Constantinople 1453 Name: ______By Christer Jorgensen From Battles of the Medieval World 100-1500

The fall of the capital of the Byzantine million in the twelfth century had been reduced Empire, , to the Muslim Turks in by the 1450s to a mere 100,000. Constantinople, May 1453 was a disastrous event for the however, continued to trade both with the West Christian world, who viewed it as the beginning and the East, while the Theodosian Walls – built of the end of their faith. That Constantinople in the fifth century in the reign of Emperor was going to fall to the Ottoman Turks was a Theodosius II (401-450) – remained intact an foregone conclusion. The beginning of the end protected the city from enemy attack with their of the had been the 5.7 km (3.5-mi) long moats and triple line of * disastrous defeat of their once-victorious army walls and fortified towers which stretched from at the hands of the Seljuk Turks at the battle of the to the . Manzikert in 1071. During the following Constantinople was given a respite when a centuries the Turks conquered the whole of most unlikely savior appeared in the East in the and were united shape of the savage but under the Ottoman brilliant Mongol warlord dynasty into one single Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane sultanate. The Catholic (1336-1405), who defeated West, instead of aiding the Ottomans at the battle the hard-pressed of Ankara in 1402. This Byzantines, stabbed them gave the city a reprieve for in the back. In 1204 half a century mainly du to ‘Crusaders’, paid by Ottoman civil wars and the Venice, sacked fact that after a failed siege Constantinople, and the in 1422 Sultan Murád II city itself, like the rest of (1404-51) chose to live in the empire, began a long, sad decline. peace with the Byzantines. He argued, sensibly, The Western invaders were eventually that Constantinople posed no threat in the hands expelled but the Ottoman Turks, taking of the feeble Byzantines and that an Ottoman advantages of the ravages of the Black Death, attack upon the city might unite the divided and crossed into the in 1356, seizing decadent Christians against the Muslim menace. Byzantine lands there. By 1396 the whole of Mehmed II was in Ottoman hands, and Unfortunatly Murád II – admired and Constantinople itself – practically all that was respected by Ottomans and Byzantines alike – left of the empire – was surrounded by Turkish- died in February 1451 an in his place as sultan occupied territory and cut off from the West. was taken by a callow, arrogant, drunken and The city was a mere shadow of its former aggressive youth of 19, Mehmed II, who was to self and its disastrous decline was reflected in rule and make war on his neighbours until his the city’s population – an impressive one death from overindulgence at age of 49. Mehmed II had many bad qualities but he was ascended the throne in 1449 – and sent his army determined and was to prove, with time, a good to occupy Byzantine territory along the military leader. His one overriding, indeed Bosporous. consuming, passion was to take Constantinople The Ottomans, partly using Christian slave and make it the capital of an labour, began to construct a fortress at the that would straddle the world. He had the shoreline. In only five months, between 14 pril temerity to call himself the ‘Shadow of God and 31 August 1452, the Turks had constructed upon Earth’ and with the fall of the Byzantine a fort named, in appropriately grisly fashion, capital that seemed justified. After all, walls that Boghaz-Kesen, or the “Throat Cutter”, by had stood for a thousand years had been Mehmed. The fort soon lived up to its name. In breached and stormed by his Ottoman troops. November 1452 a Venetian ship – ignoring the In the summer of 1452 Mehmed II had Turkish blockade of Constantinople – was hit recruited and paid a Hungarian gunmaker, with a single shot and sunk. The crew we re Urban, a huge sum to build him a monstrous slaughtered and the captain Antonio Rizzo, was gun that would be abel to breach the walls of impaled. His body was left to rot as a warning Constantinople. By January 1453 Urban’s gun for other that if they ignored the fort’s guns at was ready for inspection at Adrianople (the their peril. Ottoman capital to the west of Constantinople): None of the Italians states, except of the its barrel measured 8.1 m (26ft 8in) in length, pope, lifted a finger to aid Constantinople and in had a caliber of 20.3cm (8in) and required a the doomed city the population realized that the crew of 700, but could lob a cannonball hapless Venetian captain’s gruesome fate was weighing a tonne (1 ton) over 1.6km (1 mi). only a foretaste of what the barbaric Turks Obviously Mehmed II had the hardware for would do to them. For once all the disparate a successful siege and during the spring he elements of the city’s population – Greeks, called up men from across his vast empire that Balkan Slavs, Italians and others – united in a stretched from the Balkans in the west to desperate resolve to fight to the bitter end. One Anatolia in the east. He had a huge army man had more reason than any other to fear concentrated at Adrianople comprising 80,000 Turkish atrocities. He was in fact an Ottoman regular troops (including 12,000 janissaries), Turk and an distant relative of Mehmed: Prince 20,000 bashi-bazouks (irregulars) and 20,000 Orhan. HE and his men would fiht with more ghazi (religious fanatic) volunteers. desperation and courage than the Byzantines. The Siege Begins Mehmed II spent the following winter The first step in Mehmed’s relentless assault making elaborate and meticulous preparations to upon Constantinople began a year before he attack Constantinople by the following spring. commenced the formal siege of the city. First An unpleasant surprise in March 1453 was the and foremost Constantinople’s access to grain appearance of the Ottoman fleet under from the Black Sea had to be cut. Mehmed, no Suleyman Baltoghlu in the Marmara. Thus respecter of Christians or the niceties of Constantinople’s seaborne lines of diplomacy, broke all his father’s agreements communication were cut. with the Emperor Constantine XI – who had Constantinople 1453 Name: ______By Christer Jorgensen From Battles of the Medieval World 100-1500

Dispositions1 troops had good armor, far superior to that of The first Ottoman detachments2 arrived the lightly armored Turks. beneath the on 1 April Mehmed placed the Rumelian army under and were met by Byzantine skirmishers3. As Karadja Pasha from the Golden Horn to the more Turks arrived Constantine XI, who took an Lycus Valley and from there to the Marmara, active part in the defense, ordered the bridges Ishak Pasha’s Anatolian Army. Mehmed pitched across the outer moat burnt and the gates shut his red and gold silk tent about 400 m (440 yds) and bolted; meanwhile the walls were manned. from the Land Wall with his best troops and It was a valiant effort but he had only 7000 Urban’s monstrous gun around him. Byzantines and 5000 foreigners (mainly The Attack Begins Italians) facing over 100,000 Turks. On 9 April the Ottoman admiral Baltoghlu On 6 April Mehmed moved his main camp Pasha mad an unsuccessful attempt to break closer to the walls. He faced an unenviable through the boom7 erected by the defenders task, despite his enormous numerical across the Golden Horn. That same day, the preponderance4, since the walls were in good Turks began to attack two forts, Therapia and repair. Where should he attack? The Marmara Studius, to the west of the Land Wall. The Sea Wall was strong and was protected by a castles held out until 11 April when both strong current and underwater reefs. The Golden capitulated. The brave defenders, some 76 men, Horn Wall was also strong. So the assault had to were impaled on Mehmed’s express orders in be made against the massive Land Wall. A front of the Land Wall to show what happened logical place would be to attack the to those that resisted his will. A third fort, on the district that protruded northwards from the wall. island of Prinkipo, held out and the garrison But the Byzantines – brilliant fortifiers – had chose to burn itself to death rather than fall into reinforced its defenses. The actual Theodosian the hands of the Turks. Walls consisted of three separate but parallel On 12 April the Turks began bombarding lines of walls fronted by a 18.2 m (60 ft) moat the Theodosian Walls and the artillery fire that could be flooded in an emergency. The would continue without interruption for six Outer Wall – which lay behind this moat and a weeks. The Ottoman guns were heavy and low crenellated breastwork5 – was 7.6 m (25 ft) unwieldy with a tendency to slide off their mud high and had a strong square tower every 46-56 and wood firing platforms. Urban’s giant gun m (50-60 yards). Facing a powerful enemy with only fired seven times a day, so complex and few troops the emperor decided to man the time-consuming was the process of lading and Outer Wall with Byzantines and his Italian firing it, but it had a deafening roar and did allies. Prince Orhan’s Turks held the harbor great damage to the wall and the defender’s while Done Péré Julia’s held the nerves. Hippodrome. The Sea Walls were thinly held as By 18 April the wall across the Lycus the Byzantines, rightly, expected Mehmed to Valley – the weakest section of the Theodosian launch his main attack against the Land Wall. Walls – had been completely destroyed by The defenders’ artillery was unusable due to the General Gustiani Longo (the emperor’s field shortage of saltpeter6 in the besieged city but the commander) had it repaired by Byzantine volunteers. That soma day, two hours after 1 Dispositions - military preparations sunset, Mehmed launched his first attack against 2 detatchments - group of troops the area, known as the Mesoteichion8. The 3 skirmishers - troops fighting small battles 4 Turks had filled in the moat and rushed the wall preponderance - great number 5 crenellated breastwork - low parts in a wall for firing weapons 7 boom - a long beam 6 saltpeter - an important ingredient to gunpowder 8 Mesoteichion - “Middle Wall” in Greek but were thrown back by the heavily armored the Mesoteichion go up in flames after the Byzantines and Italians led by Longo. The Byzantines made a night rad eand blew it up fighting lasted for four hours with the Turks with a powder keg13. By 23 May further tunnels losing 400 men to no loss for the Christians. had been eliminated after the Byzantines Morale9 among the defenders soared. captured the Serb mining engineer in the No Relief sultan’s service. After refined tortur he revealed Two days later cam an even greater success everything he knew and Grant’s anti-mining when Baltoghlu Pasha tried and failed to defeat unit set to work. But that very same day a lone a fleet of Italian ships that were sailing to Venetian vessel sailed into the harbor with the Constantinople with badly devastating news that needed supplies of grain. there would be no The Turkish galleys were Western fleet to save no match for the heavy Constantinople. Morale Italian ships which blasted began to slide. thir way through with On 24 and 25 May and Greek Fire10. morale collapsed. In an The enraged Mehmed – age of deep religious who had seen the defeat fervor and belief in unfold before his eyes – omens and signs, the dismissed the hapless events of these two days admiral. could only have a catastrophic impact. The first Mehmed took charge and managed to move day during a procession, the Holy Icon14 of the part of his fleet overland to the Golden Horn Mother of God wad dropped and the whole without the Byzantines being able to stop it. proceedings were interrupted by a thunderstorm Now Constantinople was threatened form the that flooded the streets. The following day, the north and a bravely led night attack, on 28 city was blanketed in a thick fog that was April, to launch fire ships against the flotilla11 unusual for the time of year. The populace, failed due to spies in Pera. The Venetians and remembering the ancient prophesy that Genoese, sworn enemies, began to fight among Constantinople would fall when the emperor themselves prompting Constantine XI to tell had the same name as the founder, Constantine them: ‘The war outside out gates is enough for the Great, was convinced the fog hid God’s us. For the pity of God, do not start a war departure from the Holy City. between yourselves.’ Thus admonished, the What the defenders did not know was that squabbling Italians buried the hatchet – but only morale among the besiegers was also low. After temporarily. a seven-month-long siege with an army that On 7 May the Turks made a night attack now numbered 150,000 only set backs and against the Mesoteichion section of the humiliations had been experienced. The sultan’s Theodosian Walls that ended with the sultan’s ministers – all Murád II’s men – and especially standard bearer12, Amir Bey, being killed by the the Grand Vizier15, Halil Pasha, were Byzantine knight Rhangabe. Five days later unimpressed with the boasts and arrogance of antoher night assault ended in defeat. Turkish the 21-year-old ruler. Mehmed wanted a grand attempts to build underground tunnels for assault during the night of 28/29 May and mining were discovered . THe Scottish agreed to withdraw if that failed. mercenary knight, John Grant, in Byzantine service, led the defenders in counter-mining and flooding the Turkish tunnels. On 18 May the Turks saw their massive siege tower opposite

9 morale - confidence, enthusiasm 10 - oil shot out then set ablaze 13 powder keg - a barrel filled with explosive objects, a 11 flotilla - a fleet of ships bomb 12 standard bearer – soldier that held the flag/banner of the 14 (ikon) - a devotional painting of a holy person army 15 Grand Vizier - the highest advisor to the sultan Constantinople 1453 Name: ______By Christer Jorgensen From Battles of the Medieval World 100-1500 At that moment as the Janissaries The Grand Assault accompanied by Ottoman musical corps, Medieval armies besieging a stubborn attacked, two disasters befell the defenders. enemy would offer terms. If these were rejected Firstly the Turks discovered that someone had then the city would, if stormed, be shown no left the small gate (kerkaporta) open between mercy. This was the fate that would now befall the Blachernae and the Theodosian Walls. The Constantinople. By 28 May all the preparations attackers wasted no time in rushing the open had been completed on both sides. Across the gate. The Byzantines hurried to defend it but doomed city the Christian populace, knowing were simply swamped by sheer numbers. At the that the last battle was upon them, assured each same time Giustiani Longo was wounded and other hta tthey would fight. In the evening, despite Emperor Constantine XI pleading with everyone, including the emperor, attended mas him to stay he was taken aboard a Genoese ship where both Orthodox and Catholic16 prayed to which sailed to Chios where he died two days God for deliverance. Catalians, Castilians, later. The Genoese fled in panic down to the Venetians and Genoese as well as the Byzantine harbor or to Pera. The Venetians blamed Greeks stood shoulder to shoulder and took betrayal while the Byzantines fought on in sheer Holy Communion together from their respective desperation.; the emperor died fighting. The clergy. Turks opened the gates, more of their troops At 1:30 am Mehmed signaled fo rht ehuge poured in and they penetrated the city. Orhan’s horde of poorly disciplined nad lightly armed Turks fought to the death, knowing they would bashi-bazouks17 to attack in the Lycus Valley. die slowly at the hands of the bloodthirsty During the two hours of fighting Christian Mehmed, and the Catalans fought to the last defenders stood their ground, leaving hundres of man defending the Hippodrome and Old Palace. enemy dead. But Mehmed was only wearing The Turks ran amok in the city, looting, killing down the defenders in preparation for further and raping, until even Mehmed had had enough assaults. The Anatolian army attacked – in wave and by evening imposed some order. Some upon wave – btu each successive surge of men 50,000 Byzantines were enslaved while 4000 was halted, cut to pieces and sent reeling back in were killed in the battle. THe greates siege of all retreat. Similar attacks against het Sea Walls time was over. failed equally miserably and even Mehmed Aftermath began to lose faith in a Turkish victory. There The was a highpoint were now only the Janissaries – some 12,000 of in the relentless and ruthless expansion of the them – left for the final, desperate attack. Ottoman Empire. Mehmed II became know by his honorific title, , or ‘Conqueror’. During the next three centuries, until and equally

16 Orthodox and Catholic – two groups of Christians at famous siege and battle beneath the walls of that time Vienna in 1683, the Turks remained the scourge 17 bashi-bazouks – poorly trained members of the Ottoman army of Christian Europe.