Funny Business: Women Comedians and the Political
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FUNNY BUSINESS: WOMEN COMEDIANS AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF HOLLYWOOD SEXISM by DIANA MARTINEZ A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of English and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2017 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Diana Martinez Title: Funny Business: Women Comedians and the Political Economy of Hollywood Sexism This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of English by: Sangita Gopal Chairperson Quinn Miller Core Member Priscilla Ovalle Core Member Kenneth Calhoon Institutional Representative and Scott L. Pratt Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded March 2017 ii © 2017 Diana Martinez iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Diana Martinez Doctor of Philosophy Department of English March 2017 Title: Funny Business: Women Comedians and the Political Economy of Hollywood Sexism In the last five years there has been great public interest in Hollywood’s “gender problem,” namely its unequal representation of women in key creative roles such as director, producer, and studio head. Yet, in the long history of women in film and television, comedians have had the greatest success and degree of agency over their work. From silent film comediennes like Mabel Normand to Lucille Ball, Carol Burnett, and more recently Tina Fey and Amy Schumer, women comedians have resoundingly had success behind-the-screen as well as in front of it. In order to comprehend the disjuncture between the data and the women comedians’ success, we must account for the women at the center of contemporary popular culture who seem to have successfully navigated highly gendered structures of media. This dissertation offers an extension of the existing scholarship on the industrial practices of women mediamakers and a historical production study of gender. This dissertation opens up ways of exploring the range and complexity of gendered practices in Hollywood. It shows iv how these actions operate within discursive frames and institutional frameworks that generally serve to perpetuate the exclusion of women. I suggest that cultural industries like film and television, when examined simultaneously as creative spaces and business enterprises using a political economy approach blended with cultural studies, offer revelatory sites for the study of gendered labor practices in Hollywood. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Diana Martinez GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene California State University, San Bernardino DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, English, 2017, University of Oregon Master of Arts, English, 2014, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts, English, 2009, California State University, San Bernardino AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Film and Television Studies Media Industry Studies PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Education Director, Film Streams, 2016-current Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2010-2016 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 Chapter Summaries ................................................................... 16 II. AGENTS AND COMEDIAN NETWORKS ........................................ 24 The Origins of Talent Agencies ..................................................... 27 The Roles of Agents vs. Managers ................................................ 32 The Wheel of Comedy .................................................................. 41 The Wheel of Comedy Redux ....................................................... 47 Stars as Freelancers ................................................................... 52 Conclusion ................................................................................. 55 III. VARIATIONS OF THE GENDERED WRITERS’ ROOM ................. 58 The Myth of the Writers’ Room ................................................... 60 The Gendered Culture of Improv Comedy .................................... 65 The Contemporary Writers’ Room ............................................... 71 The Showrunner ........................................................................ 81 Conclusion .................................................................................. 94 IV. THE FEMALE COMEDIAN AS FRANCHISE ................................. 97 Franchise Logic and World-Building ........................................... 117 The Self-Help Memoir as Ancillary Product .................................. 138 Conclusion ................................................................................. 155 V. CODA .......................................................................................... 158 REFERENCES CITED ...................................................................... 164 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In April 2015 a Tumblr site called “Shit People Say to Women Directors & Other Women in Film” began collecting anonymous anecdotes illustrating rampant sexism in Hollywood. One submission read: I was at one of my first networking lunches, with lots of important filmmakers in attendance. During a break I happened to strike up a conversation with the first woman who was able to join the cinematographer’s guild. She said that she’d had all the qualifications for years, and had applied long before she got in, but that the man in charge of membership refused to let her join, telling her, ‘Over my dead body!’ ‘Oh my god,’ I asked her, ‘how did you ever get in?’ [She replied,] ‘He died.’ This darkly comedic story provides hope that women eventually will have more access to influential segments of the Hollywood industry. However, the story also suggests it could take (literally) lifetimes for that to happen. This account is one of many that illustrates the gender-exclusivity existing at several levels of the Hollywood industry, in both below-the-line and above-the-line work. The predominance of male gatekeepers in Hollywood has become a widely known barrier for women’s success in mainstream film and television. In the last decade, popular press prominently featured female writers and directors of film and major cable and network television shows. Headlines like “TV’s New 1 Girls’ Club,” (Loofbourow) and “Female Film Directors Gain Ground, Slowly” (Rickey) suggest women-made media is enjoying widespread popularity. Yet, the surge in visibility of women writer-directors in popular culture obscures a dismal reality. A study by Women and Hollywood, a leading website advocating for gender parity in the entertainment industry, shows that 22 of the directors of the top 250 films in 2016 were women (Silverstein). The drop is even sharper in the writing department. The annual “Celluloid Ceiling” report that measures gender parity onscreen and behind the scenes found that: “In 2015-16, women comprised 26% of creators, directors, writers, producers, executive producers, editors, and directors of photography working on broadcast network, cable, and streaming programs. This represents an increase of 1 percentage point from 25% in 2014-15, and no change from 26% in 2012-13” (Lauzen “Celluloid Ceiling” 3). The historical exclusion of women from the Hollywood industry is nothing new, and these reports corroborate the work by influential feminist media scholars about structural sexism in the industry. However, the numbers contradict the overrepresentation of women mediamakers in popular culture discourse. In order to comprehend the disjuncture between the data and the media’s overrepresentation, we must account for the women at the center of contemporary popular culture who seem to have successfully navigated highly gendered structures of media. 2 This dissertation offers an extension of the existing scholarship on the industrial practices of women mediamakers. This chapter focuses on the connections “between the micro contexts and the macro forces” (Mayer 15) and offers a historical production study of gender. This dissertation opens up ways of exploring the range and complexity of gendered practices in Hollywood. It shows how these actions operate within discursive frames and institutional frameworks that generally serve to perpetuate the exclusion of women. I frame this dissertation in the context of the rise of the creative and cultural industries. In a brief article for Open Democracy, Angela McRobbie notes, “One of the central features of the modern urban economy is the explosive growth in the numbers of people making a living through culture and the arts.” Essentially, as her article’s title suggests, “everyone is creative.” In recent years, Hollywood (as a metonym for both filmmaking and television production) has had to adapt to an onslaught of new competing technologies and business models that only highlight its tenuous position as king of media. In order to adapt, Hollywood has only tightened its models of production, distribution, and marketing, leaving very little room for entry from those not already within the Hollywood inner circle. Like Silicon Valley, academia, or a number of other creative cultural industries, Hollywood’s structures, processes, and rituals are only accessible to a few of many willing to play by its rules. Although “everyone is creative,” few can actually sustain a career and 3 effectively monetize their creativity. Women are most often left out of positions of