , a cell potential is always smaller than that calculated from the reversible potential; for a electrolytic cell, the applied potential is always larger than that calculated from the reversible potential.

Mass transfer to/from electrode

z Mass transfer is the movement of material (, molecules etc.) from one location to another (e.g, from bulk to electrode surface). (a) Diffusion—results from concentration gradient; (b) Migration—arises from potential gradient; (c) Convection—results from stirring, vibration, or temperature gradient.

4 Electrogravimetric Methods

z Electrogravimetry without potential control. z Electrogravimetry is potential- controlled— potentiostatic method.

Cu2+ Æ Cu(s)

0 Ecathode=E + (0.0592/2)lg[Cu2+]

5 Controlled-Potential Electrogravimetry

3 electrodes

EWE constant I b/w WE & counter

Between WE and counter Electrode

Cu2+ Æ Cu(s) at constant E

6 Constant Potential Coulometry

• Control E of the or relative to some in order to control the reaction that takes place on the .

For reaction: M+n+ ne M(s)

What dose the Potential~Current profile look like?

Potential ~ Current Profile

Depositiondecomposition potential

Current Ilimiting

Potential M+n+ ne M(s)

Current∝ c M n+

t = 0 Let Iinitial = I0, Cinitial = C0 E1/2 •When Ct2 = 0.5 C0: It2 = t = 1 0.5I0

t = 2 •When Ct3 = 0.25 C0: It3 = 0.25 I0 -- removed 75% of t = 3 analyte

•When Ctx = 0.01 C0: Itx = 0.01 I0 -- removed 99% of analyte Ec

7 Current ~ Time Behavior

Electrochemical cell current decays exponentially as a function of time

−kt It = I0e

ƒ k is related to the conditions of the experiment ƒ k increases with increasing electrode area ƒ k increases with increased rate of stirring ƒ k decreases with increasing solution volume ƒ k increases with increasing temperature ƒ The current never decays to zero but the value of the current at the end of the experiment determines the accuracy of the determination

ƒ If It/I0 = 0.01%, then 99.99% of the electroactive species will be converted.

t t = = −kt Q ∫∫Itdt I0e dt 0 0

z The quantity of is obtained by integrating the current-time function z k can be determined by a regression analysis of the It-t behavior z Q may be determined by using a Mechanical or electronic coulometer: a current-time integrator z Q may also be determined by using a chemical coulometer

8 Integrate the It-t curve with softwares—Origin, Kaleidagraph etc

Once Q is determined, Faraday’s law can be used to determine the mass of analyte that underwent electrolysis QnFNnFWMW==/.. n = number of transfer involved coul F = Fraraday's constant (96,487 ) mol e- N = number of analyte moles reacted W = Weight (mass) of analyte (gram) MW. .= Molecular weight of analyte (grams/mol) QMWi .. W = nF

Experimental Setup z Working electrode is where the electrolysis takes place

z Ew is fixed vs the ref. Variable electrode DC Voltage z Made from Pt gauze, Hg, Au, C, Ag Aux. Coulometer Electrode z is part of the other half-cell Working z Often made from same Electrode material as the working Ref. Electrode electrode Potential z Usually separated from the Sensing solution in contact with the and Control working electrode to prevent Device reaction between species produced at Aux. Electrode and species in the bulk of zPotentiostat has feedback solution circuitry which adjust the z Ref. electrode is often either potential of the variable DC SCE or Ag/AgCl connected to voltage source to maintain bulk solution by a Ew - Eref constant

9 Electrolysis Cells for Potentiostatic Coulometry

Constant current coulometry sometimes referred to as coulometric in which the titrant is •The electrons may let an analyte reduced or oxidized •The electrons may also produce a species that reacts with the analyte •The calculation of quantity of electricity involved is straight forward •Q = I x t

Coulometric titration Apparatus

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