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University Micrtxilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

8400298

Slavik, Christy Richards

THE NOVELS OF KATHERINE PATERSON: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1983

University Microfilms International300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

Copyright 1984 by Slavik, Christy Richards All Rights Reserved

THE NOVELS OF KATHERINE PATERSON:

i IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of

The Ohio State University

By

Christy Richards Slavik, B.S., M.A.

*****

The Ohio State University

1983

Reading Committee:

Dr. Charlotte S. Huck Dr. Virginia Allen ______Dr. Frank Zidonis Adviser Early and Middle Childhood Education This dedication page is a thank you to the

people who have made a difference

To Dad because some things never change

To Scott and Cath for promises kept

To Nathan for teaching me the important

things

To Ralph for giving me so much to say and

a reason for saying it ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My work on this study has proven both rewarding and frustrating.

Writing a dissertation is a solitary and demanding task but the support and guidance of faculty members and colleagues has sustained me. I particularly value Dr. Charlotte Huck's insights and her propensity for asking the right question at the right time. Dr. Frank

Zidonis has always been a willing listen er and his support has helped me realize my vision quest. Dr. Virginia Allen's optimistic outlook is contagious and I appreciate her belief in me. Barb Fincher's expertise and her patience with an anxious graduate student helped to make deadlines seem less threatening. I am grateful to all of you. In Appreciation to

Katherine Paterson:

The Secret of Artistry

Luxuriance and terseness of sty le, And the different aspects of form, Vary according to laws of propriety, Whose intricacies hinge upon a feeling so subtle: Once grasped, uncouth language may divulge clever parables, A truism by light verbal touches is turned into epigram, The older the model, the fresher the imitatior, The duller the beginning, the more brilliant the final illumination, Whether this superb artistry becomes apparent at first sight Or is comprehended only after arduous to ils of wit, It is like the dancer's, whose each whirl of the sleeve is borne by rhythm, Or the singer's, whose each note responds to the whang of the string. Guided by a force which even the Master Wheelwright Pien could not express in words; Therefore its secret lies beyond smoothest speech.

Lu Chi Essay on Literature VITA

February 20, 1953 ...... Born, Huntington, West Virginia

1975 ...... B.S., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1975-1976 ...... English Instructor, Upper Sandusky High School, Upper Sandusky, Ohio

1976-1980 ...... English Instructor, Reading Specialist Tri-Rivers Joint Vocational School, Marion, Ohio

1978 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

1980-1983 ...... Graduate Teaching Assistant, Department of Early and Middle Childhood Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Children's Literature

Studies in Children's Literature. Dr. Charlotte S. Huck

Studies in Literature for Adolescents. Dr. Frank Zidonis

Studies in Language Arts. Dr. Virginia Allen

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ill '

VITA ...... v

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

One Literature or Two? ...... T What Is A Child's Book? ...... 3 One Author - Katherine Paterson ...... 9 Review of the Literature ...... 12 A Statement of the Problem ...... 14 The Teacher's Role ...... 17 Novels in the Classroom ...... 19 Intent of the Study ...... 21

II. PLOT ...... 27

What Is Plot? ...... 27 Katherine Paterson's Novels - Plot Summaries ...... 28 The Roots of the Plots in Katherine Paterson's Novels ...... 30 Narrative Hooks ...... 35 The Role of Conflict ...... 42 Plotting the Historical Novel ...... 52 Foreshadowing ...... 52 Resolutions ...... 59 Plot Patterns ...... 62

III. THE AUTHOR'S CRAFT - CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT ...... 70

Outsiders ...... 76 Choice and Change ...... 87 Naming ...... 93 Summary ...... 96

IV. THE AUTHOR’S CRAFT - SETTING ...... 101

Integral Settings - Historical Fiction ...... 103 Integral Settings - Realistic Fiction ...... 108

vi CHAPTER Page

V. THE AUTHOR'S CRAFT - THEME ...... 116

Theme in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum ...... 118 Theme in Of Nightingales That Weep ...... 119 Theme in The Master Puppeteer ...... 120 Theme in Bridge to Terabithia ...... 122 Theme in The Great Gilly Hopkins ...... 123 Theme in Jacob Have I Loved ...... 125 One Theme - Overcoming Family Background ...... 128 Summary ...... 130

VI. THE AUTHOR'S CRAFT - STYLE ...... 133

Paterson's Signature - Her Comments on Style ...... 134 Using Figurative Language - Metaphor and Simile .. 136 The Setting as a Source of Figurative Language ... 139 Allusions ...... 143 Jacob Have I Loved as a Bible Tale ...... 147 Literary Symbol ...... 150 Nature as a Symbol ...... 155 The Art of Conversation ...... 160 Summary ...... 163

VII. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM ...... 170

Purpose ...... 170 A Developmental Portrait of the Middle School Child ...... 171 Child's Development as a Critic ...... 176 The Educator's Role in Nurturing Critics - A Philosophical Framework ...... 180 A Rationale for Including Paterson's Books in a Middle School Literature Program ...... 182 Suggestions for Planning Literary Encounters ...... 185 Discussion as Exploration ...... 188 Experiences Which Extend Readers' Book Experiences ...... 191 Summary ...... 196

VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 202

Conclusions ...... 212

APPENDIX A ...... 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 218 vi i CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

One Literature or Two?

Critical efforts to apply differing standards in evaluating adult literature and children's literature prove futile. These efforts are often precipitated by a view of children's literature as somehow easier to write or frivolous. The emphasis is on highlighting disparity and not emphasizing sim ilarity. Even though the c ritic is often unable to demarcate differences, he is confident that children's literature is different and less literary than literature for adults. This stance toward literature is characterized by fragmentation aimed at separating children's literature from adult literature.

Yet, adopting a holistic perspective towards children's literature as a part of all literature permits a unifying view. All literature is connotative and symbolic of human experience that has been shaped by the author. It is a way of knowing that encourages the reader to connect to his world. Writers of all literature focus on subjects that reflect the human experience. Topics such as death, isolation, and despair are treated sensitively by authors of children's books as is exemplified in the works of Madeleine L'Engle, Sue Ellen Bridgers, and Katherine Paterson.

To further prove the concept of one literature, books initially classified as an adult book or a children's book are often adopted by both audiences as the wide appeal of Adams' Watership Down exemplifies. Yes, we do recognize two distinct bodies of works as children's litera­ ture and adult literature. But these bodies share more similarities than differences because all literature is generated from universal patterns and archetypes, as Northrup Frye has arguedJ The critic,

Ethel Heins acknowledges the fu tility of delineation when she suggests that "... attempts to define the very notion of a children's book in the first place have been interesting though ultimately somewhat fu tile.

If children's literature is rooted in the realm of all literature, then the same standards for literary criticism should apply. The edi­ tors of The Green and Burning Tree, a collection of essays focused on children's literature recognize that "... children's literature is a part of the whole body of literature and the thoughts that illuminate the whole necessarily illumine it also."^ This recognition of the unity of literature and the necessity of applying the same critical standards is reiterated by John Rowe Townsend, English author and critic: "I believe that children's books must be judged as a part of literature in general, and therefore by the same standards as adult books. A good children's book must not only be pleasing to children, it must be a good book in its own right.Likewise, the editors cf

Only Connect support Townsend's view and contend that children's lite r a ­ ture is "... an essential part of the whole realm of literary activity to be discussed in the same terms and judged by the same standards that would apply to any branch of writing.Thus, children's literature, as all lite ra tu re , should be evaluated by uniform c rite ria . 3

What is a Child's Book? Even though we recognize that all books belong to one family of literature and are evaluated by the same cri­ teria, it is obvious that books for children do share certain charac­ teristics which distinguish them from literature aimed at adult audiences. It is essential to consider the qualities which mark a child's book. What is the difference? Audience? Content? The author's intent? Natalie Babbitt, whose novels are marketed for both adults and children speculates on the futility of establishing diff­ erences when she argues that "... perhaps it is possible to settle for knowing the difference between the two literatures without being able to articulate it."6 Yet, some differences can be articulated - diff­ erences which highlight the uniqueness of the audience and the author's intent and practice of his craft. These differences do not separate books for children from the world of lite ra tu re , but highlight th eir distinctive qualities.

Children and adults share one world, not separate worlds. But, each perceives, relates to, and makes sense of this world in different ways. Books for children acknowledge a child's unique perspective on the world and extend his or her knowledge and understanding of it.

Huck, in writing of literature for children suggests that,

The uniqueness of children's literature, then, lies in the audience that it addresses. Authors of children's books are circumscribed only by the experiences of childhood, but these are vast and complex. For, children think and feel, they wonder and dream. Their lives may be filled with love or terror. Much is known, but little is explained. The child is curious about life and adult activities. He lives in the midst of tensions, of balances of love and hate within the family and neighborhood. The author who can fill these experiences with imagination and insight and communicate them to children is writing children's literature.7

The successful author of literature for children recognizes that a

child's world is differently organized and as Moffett suggests "...

offers the child a kind of world which the child enters and surveys

from the inside.Literature for children has the power to help

children recognize emotions and experiences which they live but are

unable to articulate. In addition, authors of literature for chil­ dren acknowledge the emotional and psychological constraints of child­

hood. Few children have experienced nostalgia, cynicism or despair and i t is not appropriate to include them in children's books. The author of books for children writes of serious topics in such a way that there is an emotional frame of reference for the young reader.

Katherine Paterson, as critic Sheila Egoff notes, "... writes of chil­ dren who have trials and tribulations, but who pull through to a cele­ bration of life."9 It is this element of hope and celebration of life which should be a trademark of books for children. Authors like

Madeleine L'Engle, Beverly Cleary, Betsy Byars, and Katherine Paterson speak to children because they possess the imaginations of storytellers and can recall the essence of childhood in a way that rings "true" to their audiences. Many authors claim to be writing from the outlook of the child within themselves. For instance, Katherine Paterson suggests that she is writing for the lonely frightened child within herJ^ Yet, 5 authors like Paterson who can recall and draw upon the details and feelings of their childhoods are still influenced by their experiences as adults and their books for children reflect this integration of feelings and experiences. These authors' works do not reflect a uni­ versal view of childhood, but their selective perception of it.

The content of books for children is influenced by the charac­ teristics of an audience which lacks emotional and experiential depth.

This audience has fewer in-depth reading experiences and the stylistic choices of the author usually reflect this. Authors of books for children employ the same techniques as authors of literature for adults, but are skilled in using them to make the work accessible to children. For instance, an author can reveal character is a book through the use of a complex technique such as interior monologue.

Katherine Paterson's portrait of the protagonist, Gilly, in The Great

Gilly Hopkins, is enhanced by the revelations of Gilly's private thoughts and deepens our understanding of the character. In addition, shifting point of view can often complicate the young reader's grasp of a work. Yet, the plots of Alice Childress' novels A Hero Ain't

Nothin' But A Sandwich and Rainbow Jordan necessitate that the con­ flic ts be presented from numerous viewpoints to meet the demands of the novels. Flashbacks also have the potential to confuse the reader.

However, the middle section of Jean Craighead George's Julie of the

Wolves is retrospective and is central to explaining how Julie came to be trapped on the arctic. Novels such as Virginia Hamilton's Justice and Her Brothers features characters operating in two worlds, the real and the fantastic. Her characters enter dream states and grope to make sense of the new world they confront. Hamilton's use of the stream of consciousness technique reflects the characters' confusion anu rein­ forces the uncertainty of their situation. Just as the use of the stream of consciousness technique has the potential to introduce ambiguity to the novel, so does the employment of literary allusions.

These references can perplex readers and disconnect them from the world of the book if the author does not make an integral link to the world of the story. Paterson's use of allusions in The Great Gilly

Hopkins and Bridge to Terabithia is rooted in references children are familiar with and works in the books to extend plot and characteriza­ tion. In The Great Gilly Hopkins, Paterson employs literary allusions to fairy tale characters to signify what Gilly struggles to attain.

Authors of literatu re for children are as skilled at presenting challenging concepts and vocabulary to young readers as they are in using sophisticated literary techniques. It is difficult to imagine that L'Engle's novel, A Wrinkle in Time was repeatedly rejected and labeled as too d iffic u lt for children. Yet, she recognized that c h il­ dren are capable of comprehending abstract concepts such as "tesseract" i f they are presented imaginatively. This she did as she explored time relationships in A Wrinkle in Time. Like L'Engle, Katherine

Paterson recognizes the child's affinity for words as she strives to stretch her audience's vocabulary. She has noted that "... I do know that I spend an inordinate amount of time with my nose in dictionaries trying to develop a vocabulary worthy of my readers."^ Paterson's respect for her audience is characteristic of a distinguished author of literature for children who writes books which touch upon and extend a child reader's emotional and experiential life. Her works reflect hope, give children power to express what they can't articu­ late, acknowledge that children are trying to make sense of their worlds, and present their stories in ways that challenge and stretch readers. These books testify to the power and value of literature for children. Margaret Meek noted the import of the child's literary culture when she sta te s, "Literature for children may be seen as the significant model, the cultural paradigm of subsequent literatu re in the experience of the reader."^ Children's literature, then, is the framework for later readings and deserves to be seriously studied.

Just as literature for children is a part of all literature and is appraised by the same critical standards, the role of the creator is similar. All creators of novels shape human imagination and experi­ ence and conspire with readers to engage in a literary alliance.

Lucy Boston has said, "All art is an invitation to share the creator's world: a door thrown open or a mesh to e n s n a r e ."^3 it is essential for responsible critics of literature for children to con­ sider the invitation. We must speculate on the why and how of an author's craft and evaluate the interaction of the literary elements of plot, setting, theme, characterization and style to extract the essence of the author's distinctive signature. Indeed, Donnelson and

Nielsen^ call for more serious and competent criticism and analysis of children's literatu re as well as Dorothy Matthews^ who stresses the need to look intensely at the work of distinguished authors of literature for children and young adults.

A focus on an author's work opens new doors to readers and critics - patterns are distinguished, connections are made, and the author's invitation to share his or her world becomes personalized.

When critics and readers concentrate on the body of an author's pro­ duction, they recognize that authors have certain specialities and recognizable styles of writing. For, an author's style is a unique aesthetic presentation that must be realized by the reader. Authors' comments on th e ir own works offer added dimensions and new insights to their purposes and craft. Yet, this information should never over­ shadow concentration on the works for illumination. Author Jill Patton

Walsh supports this stance: "It is not what the author intended and not what he was aware analytically of having created, but the work as he consented to leave it is the thing that concerns the reader."^ So, many of the answers to the readers' and c ritic s ' queries reside in the books and authors whose works are appropriate for study must be identified.

We need to look at an exemplary author of lite ra tu re for children and young adults who is a master storyteller and word weaver - Katherine

Paterson. Her novels offer the invitation that Lucy Boston speaks of. These books live! Northrup Frye has delineated the distinction between real books and those that are not when he commented that,

"To bring anything to life in literature, we can't be lifelike, we have to be literaturelike."^ Paterson is an author of literature for children and young adults whose books have been recognized as literaturelike and are most appropriate for the type of study proposed.

One Author - Katherine Paterson

Katherine Paterson has written a substantial body of acclaimed literatu re for children and young adults. She was awarded National

Book Awards for The Master Puppeteer (1977) and The Great Gilly Hopkins

(1979). Bridge to Terabithia (1978) and Jacob Have I Loved (1981) were recognized by the American Library Association as Newbery winners, which also recognized The Great Gilly Hopkins as an honor book.

Paterson's novel of suspense, The Master Puppeteer, was honored by

The Edgar Allen Poe Award. She is the recipient of the 1983 Kerlan

Award given in recognition of her contribution to children's literature.

Paterson was also identified as one of the outstanding authors of the seventies and her novel , Bridge to Terabithia was prophecied to be a young adult c l a s s i c .^ Paterson has been given other honors such as

The Christopher Award, The Lewis Carroll Shelf Award and has been nominated for The Hans Christian Andersen Award and The William Allen

White Award. She also shares her thoughts about the craft of writing and her books in her book of essays, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children. Paterson is committed to her craft 10

and sensitive to her connection to the child and young adult reader,

"I am trying to write for my readers the best story, the truest story,

of which I am capable. We know that those of us who write for children

are called, not to do something to a child, but be someone for a

child."19 Authors who are articulate and willing to reflect on their

skills as Paterson does, offer readers new insights to the novels.

Yet, Rosenblatt reminds us that "... not even an author's statement

of his aims can be considered definitive, the text exists as a

separate entity that may or may not fulfill his intentions and can

possess for us more values than he foresaw."20 It is the novels which

must speak for themselves.

Readers and critics recognize Paterson's talent for writing of

life recognizable in human terms today. She shapes her stories with a

perception of and compassion for the human condition that mirrors our

experiences; readers transcend the world of the stories to confront th e ir own. Novels such as The Great Gilly Hopkins, Jacob Have I Loved,

and Bridge to Terabithia embody the pain, confusion, and search for love and identity which are universal experiences. Like Tiro and

Takiko, the protagonists of The Master Puppeteer and Of Nightingales

That Weep, we grow by accepting the consequences of our choices.

Paterson also manipulates language to build the worlds of the novels. Author, Mollie Hunter, recognizes the import of language to a novel: "A powerful grip on the possibilities of language is essential in writing for children."21 Paterson exploits language to meet the 11 unique demands of her works. The lyricism of Bridge to Terabithia is compatible with the theme and mood as is the irreverent tone of

The Great Gilly Hopkins. It is her expertise in using taut, econom­ ical language that builds suspense in The Master Puppeteer and accelerates the plot. This is contrasted to the languid pace of

Jacob Have I Loved which reflects the fermentation of Louise's guilt and hate. The credibility of several novels rests on Paterson's ability to create realistic settings. The oriental settings of The

Master Puppeteer, Of Nightingales That Weep and The Sign of The

Chrysanthemum are established through Paterson's skilled use of accurate detail mixed with lavish description that firmly root the stories in feudal Japan. It is the information about the Watermens' lives coupled with authentic representation of th eir speech which transports readers to the rough hewn world of Rass Island in Jacob

Have I Loved. Paterson is indeed a language artisan who makes words sing.

For all her versatility in choosing plots, settings, and themes, there are discernible and predictable patterns to her writing. The import of making choices and then developing the maturity to accept them is central to each of the novels. Each of her protagonists is depicted as an "outsider" who gradually moves to acceptance by others and of self. In addition, the novels set characters in emotional landscapes which dictate their responses to people and events. These distinguishable patterns are only revealed through thoughtful and 12

intense reading of the body of works and are a factor in their worthi­

ness for study.

This discussion has proven the literary superiority of Paterson's works. She has received numerous awards. The novels speak to today's child and young adult readers. Her skill with language is exemplary.

Re-current patterns tie the books and enhance the reading experience.

In addition, the books are interesting and challenging. It is author

Jill Patton Walsh who stresses the import of demanding w riting, "an onion can be peeled down through its layers, but it is always, at every layer an onion, whole in itself. I try to write o n i o n s ."22 So does Katherine Paterson.

Review of the Literature

As literature for children has been recognized as a significant model for subsequent literary experiences and the need to examine the works and the author’s craft is affirmed, scholars are devoting inten­ sive study to the field. For instance, Frances Kellie Corlew Jones has focused on the content and style of Madeleine L'Engle's A Wrinkle

in Time.23 she notes the author's use of allegory as genre, use of elements of the fairy tale, the employment of well known quotations and maxims, the extensive use of allusions to Alice in Wonderland, and the import of role modeling in the novel. Jones focuses also on the central philosophical and social themes of idealism and goodness and the import of individualization and individual rights. Jones' research is an example of a critical study which concentrates on the work, not the author. Elizabeth Ann Rumer Hostetler examined the relationship of an author to her work in her study of Jean Fritz.24 This study is primarily devoted to an in-depth biographical re-telling of the events of Fritz's childhood and adult life which influenced her decision to write and the weaving of her background to the stories.

The study is more a profile of the creator rather than an in-depth examination of the novels. She touches briefly on the historical novels children appreciate and the impact of the author's life on the books.

Two scholars have studied the author, Lloyd Alexander and his novels. Jim Jacobsresearch is a biographical profile of the writer which is author centered. His study is a detailed portrait of the author and reveals much about Alexander's attitude toward his work and his outlook on the world. In contrast, John McGovern's26 work focuses on Alexander's Pyrdain Cycle to determine if they meet the criteria for heroic fantasy, embody characters and events of the Welsh

Mabinogian and adhere to characteristics found in high fantasy.

McGovern concentrates on the author's works and suggests that further study of the relationship between the author and his writing is needed. No study of an author who writes for children and young adults which connects a literary analysis of the works, the author's comments on the novels and his/her writing process and the educational implica­ tions for the books seems to have been undertaken. 14

A Statement of the Problem

Paterson's novels invite readers to share the worlds she creates

and as she so aptly says: "No matter how good the writing may be, a

book is never complete until it is read. The writer does not pass

through the gates of excellence alone, but in the company of r e a d e r s. "27

It is the partnership of author, novel, and reader which completes the

literary connection. Yet, the majority of Paterson's readers are

children and young adults who often need the guidance of a supportive

adult to discover and think thoughtfully about the books. This adult

is most likely to be the middle or junior high school teacher who

appreciates literature and can help readers enjoy books and link their world to that of the author and the novel. This teacher must know

children and literature: "Those who work with children and literature

straddle two worlds. It is a mistake to think that one can work

successfully with children's literature without keeping abreast of

developments in adult lite ra ry c r i t i c i s m . "28 The teacher must not

only know literature which children will enjoy, but also be aware of

strategies which guide them to look at books in literary ways and to

develop critical abilities.

Many children never develop this outlook because in the move from the elementary school to the middle or junior high school, the student

is suddenly confronted with adult literature for which he or she may

not be prepared. Adult literatu re does not reflect the middle school child's view of the world and students are often asked to think about

books in ways they are unfamiliar with. Robert Small cites this 15 phenomena as a cause for the failure of many literary programs.29

These students experience gaps in their literary histories because no literature has filled the void between the childlike and more sophisti­ cated adult reading.

Many students are unable to critically evaluate literature they encounter. The findings of The National Literacy Assessment confirm that "Students lack abilities to discuss literary works and perceive unique q u a litie s."30 Two organized efforts to plan lite ra ry programs to fill this gap. The Nebraska Curriculum and The Junior Great Books

Program have not been widely adopted and focus primarily on analysis of lite ra tu re . The Nebraska Curriculum was guided by the philosophy of Canadian literary critic, Northrup Frye who advocates that the thrust of criticism is informed commentary.31 The goal of the curric­ ulum was to transform children into literary critics and was organized upon Bruner's contention that anything can be taught to any child.

The national curriculum planned for grades 1-6 was structured to include a specified, sequential core of literature which each student studied. A central assumption of the program was the designation of a body of literature which everyone should know. The goal of the curric­ ulum was to produce ideal readers who could recognize patterns in the lite ra tu re . Perhaps the program was abandoned because individual response to literature was not valued. It is impossible to identify a body of literature which is the best for everyone. Reliance on lite ra ry analysis as a means to appreciate literatu re is a narrow approach to a literatu re program. 16

Like The Nebraska Curriculum, The Junior Great Books Program

includes a recognized list of literatu re that everyone should read.

The sessions are highly structured, focus on literary analysis, and

assume a correct answer to the questions posed. There is no opportun­

ity to deviate from the pre-planned session and enjoyment of the work

and recognition of individual response to the literature is not

emphasized.

Louise Rosenblatt, who values the transaction between the reader

and the text would suggest that these traditional approaches to litera­

ture have failed because our schools' programs focus on efferent, not

aesthetic reading. She proposes that we nurture the aesthetic reader who responds first, participates in the story, identifies with the

characters, and shares their conflicts and feelings. She feels that a

focus on literatu re which revolves around identification and explica­

tion of literary elements fosters shallow response, "The notion that

first the child must 'understand' the text cognitively, efferently,

before it can be responded to aesthetically is a rationalization that must be rejected."^ She contends that it is the choice of literature which dictates adoption of the efferent or aesthetic stance. The novels of Katherine Paterson dictate the adoption of the aesthetic

stance. According to Rosenblatt, the teacher's goal is to f ir s t deepen the reader's response and then to guide them to explore facts of the text which evoke the response.

Rosenblatt's concept of the aesthetic reader parallels Applebee's view of the reader who adopts a spectator role.33 The spectator 17

responds to the story, but also attends to the how and why. This

reader focuses on plot and reaction first, then attends to characteri­

zation, style, etc., after extended readings and directed focus. This

means achieving distance from the story and developing an evaluative

outlook. The reader as spectator searches for internal consistency in

literatu re and judges parts against the whole. This intertwining of

personal response and evaluative outlook is centered on the genuine­

ness of the work, rather than the greatness of the author. Teachers who nurture aesthetic readers who can respond to and evaluate litera­

ture fa c ilita te development of readers who not only can read, but will

read.

The Teacher's Role

It is the role of the teacher to know superior literature which

helps students to bridge the gap between the childlike and the adult and to provide opportunities for enjoying books and developing critical outlooks. Literary critic Northrup Frye declares that, "the great bulk of criticism is teaching."^ He suggests that it is the teacher's

function to help students learn standards which enable them to talk about books they enjoy and to discover the "literaturelike" in their reading. The capable teacher who helps children learn standards, facilitates personal response and knows literature and its structure is obligated to move children toward more mature literary experiences.

It is the teacher's role to plan interesting literary experiences and to encourage discovery of patterns and elements in conjunction with 18 personal response. Huck recognizes the adult's dual responsibilities when she states that "... teachers and librarians must know something of the forms and structures of literature ... for only when teachers and librarians are knowledgeable about both books and children can they ever hope to bring the two together for a meaningful experience of

1iterature.35

In exploring a work, it is helpful to apply a literary framework which aids in identifying patterns and provides a terminology for discussion. A traditional framework for looking at literature centers on identifying the concepts of plot, setting, characterization, theme, sty le, and point of view. Authors of texts on children's literatu re and adolescent literature suggest applying this schema to literature for children and young adults in exploring the connection of the literary elements to the w o r k . 3 6 , 37 j^e f0CUS -}s on evaluating their appropriateness and extending the reader's capacity to respond more fully to a work. Discovery of the elements is not a means to an end but as critic Ethel Heins suggests, "They (elements) only serve to indicate the boundaries and ultimately the form of the work in question."38

Bowen reports that teachers who know literature and share it as an art form with children have students who read more, who read a wider range of books, and who read less non-literary material. In addition, children who had access to literary materials read less grade level material."39 These teachers know more about literature than they will ever share with children. Their wide and in-depth 19 knowledge prepares them to extend student initiated responses, to plan for numerous possibilities, and to concentrate on the strengths of each work.

As Hepler and Hickman have noted, such a teacher helps children see the scope of their reading, provides materials and time for stu­ dents to interact with books and facilitates response.40 Students who see books through lite ra ry eyes move toward what Rosenblatt identifies as aesthetic reading and adopt a spectator role which is contemplative and evaluative.41 Acquiring a critical perspective is a cumulative, developmental process as experiences spiral around each other.

Novels in the Classroom

The teacher's selection of literature facilitates the process. It is essential to offer choices which are appropriate for the reader's levels of experience and abilities and are novels young readers will want to read. Robert Small has noted that "Like the beginning reader, the adolescent needs to encounter literature for which he possesses the intellectual, emotional, and experiential equipment."^2 The works of Katherine Paterson reflect the adolescent's inner and outer worlds.

Each novel focuses on an adolescent protagonist who experiences the confusion many young readers share, who is faced with numerous choices, and who struggles to belong. The emotional landscapes of the novels are characterized by the intensity and extremities of an adolescent's inner world. The novels are rooted in universal truths which young readers recognize. 20

In addition to matching the young adult reader's intellectual, emotional, and experiential capabilities, Paterson's works are interest­ ing and technically complex, yet not unfathomable. Robert Small suggests that the adolescent needs works like Paterson's because "the adolescent reader, then, must be able to approach learning about style, characterization, etc., with a reasonable hope of seeing how these factors work, how they contribute to the total piece of literature, how the author has achieved whatever he has, in fact, achieved."^

Because it is essential for students who are developing critical skills to discern connections within and between works, it is valuable to study an author's body of works, like Paterson's. This approach can bring an awareness of elements of plot, sty le, theme, setting, and characterization. For, books are best read in light of others.

Students' reading experiences can be enriched when they can learn about an author and that author's writing processes. They can compare novels, relate biographical information to theme, and develop skills in literary assessment. Margaret Early recognizes such a reader as one who Lord David Cecil believes "... participates with the writer in developing and in effect rewriting. Students must perceive a work's unique qualities. This kind of perception can be trained and the training implies effort."44 Teachers must be aware of criteria for evaluating novels which are appropriate for their students and then must guide them to develop literary perceptions. The works of Katherine

Paterson are appropriate as literature which bridges the gap between 21 the childlike and the adult. Students who concentrate on the body of this author's works have enjoyable reading experiences, gain insight to more complex books and begin to acquire literary standards.

Intent of the Study

Literature for children is rooted in the realm of all literature and is evaluated by standards which apply to all literature. The authors of literature for children and young adults, like all authors, issue an invitation to readers to share their world. Young readers need to encounter superior literature which meets their intellectual, emotional, and experiential levels. This literature should be enjoy­ able and motivate children to want to read more. Students who suddenly encounter adult-like literatu re in junior high or middle school are unprepared to perceive an author's unique qualities, discuss them, and to develop c rite ria for lite ra ry assessment. Teachers who know literature can guide students to make literary connections and to develop critical evaluation skills. It is valuable to study the works of a recognized author of literature for children and young adults because students' reading experiences are enriched when they learn about an author and that author's writing process. In comparing novels, in relating biographical material to the reading, and in developing literary assessment skills, students become superior readers.

The purposes of this study are to identify the works of Katherine

Paterson as appropriate and interesting novels for children and young adult readers, to relate biographical information to the novels, to 22 apply literary criteria to the novels to assess Paterson's writing sty le, methods of characterization, creation of setting, development of theme, and development of plot. In addition, suggestions for class­ room implications for the novels, focusing on helping students to make literary connections and develop literary perceptions and assessment skills will be offered. Chapters two through six will examine the literary aspects of the novel (plot, setting, theme, characterization, and style). Chapter seven will offer educational implications for guiding teachers and students to further appreciate Paterson's works and look at them in literary ways. Chapter eight will summarize the study and detail the investigator's conclusions. 23

Footnotes

^Frye, Northrup, Anatomy of Criticism Four Essays, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1957.

^Heins, Ethel, "Go, and Catch A Falling Star": What Is A Good Children's Book?", in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 246.

^Cameron, Eleanor, The Green and Burning Tree on the Writing and Enjoyment of Children's Books, L ittle , Brown, and Co., Boston and Toronto, 1969, p. x iii.

^Townsend, John Rowe, ib id ., p. 13.

5Egoff, Sheila, Stubbs, G.T., Ashley, L.F., Only Connect Readings on Children's Literature, Toronto, New York, Oxford University Press 1969 , p. XV.

^Babbitt, Natalie in Children and Literature Views and Reviews edited by Virginia Haviland, Lothrop, Lee, and Shepard Co., New York, 1973, p. 156.

^Huck, Charlotte S., Children's Literature in the Elementary School, Third Edition, Updated, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976, p. 6.

^Moffett, James in The Cool Web The Pattern of Children's Reading Edited by Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Atheneum, New York, 1978, p. 9.

^Egoff, Sheila, "Which One's The Mockingbird? Children's Literature From the 1920's to the Present," in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 246.

^Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes For Children," ib id ., p. 329.

Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier, Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 34.

^Meek, Margaret, "What Counts As Evidence In Theories of Children's Literature?", op. c i t . , p. 285.

^B oston, Lucy in The Cool Web The Patterns of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Atheneum, New York, 1978, p. 220. 24 l^Donnelson, Kenneth L., Nil sen, Ailen Pace, Literature For Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresroan, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980, p. 399.

^Matthews, Dorothy, "Writing About Adolescent Literature: Current Approaches and Future Directions," Arizona English Bulletin, April 1976, p. 218.

^Walsh, Jill Patton, in The Cool Web The Pattern of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Atheneum, New York, 1978, p. 197.

F ry e , Northrup, The Educated Imagination, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1964, p. 5.

^Bachelder, Linda, Kelly, Patricia, Kenney, Donald, Small, Robert, "Looking Backward: Trying to Find the Classic Young Adult Novel," The English Journal, September, 1980, p. 87.

^Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier, Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 392.

^R osenblatt, Louise M., Literature As Exploration, Third Edition, Noble and Noble Publishers, Inc., New York, 1976, p. 114.

“^Hunter, Mollie, Talent Is Not Enough, Harper and Row, 1975, p. 11.

22walsh, Jill Patton, in The Cool Web The Pattern of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Atheneum, New York, 1978, p. 197.

23jones, Kellie Frances Corlew, Ph.D., "A Perceptual Analysis of Social and Philosophical Commentary in A Wrinkle In Time by Madeleine L1Engle," The University of Missouri, 1977.

24Hostetler, Elizabeth Ann Rumer, "Jean Fritz: A Critical Biography," The University of Toledo, December, 1981.

25Jacobs, Jim Swenson, "LToyd Alexander: A Critical Biography," The University of Georgia, 1978. ^McGovern, John, "Lloyd Alexander - Bard of Pyrdain A Study of the Pyrdain Cycle," Temple University, 1979.

2^Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1978, p. 197. 25

28\/andergrift, Kay E., Child and Story: The Literary Connection, Neal- Shuman Publishers, Inc., 1980, p. 273.

29sma'll, Robert, "Teaching the Junior Novel," The English Journal, Vol. 61, February 1972, p. 224.

•^Grindstaff, Faye, Muller, Louis, "The National Literary Assessment of Literature: Two Views," Research in the Teaching of English, 1975, Vol. 9, p. 89.

^Frye, Northrup, Anatomy of Criticism Four Essays, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1957, p. 86.

^R osenblatt, Louise M., "The Literary Transaction: Evocation and Response," in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 273.

•^Applebee, Arthur, The Child's Concept of Story, Ages Two to Seventeen, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1978, Chapter Two.

34prye, Northrup, The Educated Imagination, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and London, 1964, p. 127.

^Huck, Charlotte S., Children's Literature In The Elementary School, Third Edition, Updated, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976, p. 6.

^^ibid., p.

•^Donnelson, Kenneth L. and Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman, and Company, Glenview, Illin o is, pp. 27-48.

^H eins, Ethel, "Go, and Catch A Falling Star": What Is A Good Children's Book?" in Theory Into P ractice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn, 1982, p. 251.

39Bowen, B., "The Teacher's Role in Teaching Literature in the Elementary School," University of Michigan, 1964.

^H epler, Susan, Hickman, Janet, "The Book Was Okay I Love.You" - Social Aspects of Response to Literature, Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, p. 282. Rosenblatt, Louise M., Literature As Exploration, Third Edition Noble and Noble Publishers, Inc., New York, 1976, p. 26.

42small, Robert, "Teaching the Junior Novel," The English Journal February, 1972, p. 224.

43ib i d ., p. 225.

44Early, Margaret, "The Stages of Growth In Literary Appreciation The English Journal, Vol. 49, March, 1960, p. 161. CHAPTER TWO

PLOT

What is Plot?

Of the elements of story, plot is the most accessible to readers.

For it is the kernel of the story, the hook that grabs readers into the world of the novel and sustains them. Younger readers especially read first for plot to answer the question, "What is it about?" The author, Katherine Paterson, recognizes plot as the essential element of her novels when she states,

First, a book for young readers has to tell a story, as burdensome as the limitation of plot may seem to be it is not one that I am willing to circumvent. I simply don't like novels that aren't going anywhere and I can 't imagine many readers do.'

Plot becomes the author's map for the reader to characters, places, and events; it must lead somewhere. Lillian Smith views plot as " ... the shape or form the idea takes as i t grows in the w riter's mind, the way in which he wants to present his idea to the reader.The skillful author listens to the unique voice of each story and shapes a plot that is original and multi-layered. This is in contrast to the plots of works labeled as formula fiction which are not multi­ layered or original, but rather variations on the same theme. For readers to grasp the author's idea, the plot must be mapped out with precision and clarity. First, the author must establish the boundaries

27 28 for the story, which focuses on a beginning and an end containing an interrelated world which functions harmoniously. These boundaries act as a scaffolding which permits the forces of the novel to work to a definite end. A good plot is propelled to this end by characters who confront conflict and strive to realize intentions. In a plot of substance, conflicts are not easily resolved and the choices are complex. The plot grows logically and naturally from characters' actions and decisions and the emphasis is on causality. Action is motivated by reason, not chance. When the pieces of the plot are bonded by unity and completeness, the story is invested with inner meaning. Like a mosaic, whose independent facets are discernible, yet link to create a harmonious view, so the pieces of plot form attachments which "build a world not found in ordinary experience.

If we read a novel whose plot is marked by complexity and dimension, we are concerned not only with what, but also why and participate in all aspects of the story as it works toward a resolution. We may never be able to articulate the total effect of the novel on us, but we recognize the powerful feelings evoked.

Katherine Paterson's Novels - Plot Summaries

The novels of Katherine Paterson evoke powerful responses from readers. First, they are good stories, the essential ingredient of any plot. We are absorbed in the mystery she weaves in The Master Puppeteer, entranced by the secret kingdom of Terabithia, and compelled to share

Louise's dilemmas in Jacob Have I Loved. Her plots are characterized 29 by deep emotion and intensity that makes them memorable. Further, they are centered on multi-dimensional characters like Jiro, Takiko, and

Muna who are confronted by real dilemmas and make choices which deter­ mine their futures. These conflicts and choices unify the novels and move them toward realistic resolutions. The plots are original and intriguing and need to be explored in detail. The plot summaries which follow will aid readers in understanding the analyses of the novels which are the focus of this study:

The Sign of the Chrysanthemum (1973). Muna, an illegitim ate orphan living in feudal Japan, searches for his samurai - warrior father. His quest leads him to the conflict-ridden city of Kyoto where his loyalty and courage are continually tested and he is plunged into despair. Through resolve and courage, he finds a name, a father and a home.

Of Nightingales That Weep (1974). Takiko, a samurai's daughter, living in war-plagued twelfth century Japan, is torn between loyalty to her father's clan and her love for an enemy soldier. A position at the emperor's court thrusts her into emotional and societal conflicts which force her to make choices that indelibly stamp her future.

The Master Puppeteer (1975). Young Jiro, an apprentice pupetter, living in feudal Japan is captivated by the drama and excitement of the puppet theater, intrigued by the exploits of the rogue bandit,

Saburo, and determined to prove himself to his parents. His curiosity and feelings of loyalty to his best friend lead him to uncover the 30

identity of Saburo, and confront startling truths about his world and

himsel f .

Bridge to Terabithia (1977). In the secret kingdom of Terabithia,

Leslie and Jess share friendship and adventure. The two unite to de­

feat bully, Janice Avery, school monotony, and classmates' taunts.

Yet, the reality of Leslie's accidental death forces Jess to overcome his fears, develop self-confidence, and share the world of Terabithia with others.

The Great Gill.y Hopkins (1978). Gilly Hopkins, abandoned by her mother, and placed in numerous foster homes, belongs to no one yet is desperate to belong to her parent, Courtney, and live with her.

G illy's efforts to find Courtney backfire and she loses the "family" she has grown to love, when her grandmother claims her. Yet, she finally faces her mother's rejection and resolves to accept her new

1 i f e.

Jacob Have I Loved (1980). Thirteen year old Sara Louise is con­ vinced that she exists in her twin siste r Caroline's shadow. She be­ lieves that Caroline robs her of relationships and recognition. Louise struggles with her feelings of guilt and hatred for her sister and fights the oppression of her home on the island of Rass. At la st she escapes and makes her own place in the world as an adult.

The Roots of the Plots in Katherine Paterson's Novels

One question curious readers often pose to authors about their books is, "Where did you get the idea for ____ ?" Most often, the writer will not be able to articulate the precise stimulus for a plot idea and 31 responds, "I wrote the story I had in me." However, when the author can identify the root of a story, the information offers insight both to the work and the author's process. Katherine Paterson has discussed the impetus for several of her novels - Bridge to Terabithia, The

Great Gilly Hopkins, Jacob Have I Loved and The Master Puppeteer. Her comments reveal the transformation of a germ of an idea into a powerful novel and confirm the often fragile, tentative nature of the creative process. We also discover how she weaves personal life experiences into story and invests them with universal meanings. For instance, her novel Bridge to Terabithia is rooted in personal pain and tragedy.

Writing the novel represents Paterson's efforts to confront her battle with cancer and to reconcile herself to the injustice of the death of her son David's closest friend, Lisa. She shares the genesis of the novel in Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing for Children:

I can't tell you exactly when the story began, somewhere among the catacombs of my childhood fears, but it began to grow in the early months of 1974 along with a tumor, which, after a life­ time of blooming health, invaded my body ... before either I or my family had time to re­ cuperate from my illness, our David's closest friend, a winsome, humorous l i t t l e girl of eight was struck and killed by lightning.4

The dark days that followed for the Paterson family were shadowed by fears, inner turmoil, and grief. When an editor suggested that Paterson write the story she was living,the author began and "it became a way of dealing with my inability to comfort my child.The writing grew until Paterson became stalled at the point when the child character had to die. An insightful friend suggested that it was her own death, not

Lisa's that she couldn't face and Paterson confronted her fears and completed the novel. The work became a means of objectifying fears and is a bridge between the turmoil of her personal experience and a universal promise of hope for readers.

Like Bridge to Terabithia, The Great Gilly Hopkins is anchored in personal experience shaped into book experience. Paterson was once a foster mother for two months and feels that she failed because

I knew from the beginning that the children were going to be with us only a short time, so when a problem arose, as problems w ill, I'd say to myself, 'I can't really deal with that. They'll be here only a few weeks.' Suddenly and too late I heard what I had been saying. I was regarding two human beings as Kleenex, disposable, and it forced me to think, What must it be like for those thousands of children in our midst who find themselves rated disposable? So I wrote a book, a con­ fession of sin, in which one of these em­ bittered children meets the world's greatest foster mother.®

Paterson's "confession" also has a fictional root in her short story,

"Maggie's Gift" found in the collection, Angels and Other Strangers.?

Like Gilly, the protagonist, Genevieve, is homeless. She copes with the world by projecting the same h o stility and outward toughness to

Mr. McGee, who has offered to le t her and her brother share Christmas with him, as Gilly does to those around her and uses the same brand of

"outlaw" speech as the novel's protagonist. Like Gilly, Genevieve, also fantasizes about the goodness and generosity of her mother. Genevieve was the prototype for Gilly and represents the author's shaping of a 33

less developed character into a multi-dimensional one. The book grew

from personal experience intensified and enlarged.

However, Jacob Have I Loved is less grounded in Paterson's world

experience and is submerged in inner turmoil. Paterson's childhood was immersed in religion and Bible stories and she identifies the con­

flic t in Jacob Have I Loved as welling from the Bible tale of Cain and

Abel , the beginnings of sibling rivalry, and couples this with the observation "that among children who g'ow up together in a family

there run depths of feeling that will permeate their souls for both

good and ill as long as they live."8 As the middle child of five,

Paterson lived through the frustrations of trying to best her older

siblings and recognizes that in her nature is "... a primitive,

beastly part, a Caliban, that roared out against such monstrous in­

justice. Novels, I have learned, tend to come out of the struggle with the beast."9 Paterson's literary struggles with the beast were

unproductive until fate intervened. She discovered her son's copy of the book, Beautiful Swimmers: Watermen, Crabs, and the Chesapeake Bay

by William Warner and "knew" that her book would be set in the Chesapeake

Bay. Progress on the book was interrupted by her mother's death, a move to Norfolk, Virginia, and awards for The Great Gilly Hopkins and

Bridge to Terabithia. The emotional upheaval in Jacob Have I Loved is mirrored in the turmoil Paterson was living through.

For the novels set in feudal Japan, The Master Puppeteer, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum and Of Nightingales That Weep, Paterson draws from 34 the rich storehouse of sights, sounds, and feelings she collected dur­ ing time spent as a child in China and later, as an adult in Japan.

She identifies her experiences in the Orient as one of "... the sounds that I hear in my deepest heart the music of the East."10 The trio of novels is embedded with the rhythms and rituals of the Orient.

The Master Puppeteer is the only one of the three novels whose roots

Paterson has discussed fully. The story of the novel's inception is one of serendipity and fate. One day, Paterson happened to notice an advertisement for an upcoming performance of the Bunraku, the classical

Japanese puppet theater whose performances she had enjoyed fifteen years previously. She attended and was overwhelmed by the experience and recalls "there was something sinister about the puppets, so close to life but not quite alive, shaded by the hooded forms of the manipu­ lators - the perfect setting for a mystery story!"H Coincidentally, her children had begged for a mystery story which she felt incapable of writing. The impressions of the performance were discarded until weeks later, when Paterson dreamed of a Japanese boy, scouring a store­ house in search of something, who becomes alarmed by a noise on the stairs and confronts a solitary, hooded puppeteer mainpulating a warrior puppet. The novel, The Master Puppeteer, is Paterson's answer to the unanswered questions and emotions evoked by the performance of the

Bunraku and the disturbing dream. The boy in the dream becomes Jiro , the novel's protagonist, and the scene Paterson imagined is transformed into his pivotal confrontation with Saburo. Paterson also wove the 35 mystery and magic of the Bunraku theater into the story in her choice of setting, the Hanaza Puppet Theater.

The origins of The Master Puppeteer te stify to Paterson's ab ility to transform her experiences into story and to charge them with shared meanings. Readers who can connect Paterson's revelations of the roots of her stories to their book experiences gain insight into this author's motivation to write and the process of transforming idea to story. We learn that the plots of the novels often spring from personal experi­ ence and are one means for the author to objectify powerful emotions and place them at a distance. Further, we recognize that Paterson exploits what she has lived as story material and that she perceives the ordinary as extraordinary and writes to share these insights. The plots of the novels should not be treated as psychological portraits of the writer, but as testaments to her ability to recognize universal truths in what she knows and experiences and uses story to share them.

Narrative Hooks

One key to plotting is the author's crafting of the narrative hooks which lure readers into the novel and/or establish the physical and emotional perimeters of the story world. The writer's intent is to

"grab" readers into a story which will then sustain their interest.

Authors may choose to cloak a story's s ta rt in ambiguity, a technique most appropriate for a mystery or to pack essential information in a dense opening paragraph or scene, a strategy most characteristic of realistic fiction. Sometimes, the author uses first person narration 36 to have a character speak, establishing the reader as a conversational partner, or the author permits us to see or hear a significant event, placing us in the role of a spectator and establishing a tie to the story. In exploring Katherine Paterson's novels, chronologically, one notices that in her earlier books, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, for instance she compresses essential information into the opening para­ graphs, while details of background plot are threaded throughout the opening chapters in the later books such as Bridge to Terabithia.

The firs t paragraph of The Sign of the Chrysanthemum is built on contrasting images which establish mood, character, setting, and in te n t:

Muna had not climbed the hill to the burial grounds since the last death among the serfs more than two years before, so that when he turned and saw the scene below, a th rill of pleasure went through his body. From a dis­ tance it was beautiful. The rice was all harvested now, and against the muted browns and greens of paddy and field , straw hung drying on the racks, golden under the late summer sun. On the bank of the shining river sprawled the roofs of the daiymo's manor, like a great, lazy cat stretched out for a summer nap. Across the fields the tiny thatched huts of the serfs tumbled upon one another like a l i t t e r of newborn kittens drawing warmth and assurance from one another's bodies. Beyond the field and hut and manor lay the ancient pine grove. And then the sea, its white waves crashing upon the rocky coast. And beyond the sea? By the Gods, he would soon know. Soon, he promised himself, as he turned and began to dig his mother's g r a v eJ 2 37

For instance, the somber overtones that permeate the novels are heard in the f ir s t sentence which is burdened with death images. Yet, the bleakness of death is contrasted to the growth of the fields and life in the huts and offers the sign of hope which Muna later discovers.

The protagonist, Muna, appears insignificant to the vastness of the fields and the power of the sea. Muna's feelings of alienation are the force behind his quest. This opening paragraph ends with a sta te ­ ment of the main character's intent - to discover the world beyond.

The involved reader will continue to find out what Muna discovers.

Paterson has "hooked" the reader by crafting an opening paragraph which reveals her major character, and his position in society, which identifies setting, and establishes the mood and tone of the story and which states the character's motivation or purpose.

The first sentence of the novel, Of Nightingales That Weep,

"The daughter of a samauri does not scream." is thehook that draws readers into this novel. The focus of the book is the character,

Takiko, an emphasis which marks the firs t paragraph

The daughter of a samauri does not scream when her hair is being combed. Indeed, she makes no sound at a ll. It was one of the more elementary rules of conduct that her mother had drummed into her for eleven years. Nonetheless, when Choko yanked the comb through a particularly stubborn knot, Takiko, daughter of Lord Moriyuki of the Heike clan, cried out, 'ChokoI You're trying to kill mel''^

Information about Takiko - her position as a samauri's daughter, her age - 11, the time period - during the existence of the Heike clan, and 38

her personality, "Choko! You're trying to kill me!", pack this intro­

ductory paragraph. Paterson's concise portrait of this irrepressible

girl prods readers to want to know more about Takiko.

The Master Puppeteer marks a change in Paterson's technique for

establishing the plot. She shifts to threading significant details

throughout the opening pages, rather than condensing them in opening

sentences or paragraphs. The first two paragraphs establish character and reveal the impatience and uncertainty which typifies Jiro's character:

Jiro shook his hair out of his eyes and bent once more over the worktable. He dipped the brush into the glue and began to apply it to the inside of the puppet head that lay in two halves before him. Jiro licked his lips. He must be careful. The last time he had not put on enough glue and the head had fallen apart before it could be delivered to Yoshida at the theater. The trick was to put just the right amount, not a stroke too little or too much.

He sighed and dropped the brush back into the glue pot. His big hands - much too big for his skv/.ny thirteen year old body - were shak­ ing so that he was afraid a spot of glue would fall on the strings and ruin the works which made the puppet's eyes and eyebrows move. It had taken his father more than two weeks to perfect the mechanism. Jiro grabbed his right hand with his le ft and commanded i t to stop shaking. It was the strong fishy odor of the glue that was upsetting him he knew. If only he weren't so hungry. What would happen i f he ate some of the glue? Would his sides stick toqether like the two sides of a puppet head?!^

We also learn his age, 13, and his task of gluing the puppet head.

This introductory connection to puppets and Yoshida's theater identifies 39 the major premises on which the plot revolves - Jiro's experiences as an apprentice to Yoshida in the puppet theater. Also established is the hint of a conflict - Jiro's intense hunger - which is expanded later into tensions between the rich and poor, who struggled to sur­ vive during the famine. Other vital story information is revealed la ter in the chapter, such as Isako's contempt for her son, Jiro 's relationship to his father, and lastly, the gossip about the bandit

Saburo's hi jinks which later assume importance in the novel. In taking more time to establish the plot, Paterson permits readers to

"try on" the story and live within it, rather than forcing us to quickly accept or reject the novel.

This ability to let the story simmer is more completely realized in the opening chapter of Bridge to TerabithiaJ 5 we are introduced to

Jesse Oliver Aarons, Jr. and his desire to be the fastest runner in fifth grade. Paterson reveals Jess' character slowly. We learn that he is the middle child of five, that he needs to be the best at some­ thing , and that his family lives on hard work and dissension. In addition this first chapter establishes physical setting, the rural outreaches near Washington, D.C. and the emotional setting, Jess's need to be recognized and to negotiate a peace within his family. The novel is an elaboration of the latter as Jess meets Leslie and learns to grow with her and survive without her. Paterson does not explicitly introduce the reader to Leslie in this opening chapter, but teases him or her with May Belle's report that people were moving into the Old 40

Perkins' place. This is evidence of Paterson's growth in the ability to plot by lettin g readers discover them, rather than tellin g them in the opening paragraphs.

Paterson's relaxed presentation of plot elements in Bridge to

Terabithia is abandoned in The Great Gilly Hopkins, a novel which moves quickly and necessitates rapid stage setting in the first chapter. Gilly's life is typified by moving on and the plot struc­ ture reflects this motion. It is conflict which propels this novel and Paterson establishes the central one in the first three paragraphs:

"Gilly," said Miss Ellis with a shake of her long blonde hair toward the passenger in the back seat, "I need to feel that you are will­ ing to make some effo rt."

Galadriel Hopkins shifted her bubble gum to the front of her mouth and began to blow gently. She blew until she could barely see the shape of the social worker's head through the pink bubble.

"This will be your third home in less than three years." ... "I would be the last person to say that it was all your fault. The Dixon's move to Florida, for example. Just one of those unfortunate things. And Mrs. Richmond having to go to the hospital" - it seemed to Gilly that there was a long thoughtful pause before the caseworker went on - "for her nerves."I6

Gilly belongs to no one and wants to belong to someone. Readers are compelled to wonder about this character who has bested three sets of foster parents and to speculate on her future. Additional clues to

Gilly's nature are revealed throughout the chapter, in her defiance of

Miss Ellis and in the use of interior monologue to expose G illy's 41

sardonic commentary on events. As the action switches to Gilly's

introduction to Trotter and W.E., the characters and setting are

established and the reader is obligated to share Gilly's antics and

discover more about her.

The exaggerated events and larger than life characters in The

Great Gilly Hopkins demand that Paterson establish a narrative that

hooks readers instantly. However, the characters and events in Jacob

Have I Loved evolve slowly and Paterson offers readers more time to

become engaged with the novel. Two strategies facilitate this engage­

ment. Paterson uses a prologue set in the present which dwells on an

unnamed speaker's musings about returning home on a ferry to Rass

Island. Through the character's eyes, we share details that occupy

the teller - "the island lying low as a terrapin back on the faded

olive water of the Chesapeake," the maze of docks, the boats branded

by "nearly all women's names.Paterson carefully establishes the

importance of the sea to this community, for it rules the lives of the

characters in the story and is the world the central character loves yet will choose to leave. Paterson's choice of a first person narrator

quickly establishes a bond between reader and the book and serves-as a narrative hook. A hint of the narrator's independence is foreshadowed

in the first paragraph, "At Crisfield I'll board the ferry, climbing

down into the cabin where the women always ride, but after forty minutes of setting on the hard cabin bench, I 'll stand up"to peer out of the high forward windows, straining for the f ir s t sight of my 42

is la n d ." ^ For Louise, never behaves as a woman, an observation echoed

by the captain who insists, "Sara Louise, you were never meant to be a

woman on this island. A man, perhaps. Never a woman."!9 This aspect

of the narrator's personality reinforces Sara Louise's feelings of

isolation which intensify throughout the novel. The final statement

of the prologue exposes the central conflict at the core of the novel :

"But there were only the two of us, my sister, Caroline, and me, and

neither of us could stay."^ The directness of this statement im­

prints on the reader's mind and provokes questions that necessitate

further reading. The narrative is further developed and established

in the first chapter and accelerates to mirror Louise's frustrations.

In Jacob Have I Loved Paterson demonstrates an increasingly refined

ability to fashion a narrative that readers can enter into slowly and

become immersed in.

The Role of Conflict

Author John Gordon proposes a visual schema for the shape of a plot which focuses on achieving a balance between chaos and equilibrium with conflict at the center:

Chaos Chaos

Equilibrium Confl ic t Equilibrium

Chaos Chaos

21 Paterson's novels mirror this model, for a central conflict is at the core of her stories - Muna searches for an identity, Takiko wrestles with her love for Hideo, Jiro is torn between loyalty to Kinshi and his family, Jess survives Leslie's death, Gilly copes with shattered illusions and Louise fights her distorted feelings of animosity toward her siste r. These conflicts propel the plots as the characters struggle to overcome chaos and achieve an equilibrium. Donnelson and

Nielson identify four basic plot types which focus on conflict: pro­ tagonist against self, protagonist against society, protagonist against another person, and protagonist against nature.22 Paterson's novels focus on the protagonist against self.

For instance, Muna's quest in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum is to find his father and an identity: *1 am going to find my true name - the name of my father's people. I will be someone to be reckoned with in this world. No longer will men spit on me and call me Muna - the name­ less one"23 Muna believes that the "magic" of a name will give him dignity and respect and that finding his father will make the dream come true. His obsession involves him in situations which continually test him and initiate inner conflict. Muna's need for esteem leads him to emulate the ronin, Takanobu and become indebted to this man who is his protector. Yet, Takanobu is a liar and a cheat, and while Muna recognizes this, he pledges his loyalty. When Muna returns from a fruitless errand instigated by Takanobu to find the meeting place consumed by flames he blames himself for the ronin's death: "If only 44

I hadn't le ft hi ml ... I should have known he was teasing again.

Yet, Fukuji, the swordmaker rescues Muna and takes him into his home.

Muna struggles to meet the gentle Fukuji's high standards and constantly yearns to find a name and a place. Takanobu reappears to prey on this yearning, claims to be Muna's father and demands that

Muna steal a sword from Fukuji to give to the ronin. The ultimatum throws Muna into turmoil and he "was like an animal caught between two opposing lines of bowmen - all of the arrows flying toward h im ."25

He needs a father, yet is tied to Fukuji. Muna's distress is intensi­ fied when his efforts to rescue gentle Akiko from the brothel her opportunistic uncle placed her in fails. In anger, he vows to "snatch my fortune from their grasping h a n d s ."26 Muna steals the sword, dis­ covers Takanobu is not his father, buries the sword, and goes into hiding with the beggars at Rashomon Gate. He sentences himself to poverty and hunger and "now belonged fully to that class of people who expect to be bullied by the rest of the world, who think that by objecting they will only bring further misery on themselves."2? The appearance of an old woodcutter who saw Muna hide the sword compels him to retrieve it and return i t to Fujuki who embraces him. Yet Muna's inner struggles lead to self-fulfillment for he recognizes that "he was what he was. No other name would change h im .'^ H e thus becomes

Muna of Awa, apprentice to Fukuji, and peace emerges from chaos.

Like Muna, Jiro feels worthless. He is clumsy and can't meet his father's standards. His mother resents the fact that he survived the 45 plague, while her other children died and he feels guilty because "he ate more than either of his parents, and what was he contributing?"^

Jiro is compelled to join the puppet theater to prove his worth to his family and to help support them. The fascinating, yet rigorous demands of life in the theater impose new inner conflicts. Jiro discovers ambition and yearns to assume more important posts, yet hesitates to usurp his friends' positions. As his best friend, Kinshi, becomes increasingly involved with the night rovers, Jiro is plagued by con­ cern and fear for his friend's safety. His unexpected discovery of the sword in the storehouse confronts Jiro with difficult choices - should he betray Joshida who once saved his life? What would happen to the Hanaza? What would be Kinshi's fate, as the son of a criminal?

Can he afford to turn down the reward money? Eventually, Jiro chooses loyalty to Kinshi and does not betray Okado's secret. Jiro 's struggles to fight his sense of worthlessness, to overcome guilt, and to prove himself are realized at the novel's end as he is assured of a place for himself, Kinshi, and his family.

The need to find a parent also consumes G illy’s life . She wants to stop being, "a foster child, the quotation marks dragging the phrase down, almost drowning i t , to belong and to possess."^ Her dreams that Courtney Rutherford Hopkins, the mother who abandoned her

11 years previously, will return prevent Gilly from accepting the love that foster parents have offered her. Gilly has survived placement in 46 numerous foster homes by developing a tough exterior and acquiring a reputation for causing trouble,

Well, I'm eleven now, folks, and in case you haven't heard, I don't wet my bed anymore. But I am not nice. I am brill ant. I am famous across this entire country. Nobody wants to tangle with the great Galadriel Hopkins. I am too clever and too hard to manage. Gruesome Gilly, they call me.31

Gilly relentlessly resists all of Maime Trotter's efforts to love her.

She persists in dreaming of Courtney's return and composes a le tte r to her mother which is inflated with exaggerated details of life at

Thompson Park. Gilly's anger and hurt at being deserted is exemplified in her misbehaviors - fashioning a racist greeting card for her teacher, terrorizing William Ernest, and stealing money from Maime and Mr.

Randolph to buy a bus ticket to San Francisco. After her thwarted escape attempt Gilly begins to receive and give love as she tutors

W.E. and nurses her sick family. However, her letter prompts her grandmother to claim Gilly and once again she will be torn from another home, one she longs to belong to. Yet, G illy's hasty le tte r determined this outcome and Trotter reminds her that, "Once the tugboat takes you out to the oceanliner, you got to get all the way on board. Can't straddle both d e c k s . "32 Gilly struggles to fit in at her grandmother's and feels her dreams will be realized in the impending visit by

Courtney. But Courtney is short and plump and her hair, "a dark version of Agnes Stokes which had always needed washing. A flower child gone to s e e d . "33 Gilly's dream is finally shattered when she learns that 47

Nonm'e had paid Courtney to come and that " ... she wasn't going to stay.

And she wasn't going to take Gilly back with her. "I will always love you." It was a lie . Gilly had thrown away her whole life for a stinking lie."34 Trotter helps Gilly realize that, "Life ain't supposed to be nothing, 'cept maybe tough."35 in the dashing of her dream Gilly finds that she is finished with anger and self-destruction and is ready to make a home with her grandmother.

The inner struggle which Louise wrestles with, hatred for and resentment of her sister, Caroline, is an amplification of a basic conflict rooted in the Bible. Paterson explained in her Newbery Award

Acceptance speech that "the conflict at the core of Jacob Have I Loved began east of Eden, in the earliest stories of my heritage. Cain was jealous of his brother, and, we are told 'Cain rose up against Abel his brother and slew him'."36 The tensions provoked by sibling rivalry are the focus of the story. Like the Biblical Jacob who robbed his elder twin brother, Esau, of his inheritance, Louise claims that Caroline has stolen her parent's affections, her friends, Call and the Captain, and her chance for an education. Caroline's parents do scrimp to provide music lessons for their talented daughter and wrap her in attention and praise. Louise professes a hatred for her sister and dreams of Caroline's death:

I often dreamed that Caroline was dead I once dreamed that I had killed her with my own hands. I had taken the heavy oak pole with which I had guided the skiff. She had come to shore, begging for a ride. In reply, I had raised the pole and beat, beat, beat.37 48

The dream which vivifies Louise's need to be free of Caroline is accompanied by g u ilt, which aggravates the rage Louise lives with.

Louise's grandmother recognizes Louise's hatred of Caroline and taunts her, by reciting, "As it is written, 'Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated'."38 Louise is further tortured to learn that the speaker is God and is convinced that God hates her and that she is abandoned.

She abandons her religion, quits school, and feels trapped in a life without promise. It is the Captain who releases Louise:

You can do anything you want to Don't tell me no one ever gave you a chance. You don't need anything given to you. You can make your own chances. But, fir s t you have to know what you're after, my d e a r .39

Louise thinks then of becoming a doctor and comes to a most welcome revelation about her place in the family; her mother confesses that she will miss her more than Caroline. Louise is now freed from her self-imposed prison and she establishes a future for herself.

Jess must also overcome self-doubt and despair to make his own place. The third child of five, he contends with nagging sisters and parents who don't recognize or encourage his artistic talents. Best­ ing Gary Fulcher to claim the title of the fastest runner in fifth grade is his only hope of winning recognition. But it is spunky Leslie

Burke who beats the boys. Leslie eventually becomes his best friend and introduces him to "the adventures of an assistant pig keeper,"40 and a world of imagination. With Leslie, Jess discovers peace and a sense of self-esteem. Her suggestion that they create a secret country 49 and establish themselves as rulers fulfills a pressing need, "Her words stirred inside of him. He'd like to be a ruler of something.

Even something that wasn't real."41 Terabithia becomes Jess' refuge and a symbol of p o ssib ilities: "Between the two of them they owned the world and no enemy, Gary Fulcher, Wanda Kay Moore,Janice Avery,

Jess' own fears and insufficiencies, nor any of the foes whom Leslie imagined attacking Terabithia, could ever really defeat th e m ."42

Yet, as the incessant rains swell the creek which leads to Terabithia,

Jess' fear of crossing the water paralyzes him and "dread lay on

Jess's stomach like a hunk of cold, undigested doughnut. "43 Jess's fear engulfs him and he tortures himself with thoughts that, "... it would be better to be born without an arm than to go through life with no guts."44 The suddeness and the finality of Leslie's drowning leaves

Jess stranded and angry, struggling to find a way back to himself:

She had tricked him. She had made him leave his old self behind and come into her world, and then before he was really at home in it but too late to go back, she had le ft him stranded there - like an astronaut wandering about on the moon. A l o n e ."45

Jess' building of a tree bridge into Terabithia signifies his growing acceptance of Leslie's death. He conducts a ceremony honoring her, an act which brings peace to Jess, "like a single bird across a storm- cloud sky."46 Later, Jess rescues a frightened Maybelle who is frozen with fear as she tries to follow Jess across the log. Jess's deed demonstrates his courage and competence as he recognizes that fear is 50

natural and can be conquered. Finally, Jess realizes that he must ful­

fill the legacy Leslie left him,

It was Leslie who had taken him from the cow pasture into Terabithia and turned him into a king.... Wasn't king the best you could be? Now i t occurred to him that perhaps Terabithia was like a castle where you came to be knighted. After you stayed for a while and grew strong you had to move o n .47

Jess does move on as he opens the world of Terabithia to his siste r

MayBelle, confirming his growth and triumph over fear and self-doubt.

The inner conflict which racks Takiko is her love for an enemy

soldier, Hideo. Her secret love labels Takiko as a tra ito r to her

clan and her family. Takiko follows the Imperial family and pledges

herself to their cause, a decision which places her in opposition to

Hideo, a warrior in the opposing army. While she hopes that the Heike win, she prays for Hideo's safety. Takiko's love for Hideo prevents

her from calling the guards immediately and assuring his capture, when

she discovers him spying on the Heike headquarters. She waits until

he disappears and rationalizes that "she had been willing to betray the life of the man she loved for the safety of her clan and its

Emperor."4^ In addition, her love for Hideo keeps Takiko from joining members of the Imperial family who jump overboard when it is apparent that the Genji have triumphed.

Takiko also betrays her family in order to stay near Hideo. When

Goro appears to beg her to return home to help her pregnant mother,

Takiko refuses citing her responsibilities to the Imperial family as justification. It is Hideo who matters most and her selfish desire to be with him determines her choice.

Takiko's choices spell her downfall. She returns home to desolation and the wrath of Goro. Made to toil in the fields, she loses her beauty and refinement. Takiko is sustained on Hideo's promise to rescue her - a promise shattered as the two confront each other and her appearance repels him:

She would never forget the change that came over his face. It was as though some hand had reached up from within his vitals and twisted his features.49

Hideo abandons Takiko and this forces her to examine her life :

Everything became clear: her birth - her life at Lady Uchinaka's, her father's death, The coming of her mother and herself to Goro's Estate in Shiga - her fear and jealousy - the meeting with Hideo through Princess Aoi - going into court and into exile. Her traitorous love affair - her refusal to return with Goro - her cowardice in the face of death - her homecoming to Goro's bitterness and the accident. Now this. But this had made everything clear; and she knew what must be done to make recompense.^

Takiko eventually realizes that she belongs with Goro and shares his life . She has grown from a selfish , impetuous child to , in Paterson's words, "a human being.

Conflict acts in the Paterson novel as a force which shapes events and characters. Characters entangled in chaos must overcome conflicts to adhere to peace or equilibrium, a pattern which mirrors the story model John Gordon proposes. To reach this equilibrium each protagonist 52 struggles with the internal conflicts which haunt them and they event­ ually resolve them. As these conflicts are conquered, the mounting tensions which have sustained the plot also dissolve to a harmonious resolution, or reconciliation.

Plotting the Historical Novel

Plotting historical novels is a precarious task for an author.

Fidelity to settings, dates, and events insures the versimilitude of the story. Paterson has noted that she writes extensively to explain information to herself and then edits to bring the story out.52 Three of Paterson's novels, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Of Nightingales

That Weep and The Master Puppeteer rely on her ability to represent life in feudal Japan and employ events rooted in history as frameworks for the stories. The novels are only historical from the exterior, for the characters confront conflicts and experience emotions that are not bound to time and place. The events provide the conflicts around which the stories are plotted and motivate characters to respond as they do. Paterson finds plotting difficult and has stated that "... if you have trouble plotting, as I do, history is a great help. You have all of these wonderful events happening in history and you can weave them in."53 The influence of setting in the historical novels will be discussed extensively in Chapter Three.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a technique that Paterson employs to prepare the readers for what will happen in the novels. She is skilled at embedding 53 subtle hints into the plot that are clues to characters and events.

These clues must be appropriate to the demands of each particular novel and give it credibility. The superior reader will discover these clues and will recognize their connection to the story.

Paterson's use of foreshadowing in three of the novels, The

Master Puppeteer, Bridge to Terabithia and The Great Gilly Hopkins, is central to preparing readers for each novel's powerful resolution.

Readers who are unable to solve the mystery in The Master Puppeteer or are shocked that Leslie dies in Bridge to Terabithia or that Gilly stays with her grandmother in The Great Gilly Hopkins must examine these novels to determine how Paterson tries to prepare readers for these outcomes.

The Master Puppeteer should be read as a mystery and the reader needs to participate with Jiro in connecting the clues he discovers to the identity of Saburo. In this novel, Paterson must assume the stance of a mystery writer who judiciously offers hints to the mystery's solution, yet does not reveal the outcome too quickly. When the mystery is solved, skilled readers will experience that "aha!" of recognition which confirms their speculations. Paterson begins to prepare readers for the novel's outcome in the first chapter, as

Hanji and Sano savor details of Saburo's most recent escapade. Hanji expresses approval of Saburo's deeds, "It is always bad to be a thief, whether your name is Furukawa the rice merchant or Saburo the rogue.

But as long as the government does not see f it to punish the one, we must hope that it fails to catch the other."54 This revelation coupled with information about Hanji's sudden convalesence in the country lends plausibility to Hanji's later appearance as a member of

Saburo's band. Further clues to Saburo's identity are sprinkled throughout the novel. For instance, Jiro recognizes a basket in

Yoshida's house which resembles the basket hats that Saburo's men wore to masquerade as priests. Additional evidence points to Yoshida when he rescues Jiro from a sword welding ronin and admonishes Jiro to, "Don't think me," he said. You never saw me tonight. Don't for­ get."55 Yet Yoshida is supposed to be i l l . Jiro begins to penetrate the front Yoshida projects when he realizes that the master puppeteer manipulates officials into permitting the special performance Saburo requested and later recognizes that, "Yoshida's cruelty was as much of an act as his subservience in his dealing with the police had been."56 Jiro's discovery of the assistant magestrate's sword, stolen the night of the special performance seems further proof of

Yoshida's identity as Saburo. Yet, good mysteries turn on surprises and Jiro 's confession to Okado, prompts the blind man to expose him­ self as Saburo, when he traps Jiro in the warehouse:

How can an old blind man be the dashing Saburo? ... Ah, little Jiro. You make the mistake they all do. Yoshida is famous throughout Osaka as the master puppeteer of the Hanaza, when i t is I who manipulate Yoshida. Saburo has many puppets. The whole east wing belongs to him as well as Yoshida and a chosen few on the out­ side who have sworn their l i f e 's blood to his cause. But Saburo is only one. I alone am the master puppeteer.5'’ 55

The setting of the novel, the puppet theater, acts as a foreshadowing agent to emphasize the importance of illusion and manipulation which aids Saburo's cause. It is not surprising that Okado, a skilled puppeteer, is a master of deceit and trickery. The title, The Master

Puppeteer is a clue to Saburo's identity for Okado does manipulate the people of theater and his followers, as if they were puppets.

While Paterson uses foreshadowing as a device to unravel a mystery in The Master Puppeteer, she employs it in Bridge to Terabithia to pre­ pare readers for Leslie's death. In retrospect, Jess' early observation upon hearing that someone was moving into the Perkins' place, "But they wouldn't last. The Perkins' place was one of those ratty old country houses you moved into because you had no decent place to go and moved out of as quickly as you could."58 is a signal that Leslie will not stay in Jess's life. Paterson also weaves into the story Leslie's love for scuba diving, which foreshadows her daring nature in crossing the river swollen creek and Jess' fear of water, when Mrs. Myer's reads aloud Leslie's composition on her favorite hobby, scuba diving.

While these are subtle clues revealed early in the novel, Paterson becomes more obvious in Chapters 8-10. Chapter Eight is threaded with references to death. It is significant that the chapter centers on

Leslie's v is it to the Aarons' church at Easter, a time of celebrating resurrection. On the way home, the children discuss the crucifixtion of Christ and learn that Leslie doesn't believe in the Bible. MayBelle's anxious question, "But Leslie," she insisted "What i f you die? What's 56 going to happen to you if you die?"59 confronts the reader with the possibility of Leslie's death. Paterson also prepares us for the flood­ ing of the creek introducing the information that, "All March it poured.

For the first time in many years the creek bed held water, not just a trickle either, enough so that when they swung across, it was a little scary looking down at the rushing water below."60 The presence of continual rain casts a solemn mood on the story. The use of foreshad­ owing accelerates in Chapter 9 as Paterson compares the swirling water of the creek to parting of the Red Sea and the destruction which con­ sumed everything in its path. These powerful images forte!! Leslie's accidental drowning in the creek and emphasize Jess' growing fear of the water. The chapter titled The Evil Spell also heralds the tragedy that will consume the characters. The tension builds and climaxes in

Chapter 10, "The Perfect Day," when Jess accompanies Miss Edmunds to the art gallery in Washington. Jess's observation that visiting the gallery was, "like stepping inside the pine grove - the huge vaulted marble, the cool splash of the fountain, and the green growing all around"®! is reminiscent of images of a mausoleum with its aura of peace and tranquility. Additional references to death are introduced in the description of display case "... holding a miniature scene of

Indians disguised in buffalo skins scaring a herd of fcuffalo into stampeding over a cliff to their death with more Indians waiting below to butcher and skin them."62 The display fascinates, yet frightens

Jess, and aggravates his deepest fears. Jess reflects upon this "perfect day" and decides it, "was worth anything he had to p a y ."63

Ironically it is the day he loses his best friend and he must pay with grief and anger. Paterson's use of foreshadowing in this novel works to introduce the topic of death and to prepare readers for Leslie's accidental drowning. While readers may be dismayed at Leslie's death, reflection should reveal that this was the only possible ending for the novel.

While G illy's decision to stay with her grandmother in The Great

Gilly Hopkins may be as d iffic u lt to accept as Leslie's death in Bridge to Terabithia, Paterson does foreshadow the novel's outcome by focusing on the choices Gilly makes, choices which decide her future. For instance, her impulsive decision to write a le tte r to her mother and complain that "The mother is a religious fanatic. Besides that she can hardly read and write and has a very dirty house and weird friends."64

It is this le tte r which sets into motion the Grandmother's eventual appearance. Upon receiving the le tte r , Courtney contacts G illy's grandmother and asks her to rescue Gilly. Yet, by this time, Gilly has come to love her life and the people at Thompson Park and has for­ gotten about the letter until her grandmother's visit. Gilly begins to recognize the import of her deed and Paterson uses a literary allusion,

"But she had done it. Like Bluebird's wife, she'd opened the forbidden door and someday she would have to look i n s i d e , "65 to foreshadow G illy's move to her grandmother's house. Like Bluebeard's wife, Gilly "bobby- trapped" herself and must face the consequences. The t i t l e of Chapter 58

11, "Never and Other Canceled Promises," which focuses on the decision

to move also hints to Gilly's fate.

In addition to concentrating on the choices Gilly makes to fore­

shadow the novel's outcome, Paterson also prepares us for Courtney's

rejection of Gilly. On the night before Gilly is to leave, she dreams

of Courtney coming to get her, then turning away. This dream begins

to foreshadow G illy's disasterous "homecoming" with her mother and

Gilly's realization that her illusions were all lies. We are further

prepared for the resolution when Gilly rejects choosing her mother's

bedroom because, "Everything was pink with a four poster canopied bed

complete with stuffed animals and dolls. She couldn't make herself go

in."66 and decides on her uncle's instead. This demonstrates that

Gilly subconsciously realizes that she doesn't belong with Courtney.

The reader is further convinced that Gillv will never be with her mother when she decides that Courtney's picture didn't "fit in this

room any more than it had f it in all the o th e rs."67 These hints coupled with the knowledge that Courtney has never tried to see Gilly or contact her own mother for thirteen years assure that Gilly will never go to live with her mother.

G illy's decision to stay with her grandmother is also foreshadowed

by the author. For while Trotter has given Gilly love she can not pro­ vide what the young girl really wants,

... To stop being a "foster child" the quotation marks dragging the phrase down, almost drowning it. To be real without any quotation marks. To belong and to p o s s e s s .68 59

Living with her grandmother assures Gilly of a real family and an opportunity to need and be needed by someone else and helps readers to accept Gilly's final choice to go home with her grandmother. Read­ ers may not like the choice Gilly makes, but should feel that the end­ ing was appropriate for the events and characters in the novel , because of Paterson's skill in foreshadowing the outcome.

Resolutions

How can the powerful, disturbing events acted out in each novel's close be labeled as harmonious? Readers are often horrified that

Kinshi is maimed in The Master Puppeteer, and are alarmed at Leslie's death in Bridge to Terabithia. It is also difficult to accept Gilly's decision to stay with her grandmother. Readers wonder, "Why did it have to end this way?" and like Gilly, they protest "... it's all wrong. Nothing turned out the way i t 's supposed to."®^ However,

Paterson would defend her choices and reply that "The books ended the way I thought the books had to end. That's not satisfying to anybody, but it seems to me that if you're really "in" a story then the story seems to have a life of i t 's own. The story seems to have necessities and its own e n d i n g ."70 Paterson's plots are shaped to place charac­ ters and events in an ordered universe whose patterns should not be disturbed. To change the resolutions of the stories would nullify each protagonist's successful struggle toward acceptance. Likewise, any alteration of the plot would violate Paterson's intent and practice of her craft. For instance, her skillful use of foreshadowing prepares 60 readers for Leslie's death and her fidelity to historical cfetail con­ firms that a policeman in feudal Japan would cut off a th ie f's hand.

Given G illy's hard-earned understanding th at, "Life a in 't supposed to be nothing, 'cept maybe tough, "71 could she turn her back on her grandmother's need and return to her former life at Thompson Park?

While these events are trag ic, they do not shroud the novels in hope­ lessness. Instead, Paterson's novels offer the promise of hope, and as she has noted,

I will not take a young reader through a story and in the end abandom him. That is , I will not write a book that closes in despair. I cannot, will not, withhold from my young readers the harsh re a litie s of human hunger and suffering and loss, but neither will I neglect to plant that stubborn seed of hope that has enabled our race to outlast wars and famines and the destruction of death.72

Indeed, Paterson's pledge to hope is captured in the final word of her dedication to Bridge to Terabithia, "banzai", which means "Live forever." Further, there is hope that Jess will "pay back to the world in beauty and caring what Leslie had loaned him in vision and strength," and that Gilly's future may be wrapped in "clouds of glory.

The key to thinking about the novels' endings is to consider them as resolutions, for to resolve a conflict is to be free from doubt or uncertainty and implies a conscious choice. Gilly chooses to stay with her grandmother, Jess chooses to share the world of Terabithia with others, and Louise's choice to leave Rass and build a future signals a reconciliation of tensions. This emphasis on reconciliation offers a 61

perspective for understanding the ending of Paterson's novels,

especially Jacob Have I Loved. Paterson relates that, "I had had

so much flack about the ending of Jacob Have I Loved, ... that I

finally asked Paul Heins point blank about it.

Well, he said, many people have trouble with your ending because they read Jacob as a quest for self-knowledge. If that is the story, per­ haps it should end when Louise leaves the island. "But," he went on, it's not a story about self- knowledge, it is a story of reconciliation, so it must come full circle.

In fighting to save the life of the weaker twin which she helps to

deliver, Louise is replaying her own birth. Louise was like the firs t

born twin - healthy and a survivor. The weakened condition of the second born twin parallels the story of Caroline's birth. Momentarilly, the stronger twin is forgotten while efforts are focused on the weaker.

Louise's act symbolizes a reconciliation of her hostility toward

Caroline, a reconciliation echoed in the t i t l e Jacob Have I Loved. We must return to the Biblical roots of the story to understand completely.

For, Esau the wronged twin eventually is reconciled with his brother

Jacob, and Louise can love Caroline. In applying this notion to the novels, it becomes clear that each protagonist conquers the conflicts he/she confronts, and chooses a path which leads toward a resolution and return to harmony. These resolutions meet the necessities imposed by each story and issue messages of hope. 62

Plot Patterns

The reader who looks at the body of Paterson's works through

literary eyes recognizes distinguishable patterns to the plotting of

the novels. A recognition of this connectedness enriches the reading experience.

For instance, one way to chart plot development is to record the

pattern of the rising action and to identify the climax and denouement.

This climax is followed by a denoument, a brief subsiding and wrapping

up of the details. The plots of the Paterson's novels are structured on continually rising action which builds to a climax late in the novels, followed by a brief ending. Jacob Have I Loved and Bridge to

Terabithia typify this pattern. For instance, Louise's feelings of

hatred and guilt build in intensity for eighteen chapters until her mother's demonstration of love frees her to leave the island and build a future. Compressed into the closing chapters of the novel are the details of her new life and evidence that she has reconciled her

b itte r feelings. This pattern is repeated in Bridge to Terabithia as the action slowly rises, focusing on Jess and Leslie's friendship, and climaxes with her accidental drowning late in the novel. The conclusion centers on Jess's acceptance of Leslie's death and his recognition that he can go on alone.

The slowly rising action in all of the plots is determined by

Paterson's use of conflict as a vehicle to move the plots along and to shape events and characters. Paterson's novels center on characters, 63

not action, and the characters' struggles with conflicts are the focus

of the novels. For instance, Jess fights his fears and inadequacies and Louise is consumed by guilt and hatred. These central conflicts

determine their reactions to events and people and shape their charac­ ters. The events which represent the climax of the novels force the characters to resolve the conflicts. Jess recognizes that he can

survive alone and share the magic of Terabithia with others. Like­ wise her mother's gesture of love, releases Louise to leave the island and begin to build a new life and find peace in reconciliation.

The denouements of the novels are marked by ambiguity. For,

Paterson's endings invite speculation and readers are confronted with

unanswered questions. Why would Jess allow his sisters to enter

Terabithia? Can Louise really love Caroline? These endings remain true to the characters and events in the novels and confirm the realities the characters live with. Life is unpredictable and its problems are not easily resolved. Paterson's characters are fortified by newly discovered strengths and will not be overwhelmed by problems.

In conclusion, the plot patterns of the novels are characterized by slowing rising action built on characters' struggles with conflicts which climax late in the novels and are resolved in brief denouements.

The pattern is determined by a focus on characters who must overcome these conflicts to achieve a peace which restores harmony to their lives. The framework of the plots allows the characters to live and grow in a realistic world and confirms the author's belief that "fiction allows us to do something that nothing else quite does allows us to enter fully into the lives of other human beings." 65

Footnotes

^Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p,'~35.

2Smith, Lillian, The Unreluctant Years, American Library Association, Chicago,1953, p. 36.

8Brett, Betty Marion, A Study of the Criticism of Children's Literature 1969-79, Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1981.

^Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 61.

51bid., p. 62.

8 I b i d ., p. 110.

^Paterson, Katherine, Angels and Other Strangers Family Christmas S tories, Avon Books, New York, 1979, p. 49.

80 p .C it., p. 118.

^Op.Cit., p. 118.

^Paterson, Katherine, "Sounds in the Heart," The Horn Book Magazine, December, 1981 , pages 695-699.

Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, p. 84.

l^Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 1.

^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 1.

l^Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 1.

15paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, NewYork, 1977. 66

l 6Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 1-2.

^P aterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 9.

l^O p.C it., p. 9.

l^Op.Cit. , p. 156.

20()p.Cit., p. 11.

21 Gordon, John, "On Firm Ground," in The Thorny Paradise Writers on Writing for Children, edited by E. Blishen, Kestrel Books, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1975, p. 34.

22Donnelson, Kenneth L. and Nielsen, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman and Company, 1980, p. 30.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 3.

240 p .C it., p. 37.

2^0p.C it., p. 73.

2^0p.C it., p. 86.

27()p.Cot. > P- 120.

2^0p.C it., p. 130.

29paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 34.

3°Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 124.

^ O p .C it., p. 3.

320p .C it., p. 128.

33()p.Cit., p. 145. ^ O p .C it., p. 146.

■^Op.Cit., p. 147.

^Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 117.

37paterson, Katherine, Jacob HaveI Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 59.

38op.Cit., p. 129.

^^Op.Cit., p. 156.

40paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, NewYork, 1977, p. 57.

O p.Cit., p. 39.

420p.C it., p. 40.

43op.Cit., p. 91.

440p.Cit. , p. 93.

4^0p.C it., p. 114.

460p,C it., p. 120.

4^0p.Cit. , p. 126.

4^Paterson,•Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 94.

4^0p.C it., p. 159.

50op.Cit., p. 161.

51 Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 327. ------68

52Personal interview with the author, June 10, 1983, Norfolk, Virginia.

^Jones, Linda T., "Profile: Katherine Paterson," Language A rts, February, 1981, p. 192.

54paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 7.

55op.C it., p. 76.

5^0p.Cit. , p. 99.

570 p .C it., p. 149.

58paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, NewYork, 1977, p. 8.

59op.C it., p. 85.

5^0p.C it., p. 78.

61 O p.Cit., p. 99.

62op.Cit., p. 100.

53op.Cit., p. 101.

64paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 76.

55op.Cit. , p. 115.

56op.Cit. , p. 132.

67op.C it., p. 135.

68op.C it., p. 124.

5^0p.C it., p. 147.

70Jones, Linda T., "Profile: Katherine Paterson," Language Arts, February, 1981, p. 194. 69

O p.Cit., p. 147.

72paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 38.

73paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 126.

74paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 327.

75paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Avon, New York, 1981, p. 58. CHAPTER THREE

THE AUTHOR’S CRAFT - CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

Paterson's works are centered on memorable characters shaped so

realistically that they live not only in the worlds of the novels, but also in the worlds of the readers. She has observed that, "Fiction allows us to do something that nothing else quite does. It allows us to enter fully into the lives of other human beings."1 Paterson's

readers do enter fully into the turmoil of Gilly's life, the grief which shatters Jess, and the tensions which darken Louise's world.

The characters in the novels are so skillfully developed that they assume distinctive identities and live on in the reader's heart and mind long after the book has been read.

Like the characters in most novels, those in the Paterson novels can be identified as three types - protagonists, antagonists and minor characters. The protagonist in a novel is defined as the central character, one who initiates action and is acted upon. The protagonists in the Paterson novels - Muna, Takiko, Jiro, Jess and Leslie, Gilly, and

Sara Louise are adolescentsand the novels revolve around them. The role of an antagonist is to instigate conflict and confront the pro­ tagonist. This confrontation may be posed by nature, another person, or inner conflict. In the historical novels, the antagonists are events such as war or rioting which engulf the protagonists, as well

70 as the internal conflicts they are struggling with. Sara Louise be­

lieves that Caroline is her foe in Jacob Have I Loved. Takiko must combat the inner turmoil generated by the guilt and vanity which haunt

her. Minor characters function in the novels as agents who expose diverse facets of the protagonist's character and most often serve as

barometers of change in the protagonist. For instance, Muna's rela­ tionship with Kawaki and Akiko in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, offers him an opportunity to trust and care for others and "to know he was someone."2 Further, the evolution of Gilly's bond to W.E. signifies the dismantling of her tough exterior and reveals her increased ability to express love. While the minor characters are less fully developed than the protagonists, their connections to the protagonists are integral to enriching the story.

When a character is fully developed, readers feel that they "know" this person and will speculate about him or her. Paterson recounts her meeting with Eddie Young, a child who needed to know more about

Gilly; "Who was she? Where was she?"3 he demanded of her. For, Gilly was someone Eddy cared about. Paterson believes that young readers need characters they can become involved with:

They must be characters a reader can care about. I don't want to waste my energy reading, and certainly not my energy writing about people I hate. Even when I s ta rt a book with a satisfy ­ ing villian, I seem doomed to care for that person before the end.4

Paterson employs several strategies to shape the major characters into persons readers can care about: revealing what the characters do, 72 revealing what the characters say, revealing what other characters say about them, revealing what the characters think, and revealing how they feel. For instance, much is revealed about the characters by the actions they initiate. Gilly's decision to write her mother capsulizes her anger and frustrations and points her to an unalterable future.

In refusing to return home, the false pride which later humiliates

Takiko surfaces. As the major characters act and are acted upon, their personalities are uncovered and tested.

The author also illuminates the characters by revealing what they say. Most significant is the conversation of Gilly, which Paterson has identified as "outlaw speech," and is characterized by exaggeration and sarcasm. Gilly uses her language as a weapon to wound others as her comment to Agnes Stokes reveals, "You know, don't you, Agnes, it makes me sick just looking at you?"5 and to maintain emotional distance as her reply to Maime demonstrates, "I like moving.... It's boring to stay in one place.Because the protagonists are most often outsiders, without close ties to others, the author reveals little about them through the conversations of others. However, information about Gilly's background is provided in the opening of the novel through Miss E llis' plea to her charge,

I need to feel that you are willing to make some effort.... This will be your third home in less than three years I would be the last person to say that it was all your fault. The Dixon's move to Florida for example. Just one of those unfortunate things. And Mrs. Richmond having to go into the hospital. It 73

seemed to Gilly that there was a long, thought­ ful pause before the caseworker went on - "for her nerves".7

The caseworker's comments hint at Gilly's unruliness and establish

her position as an outsider, two trademarks of her character.

Paterson also develops characters by revealing how they think and

feel. Her use of interior monologue to give readers access to Gilly's

secret thoughts and feelings is a window to the character's world; we

are privy to Gilly's disparaging observations about others and her

situation. Gilly's private declaration of war is particularly reveal­

ing,

Well, I'm eleven now, folks, and, in case you haven't heard, I don't wet my bed anymore. But I am not nice. I am b rillia n t. I am famous across this entire country. Nobody wants to tangle with the great Galadriel Hopkins. I am too clever and too hard to manage. Gruesome Gilly, they call me. She leaned back comfort­ ably. Here I come, Maime baby, ready or not.8

Gilly is the concealed narrator of her story and the reader is an eavesdropper to her thoughts and feelings.

Reader's also share Sara Louise's thoughts and feelings in Jacob

Have I loved because the author has chosen to tell the story from Sara

Louise's point of view. We share Louise's world through her eyes and the focus of the novel is narrow, because Louise's story is "I" centered and warped by time and distance. Most often, Paterson adopts the ominscient or all knowing point of view to reveal the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters in the novel. In Of Nightingales

That Weep for example, readers share not only Takiko's emotions but 74 also Goro's. Adoption of the ominscient point of view insures a balance to the characters' perspectives, yet negates the more intimate bond between the reader and the characters which the use of first person narration or in terio r monologue cements.

Paterson's use of these techniques is judicious as she strives to listen to the voice of each story and serve it. She has remarked that, "As a writer, it is in discovering the particularities of my characters that they cease to be me and begin to grow into them­ selves. A skilled author, Paterson gives her characters permission to be themselves and focuses on uncovering their uniqueness. For instance, in her Newbery Award acceptance speech for Jacob Have I

Loved, Paterson has related that her efforts to tell the story in the third person were squashed by Sara Louise's insistence upon t e l l ­ ing her own story. Paterson listened to that voice and the book is

Sara Louise's. She also listened to the voice which revealed Trotter to her: "I don't know why Maime Trotter is fat or why she is semi- ill iterate or why she isn't a good housekeeper. That's the way she was when I first met her."^ This revelation confirms Paterson's sensitivity to each character's individuality and testifies to her skill in uncovering strengths and weaknesses. Her portrait of Jess in Bridge to Terabithia confirms th is. Jess has the mind of an artist and sees the world through an artist's eyes. Paterson focuses on this outlook in revealing Jess' need to draw, "Jess drew the way some people drink whiskey. The peace would start at the top of his 75 muddled brain and seep down through his tired and tensed up body.

I I Lord, he loved to draw."11 Jess' frustration over his inability to capture Terabithia in a picture is expressed in aesthetic terms, "I just can't get the poetry of the trees.Further, Jess is capti­ vated by the grandeur of the National Gallery and feels a sense of kinship with the paintings. When Leslie dies, Jess throws his paints and pictures in the creek, feeling that all he values is lost and th at, "There was nowhere to go. Nowhere. Ever again.But, Jess' creative talents are not lo st, but re-directed toward building bridges of promise and hope.

An additional strength of Paterson's character portraits is her consistency in remaining true to their characters. Huck has dis­ cussed the importance of consistency in character development:

This consistency should not conform to a pattern but to the true nature of the charac­ ter as the author has presented him. The characters should be presented so that every­ thing they do, think, and say will seem natural and inevitable.^

Given Takiko's vanity and selfishness, it is natural that she would not give up life at court and her lover to aid her family.. Assisting in the birth of the twins, prompts Sara Louise to reflect on her child­ hood and reconcile her feelings for Caroline. A reader's acceptance of the resolution in The Great Gilly Hopkins depends on Paterson's fidelity to Gilly's character as she grows and changes. Because

Gilly has learned to love, she can emphathize with her grandmother's loneliness and recognize her need for Gilly's love. 76

This concept of consistency is tied to that of change, a corner­ stone to character development in the Paterson novels. Paterson has capsulized her philosophy about fiction into one statement, "Something's got to happen, someone's got to c h a n g e . " ^ Her well developed charac­ ters are different people at the end of the novels than at the beginnings because they have changed and the change precipitates conflict resolu­ tion. For instance, Jess accepts his fears, reconciles himself about

Leslie's death and resolves to "... pay back to the world in beauty 1 f and caring what Leslie has loaned him in vision and strength."1

Hideo's rejection of the tattered, disfigured Takiko instigates charac­ te r change as she acknowledges her sins and vows recompensation. As the characters change they belong more completely to themselves and reach toward inner peace. Readers need to see how these characters evolve because they "... cannot rejoice in the arrival of a character unless they know where the character started."^ Paterson's characters s ta rt within her and grow and change as she releases them to live in their story worlds.

Outsi ders

Paterson writes of characters who can be labeled as outsiders, people who are alienated from the world and others. This alienation may be imposed by external forces as Muna'a status as an illegitim ate orphan separates him from societal acceptance or self-inflicted as

Sara Louise blames her discontent on Caroline. The novels chart each character's entrance into a world of acceptance by others and of self. 77

The author's childhood background is tied to her propensity for develop­

ing characters who are outsiders. Like Jess, she is the middle child of five, a perilous position, as she was wedged between the older and younger children and claimed by neither group. Life as the child of parents who were missionaries in China and Japan guaranteed a transient lifestyle and Paterson moved eighteen times during her childhood and youth. When imminent war forced the Womelford family to return to

America, Paterson became a refugee in her own country and the children at school labeled this solitary child who spoke English with a British accent and wore clothes from the missionary barrel , "a Jap". She felt alienated and a loner recalling that, "I hated America. When I was in

first grade I didn't get any valentines. I don't think I was disliked.

I was totally overlooked."^ These feelings are amplified in her characters who give them a voice and make them their own. Certainly

Louise feels overlooked as does Jiro. Paterson's heritage as a

Southerner acquainted her with lost causes and she confesses to a sympathy for the underdog. This helps to explain her identification in the novels set in Japan with the Heike Clan who like the Rebels were stripped of their power and glory. Paterson's history as an outsider stamps her outlook on the world as is noted in a profile of the author written by her friend, Gene, who observes that

Certainly the child who twice fled China because of imminent wars and who fe lt herself an outsider and a misfit in a succession of American schools is very much alive in the adult Katherine Paterson. She remembers how i t feels to be uncertain of 78

acceptance, to fear ridicule, to be dependent on the moods and will of those in authority who may be - or seem to be (which is the same for a child) uncaring or even m alevolent.^

The character, Jesse Aarons, who yearns to be the best at "something" feels powerless to conquer his fears and precariously walks the tight­ rope of family tension, seems to spring from this well of emotion as do other characters in the novels.

In establishing these characters as outsiders who must find their own ways into the world, the author must first liberate them, giving them freedom to act and react: "A child in a protected situation as most children are, can't have adventures, really. Something's got to take off his protectors. A child has to make it on his own."20 In each novel, Paterson establishes a pattern of removing each major character's protectors and emphasizing their positions as outsiders.

The characters often form alliances with minor characters who are also alienated, reinforcing the concept of the outsider. For instance, the f ir s t chapter of The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, title d "The Orphan", quickly establishes Muna's solitary plight and affirms his resolve to find his father and claim a place in the world: "I will be someone to be reckoned with in this world. No longer will men spit on me and call me Muna-the nameless o n e ."21 Robbed of parents and a place in the world which a name guarantees, Muna journeys in search of his father. He is temporarily protected by the opportunistic Takanobu, a ronin who lives outside the law. Takanobu, an outsider, like Muna, exploits the boy.

He finds Muna a position in the stables of the Imperial Guards requiring 79 information and money as repayment. The orphan's job rather than offering security, increases Muna's alienation because he continues to be a spectator, never a participant and complains that "It is as though we were outcasts.Muna is again displaced when he is overcome with smoke while trying to rescue Takanobu from a burning tavern and is saved by the respected swordmaker, Fukuji. While the craftsman offers

Muna food, shelter, and an opportunity to earn his keep, the boy is alienated from his benefactor by his feeling of inadequacy and his realization that "... he was not to enter the forge, for it was like the holy place in a shrine that no one could enter but the priest."23

Fukuji is himself an outsider, accustomed to living and working alone.

While Muna finds acceptance and friendship with the sandalmaker Kawaki and his daughter, Akiko, the g irl's assignment by her uncle to a brothel and his futile rescue effort irritates his helplessness and emphasizes his alienation. Muna's desperate need to belong motivates him to steal a sword from Fukuji and confront Takanobu, who claims to be his father. Takanobu's rejection seals Muna's doom and the boy exiles himself to life among the desitute at Rashomon Gate.

Takiko, the protagonist in Of Nightingales That Weep also chooses exile. Boredom with her family and jealousy toward her brother, Ichiro, motivates the talented musician to leave her family and accept a court position rationalizing that "... if she had such beauty and such talent, wasn't it right that she should share it?"24 Yet, Takiko's talent and beauty separate her from those envious of her youth and skills, like 80 the Princess Aoi. In choosing to side with the Heike Clan during the

Gempei War and fleeing the capital with the Emperor's court, Takiko places herself in opposition to her lover, Hideo, an enemy soldier and moves further from the protection of her family. Takiko's traitorous affair places her in limbo as she wishes for Heike victory, yet prays for Hideo's safety. Her tie to Hideo compels Takiko to refuse Goro's request that she return home to help her family, thus setting into motion an unalterable course of events and severing her ties to her family. A Genji victory assures Takiko's ousting from the security of the Emperor's family and she is exiled to life on Goro's farm to wait for Hideo's rescue. Goro's wrath further alienates Takiko from a human bond as does Hideo's rejection, which signals the shattering of his fragile dreams, leaving Takiko vulnerable and alone. It is Goro, another outsider, who eventually becomes her refuge and he teaches her that inner strength surpasses physical beauty.

In The Master Puppeteer, Jiro is also vulnerable and alone, an outsider in the competitive world of the Hanaza Theater. Overwhelmed by his feelings of inadequacy and shunned by his mother, Jiro's decision to leave home and become an apprentice to Yoshida isolates him from his family and forces him into a world where he must make his own way.

Ironically, the stifling poverty which engulfs his family forces his father and mother to join groups of outsiders. Hanji's allegiance to

Saburo leads him to deceive his family and abandon them and the solitary Isako's destitution compels her to join the militant night 81 rovers. Another alienated character, Kinshi, beaten down by his father's contempt and indignance about Yoshida's disdain for the poor, separates himself from friends and families to surreptitiously aid the rebels. Yoshida is also an outsider. Kinshi confides to Jiro that

My father was not a warrior. Indeed, when he chose to become a puppeteer - in order to eat regularly without actually stealing - he separated himself from all that is honorable in our society and made himself an outcast.25

The tyrant's role as Saburo's confidante also designates him as an outsi der.

The pattern the author creates in the historical novels of develop­ ing the protagonists as outsiders, as well as minor characters is repeated in her re a lis tic works. Gilly, who belongs to no one, yet is sustained by illusions of living with her mother is fueled by the anger and frustration of her alienation. A foster child, who has been in three homes in three years, Gilly takes refuge in her tough speech and defiant posture, fighting off those who try to get close to her. She is always out of place until she joins another "family" of misfits,

Maime Trotter, W.E., and Mr. Randolph. Maime Trotter, an overweight, semi-illiterate, veteran foster mother who "... never met a kid I couldn't make friends with,"26 meets Gilly's harsh rebuffs with gentle love and recognizes that, "Somebody's got to favor Gilly for a little while. She's long overdue."27 Though Maime is herself an outsider, she functions in the novel as a protector or sheperd of her flock of m isfits - Gilly, W.E., and Mr. Randolph. W.E., weighted down by feelings of insecurity and ineptitude, is buoyed by Maime's strength and faith 82 in him. Gilly, at first his tormentor, becomes his ally as she recognizes that "W.E. wasn't a fluted antique in Mrs. Nevin's china cupboard. He was a kid - a foster kid. And if he didn't toughen up, what would happen when there was no Trotter to look after him?"28 The two children strengthen each other as W.E. learns to love Gilly and she learns to accept and return his love. Maime Trotter also harbors another outsider, her blind neighbor, Mr. Randolph. As Gilly responds to his approval and acceptance she learns that loving crosses racial barriers. These outsiders - Maime, W.E., and Mr. Randolph - become

Gilly's "family" and each character's relationship with Gilly permits her to discover something about herself. From Maime she learns love and acceptance and, "Life a in 't supposed to be nothing, 'cept maybe tough . "29 W.E.'s need for her awakens feelings of empathy and patience and Mr. Randolph's act of forgiveness designates her as a person of value. In addition, two minor characters, Agnes Stokes and Miss Harris are outsiders. Agnes, another abandoned child, serves as a reminder to

Gilly of her own isolation and triggers a fear that she is like the pitiful child. Miss Harris, Gilly's black teacher, who refuses to make a special case of her student forces Gilly to recognize that she's motivated by anger. The teacher's response to the "anonymous" greeting card Gilly fashions, "You and I are two of the angriest people I know.",30 amplifies G illy's desperation and convinces her that she must run away. Gilly's grandmother is also an outsider who lives alone with memories and questions without answers. So too is her mother, 83

Courtney, a "flower child" who abandoned her parents and her child.

Because the novel, The Great Gilly Hopkins, revolves around charac­ ters who are m isfits, the concept of the outsider dominates the work.

While Gilly wears her status as an outsider openly, like a badge,

Jess' feelings of inadequacy and alienation hide within, choking him.

He is dominated by fears and a sense that he doesn't belong. His

position as the middle child of five makes him an outsider in his

family and, "Sometimes he fe lt so lonely among all these females even the one rooster had died and they hadn't yet gotten another."31 Jess' fantasy that he is a foundling separated from his real family, "who have rooms filled with nothing but books and who still grieve for their baby who was stolen,"32 intensifies his alienation. His distance from a father who seems to favor his daughters gnaws at the sensitive boy who struggles to make his dad proud. The boy's artistic talents separate him from his peers who value athletic prowess more than

Jess' humorous drawings. Jess' efforts toward earning the title of the fastest runner in fifth grade are motivated by a need to throw off the label of "that crazy little kid that draws all the time."33

It is Leslie who brings him inside'to a world of imagination and friendship and unto himself. Like Jess, Leslie is an outsider, but one who is comfortable with her status. Her designation as "the new kid in school" automatically sets her apart as does her casual dress. In addition, Leslie's family background and childhood experiences shape her unique outlook on the world. Her parents are authors and she calls them Bill and Judy. The family's move to rural Virginia is prompted 84 by a need to assess their value structure and they have no television set. While the other children are captivated by television and games,

Leslie is involved in scuba diving and fantasy books. The creation of the magic kingdom of Terabithia gives Leslie and Jess a place to belong and to be rulers of something. Inside the kingdom, the two escape from th eir troubles at school and home. Leslie's acceptance of Jess strengthens him and he gains freedom to wonder and imagine.

When Leslie is killed, Jess feels betrayed and abandoned, an outsider again. Yet, the hidden strength Leslie helped him gain surfaces and he recognizes that he will share Terabithia with others.

Jess is connected to another outsider in the novel, Miss Edmunds, the music teacher. The teacher's informal dress and relaxed rapport with students sets her apart from other teachers. Although the students label her a hippie and a peacenik her music fills them with joy. She recognizes Jess' talents and encourages him. He calls her his fella outlaw and believes that, "We're alike, Jess would tell himself, me and

Miss Edmunds. We don't belong at Lark Creek, Julia and m e . "34 Like

Leslie, Miss Edmunds opens doors for Jess and confirms his value.

Unlike Jess, Sara Louise is alone in her fight to find herself and she tells her own story, not willing to share it with anyone else. This focused concentration denies readers access to other viewpoints. Her battle replays the struggle in the biblical tale of Jacob and Esau, the root of sibling conflict. Like Esau, Louise is supplanted by her twin Caroline, whom she feels robs her of the affection of her parents, 85 her friends and the opportunity to succeed. It is ironic that the similarity which twinship usually guarantees is absent and disparity is emphasized instead. Caroline seems to be everything Louise is not, beautiful, talented, and adored. At thirteen, Louise believes, that she is "... tall and large boned with delusions of grandeur and beauty."35 she clings to her misery and feeds it with hatred and guilt. Her pious grandmother's taunts act to rub salt or, the girl's raw wounds as she torments Louise: "Romans nine thirteen," she said. "As it is w ritten, Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated."36 The speaker is God and Louise feels robbed of his benevolence and deserted:

"It was God himself who hated me ... and without cause."3?

The setting of the novel, Rass Island, works as a double agent, operating both as a literary symbol of Louise's alienation and as her refuge. Sara Louise feels trapped on the steadily eroding island, which is being consumed by the sea much as Louise's soul is disentegrating.

The captain reminds her th a t, "Sara Louise, you were never meant to be a woman on this island. A man, perhaps. Never a woman."38 Her hopes for a future lie in escape and her decision to leave it and go to medi­ cal school does set her free to grow. Louise is denied entrance to medical school , but chooses nursing and opts to practice in the rural

Appalachian community of Truitt noting th at, "A mountain-locked valley is more like an island than anything else I know."^9 In this mountain island, however, Louise is no longer isolated but loves, establishes a family, and is reconciled to her feelings for Caroline. Rass Island 86 also becomes a haven for Louise. She becomes her father's partner and recalls th at, "I suppose i f I were to try and stick a pin through that most elusive spot 'the happiest days of my life' that strange winter on the Portia Sue with my father would have to be indicated."40 She finds peace in the solitude and contentment in the work and is insulated from the tensions of home.

Louise’s friendship with Captain Wallace, another outsider who left the island in shame and returns in humility, brings her both joy and despair. She rejoices in the companionship he offers Louise and

Call as they joke and work together. Yet she is mortified by the feel­ ings she experiences when she embraces him as a gesture of comfort.

Louise regards her act a sin and avoids the captain, further exiling herself. She later realizes that she loves him and regards his marriage to Trudy Braxton and his gift to Caroline as acts of rejection. He eventually saves Louise by prodding her to make the choice to leave the island.

Thus, one trademark of Paterson's technique of developing charac­ ters is their designation as outsiders. In removing their protective barriers and forcing them to face the world alone, she gives them free­ dom to act and react. They must make th eir own ways in the world and are often aided by others who are alienated. Their alienation is not a permanent state but a testing ground as they eventually find their own individuality. 87

Choice and Change

The power of choice enables the protagonists to change their status as outsiders and to resolve conflicts. For, in making their own ways in the world, the characters change and they grow in their abilities to accept the consequences of their choices. Paterson's philosophy of fictio n , "Something got to happen, someone's got to change. If nobody changes, i t 's not truly fic tio n ," ^ dictates this emphasis on choice and change in the novels. The characters' choices initiate actions which force them to change. As outsiders they are often free to act, especially Gilly and Muna. Although Paterson feels that her pro­ tagonists are also restricted in their freedom stating, "I look at my people and I think so often they are being acted upon as much as they're acting ... You are very limited in what you can actually do about a situation when you're young,they grab the freedom to make the critical decisions which change their lives.

The choice which marks the turning point in Muna's life is pre­ cipitated by anger and desperation. Fukuji does not offer Muna an apprenticeship and his fu tile efforts to rescue Akiko leave him broken and embittered. Feeling that the world is against him, the orphan vows,

"... They will not get me - that, at least, I promise. I will use them as they used me. I will snatch my fortune from their grasping hands."43

Muna contrives a devious plan and steals the sword from Fukuji, which

Takanobu has demanded. This reckless, desperate attempt fails when

Takanobu refuses to claim Muna and the boy flees in terror. Muna's choice proves disastorous and he buries the evidence and sentences him­ self to join the creatures at the gates of Rashomon "whose towers some said held the rotting flesh of the outcast dead and under whose shadow crept the scum of the living."44 The shadows of the guilt and degrada­ tion he accepts are the consequences of his choice. The reappearance of the woodcutter who knows Muna hid the sword compels him to uncover it and this act awakens the memories of Fukuji which the desperate boy buried with the sword. When an enemy soldier corners Muna and demands the sword, the memories overwhelm Muna and he chooses to take it home. Fukuji embraces and forgives Muna and he works diligently to please the swordmaker. The ramifications of Muna's choices later confront him and he realizes that his desperate efforts committed in his desire to find a name were fu tile because, "He was what he was.

No other name could change th a t."45 Muna's choice to retain his name signals his growth fostered in meeting the tests the consequences of his choices posed. He is like one of Fukuji's swords, engraved with the motto: "Through fire is the spirit forged."46

Takiko's spirit is also forged through fire. Her life is marked by choices which testify to her vanity and selfishness - the decision to leave home, her traitorous love affair, and her reluctance to leap overboard with the Emperor's family to escape capture by the Genji.

It is her refusal to return with Goro and help her pregnant mother, a choice motivated by her reluctance to leave Hideo which portends dire consequences. Goro is forced to request the help of the servant Fusa 89 who is soon ravished by a plague which also conquers Takiko's mother

and brother. Goro blames Takiko for the tragedy: "If the girl had

come home - but she had refused. He would have killed her i f he c o u ld . Takiko expectantly returns home to wait for Hideo only to

face ruin and the wrath of Goro. When Hideo does come, he rejects the disfigured, tattered girl, a cruel act which forces Takiko to recognize

the consequences of her choices,

Everything became clear: Her father's death. The coming of her mother and herself to Goro's estate in Shiga - her fear and jealousy - the meeting with Hideo through Princess Aoi - going to court and into exile. Her traitorous love affair - her refusal to return with Goro - her cowardice in the face of death - her homecoming to Goro's bitterness and the accident. Now this. But this at last had made everything clear, and she knew what must be done to make recompense.48

This awakening to the consequences of her choices kindles Takiko's

resolve to change. Her decision to enter a convent is motivated by a desire to "repay the debt of her self-pride and whatever sins of her

former lives that had brought her family and her clan to ru in s."49

Yet, the Empress who is exiled to life as a nun guides Takiko to

realize that her music can s till heal and she should use her power.

Takiko chooses to marry Goro and "heal all the terrib le wounds on his torn and battered soul."50 Takiko gives birth to their child at the novel's close, a birth which symbolizes the new beginning determined by the consequences of her choices and her growth and change.

Gilly's life is a series of new beginnings - in one foster home after another. She chooses to subvert efforts to love her and as the 90 social worker, Miss Ellis points out, "... goes around booby trapping h e rse lf."52 Gilly has learned to survive by assuming control of people and situations, giving her freedom to make the choices that control her destiny. She manipulates W.E. and Agnes and steals money from

Mr. Randolph to buy a ticket to San Francisco to be with her mother.

Her scheme backfires and a desperate Gilly makes a serious mistake.

She writes a le tte r to Courtney which labels Maime as a religious fanatic and W.E. as mentally retarded. Gilly begs Courtney to rescue her. Paterson discusses Gilly's choice and its repercussions:

When Gilly decided to write her mother and lie to her, slant, at least the situation she's in, that's a very bad choice from our point of view and of course the ending of the book is affected and she's sorry she made it. But, she has to live with i t , the consequences of it. That's the way life is. We have to live by the choices that we make. She calculated it to get her mother to a c t, but her mother didn't act the way she thought she would.52

Nothing turns out as Gilly expected. She didn't foresee that she would adopt Maime, W.E., and Mr. Randolph as her family. She did not expect that Courtney would send G illy's grandmother to claim her or that she would experience pain in leaving Thompson Park. The love and acceptance she found there changed her and for once she knows that needing also meansbeing needed. In the aftermath of the pain, the consequences of her rash choice jar the realization that "... now she had to face the fact that Courtney had not come. Perhaps Courtney would never come.

Perhaps Courtney did not want to come."53 Courtney doesn't want to come, but does, because Nonnie pays her to. At their meeting, a 91 lifetim e of illusions crumbles "It was a lie . Gilly had thrown away her whole life for a stinking lie."^ A desperate Gilly calls Trotter.

It is Maime who reminds her that life offers no guarantees. Gilly's confession of love for Trotter makes her strong enough to accept that home is with her grandmother.

Life has always been tough for Louise who feels robbed of choices.

Louise's antipathy paralyzes her and she suffocates in her indecision.

Unlike Caroline who always knew what she wanted, Louise does not. In refusing to make choices to improve her situation she makes what

Paterson refers to as a "not choice. "55 The consequence of her "not choice" is growing malcontent. However, the captain forces Louise to recognize that she can choose, "Don't tell me no one ever gave you a chance. You don't need anything given to you. You can make your own chances. But firs t you have to know what you're a fte r, my dear."56

Louise confesses to a vague desire to see the mountains and to become a doctor but offers the lame excuse that her family needs her. Anger and frustration continue to boil inside Louise as she berates her mother for the choice she made - to trade poetry and Paris for Rass

Island. In explaining her choice her mother says,

"I chose. No one made me become what I am. ... I chose the island," she said. "I chose to leave my own people and build a life for myself somewhere else. I certainly wouldn't deny you that same choice. But, ... oh, Louise we will miss you, your father and I." '

The act of choosing accelerates Louise's growth as her own person.

She completes nursing school, picks an assignment in an Appalachian 92 community, and marries, establishing a family there. Choice liberates

Louise, for once she exercises it she breaks the shackles which bound her to despair and finds joy in the fruits of her decision.

Jess also feels overwhelmed and powerless to make the choices that would let him vanquish his fears and prove his worth. Yet, his decision to make Leslie his friend, "He felt there in the teacher's room that it was the beginning of a new season in his life, and he chose deliberately to make it s o ,"58 in itia tes him into the world of

Terabithia where he and Leslie are rulers and the magic of Terabithia and Leslie transforms him. Jess gains the inner strength of self- respect, learns about himself and the world of imagination and knows that he is a force of change. But Leslie and Jess cannot control nature or fate and the girl's accidental drowning numbs Jess who is angry because "... she had left him stranded there - like an astronaut wandering about on the moon. Alone."59 Yet, the new Jessie will not be swallowed up by despair. He accepts that Leslie is not lost for­ ever, but will always be part of him: "Now it was time for him to move out. She wasn't there, so he must go for both of them. It was up to him to pay back to the world in beauty and caring what Leslie had loaned him in vision and strength."80 jess' acceptance inspires his choice to build a bridge to Terabithia and share the wonder of the kingdom with

MayBelle, a choice which makes all the difference for as a builder,

Jess is a planner, a dreamer, and an initiator who welcomes others in.

Jiro, the protagonist of The Master Puppeteer is welcomed into the secret world of the puppet theater by Kinshi, who shares secrets 93 and scripts with him. Jiro recognizes that his choice to leave home and become an apprentice has changed him:

Perhaps it was good for him his new life at the Hanaza. He was outgrowing the fearful stumbling child he had been. Thanks to Kinshi, he was gaining a confidence in himself that he had never had before. Despite his mother's curse, he would become an honor to his father's name.61

When Jiro discovers the sword which seems to identify Yoshida as

Saburo, his allegiance to Kinshi drives him to forfeit the reward and choosesilence. Later, the bonds of friendship compel him to choose to reveal his knowledge to Okado, an act which jeopardizes his life .

In the end, armed with information which could destroy the Hanaza,

Kinshi, and Jiro's family, the apprentice puppeteer keeps his secret.

Jiro's choices have forced him to grow from an insecure child, dependent on others to his own master.

The concepts of choice and change are primary agents of character development in the novels. The consequences of the choices the pro­ tagonists make force them to grow and earn their own places in the world. This emphasis is dictated to by Paterson's maxim, "Something's got to happen, someone's got to change. If nobody changes, i t 's not truly fic tio n ."63 Yes, something does happen, and someone does change.

Naming

The power of a name'is central in many works of literature and is emphasized in three of Paterson's novels - The Sign of the Chrysanthemum,

Jacob Have I Loved and The Great Gilly Hopkins. A name can connect characters to others, as Muna's search for a name signifies or indicate 94 personality as the name, Galadriel, implies. Names can become the charac­ ters other selves and symbols of their identities. Louise resents the nickname, Wheeze, because it robs her of dignity. The concept of naming operates in the Paterson novels to add texture to the stories and characters.

Paterson has noted that naming is central in Oriental cultures where a name indicates a person's status in society and family. Boys who reach the age of manhood choose the names that they will carry and pass on to their children. This theme is the focus of The Sign of the

Chrysanthemum. Muna's name is a joke name, meaning "no name." It was given to him by the daiymo who thought it an amusing choice for a bastard serf. The name makes Muna a target for ridicule and he reflects th a t, "All the insults of a lifetim e were bound up with the name "no nam e."62 The desperate orphan journeys to search for his unknown father clinging to the hope that acquiring a family name will assure him of respect and a place in society. The trials Muna endures force him to realize th at, "He was what he was. No other name would change t h a t."63 MUna chooses to keep his name, a decision which earns him a place with Fukuji and a future of hope.

Sara Louise also fights for dignity and respect. She resents the nickname, Wheeze, which Caroline has given her protesting, "Don't call me Wheeze'. I'm a person, not a disease symptom."64 Louise adds the insult of the nickname to the catalog of wrongs committed against her by Caroline as further proof that the twin has robbed her of everything. 95

Later in the novel, names play a role in Louise's discovery of herself and her reconciliation with her family. In choosing a community to practice nursing in, the name Truitt attracts her and she goes there.

Truitt is her father's name and perhaps Louise believes it an omen of good luck. She finds acceptance and lives in the community and names her newborn son, T ru itt, a choice which reaffirms the tie to her father. Later, the act of naming forces the turning point in Louise's reconciliation to her sister Caroline and her family.

In delivering the twins,she replays the story of her birth. Paterson has noted that Louise's naming of the weaker twin, Essie Susan, makes her focus on her life and appreciate what her mother went t h r o u g h .65

There is significance to the name she picks, Essie Susan. Essie echoes of Essau while Susan is her mother's name. At last she under­ stands her mother's choice to give attention to Caroline, the weaker.

Louise's reconciliation to her past is confirmed at the novel's close when the voice she hears is her sister, Caroline's, an acceptance triggered by the act of naming.

Gilly's acceptance of her given name, Galadriel , at the novel's close marks her change in character. At first the name sets Gilly apart from others because it is d iffic u lt to pronounce and unusual. She also uses her name to defy those she is trying to control. When Trotter calls her Gilly at their first meeting, the girl insists on Galadriel, to assert her independence. She stubbornly demands that Miss Harris call her Gilly, as a way of serving notice to the teacher that she is 96

in control. It is not until Gilly leaves Thompson Park and begins to

accept life with her grandmother, that she recognizes the significance

of her name. Miss Harris sends her the Tolkien books and Gilly dis­

covers that Galadriel was a queen. She thanks the teacher, writing,

"The books by J.R.R. Tolkien came the day after your le tte r. Now I

know who Galadriel was."66 Because Gilly now knows who she is , she

can appreciate the magic of her name, and its legacy of greatness. Her

request that she now be called Galadriel is a sign of promise for her

future.

The significance of naming in the three novels adds texture to

each character's development. Naming serves as an indicator of personal­

ity and can establish position in family or society. It can influence

how others react to the main characters. Paterson uses the concept of

naming to reveal characters and add dimension to her portrayal of them.

Summary

While some books are remembered for th eir plots, i t is the charac­

ters who live on in the Paterson's novels. Who can forget Gilly, Louise

or Jess? The author is committed to shaping characters whom readers will care about and to discover their individuality and reveal it to

readers. In exposing their uniqueness, she creates realistic, multi­

dimensional characters. She is guided by her philosophy, "Something's

got to happen, someone's got to change," to develop these characters.67

Each protagonist changes in response to choices they make and resolves the conflicts which have separated them for themselves and others. At each novel's close, they are all like Gilly, "trailing clouds of glory."68 97

Footnotes

I Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 58.

2paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 80.

■^Op.Cit., p. 14.

4lbid. , p. 37.

5paterson, Katherine, The GreatGilly H o p k in s , Avon, New Y ork, 1978, p. 45.

6Ibid., p. 8.

7lbid., pp. 1-2.

81 bid. , p. 3.

9paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 77.

^Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 326.

II Paterson, Katherine, Bridqe to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 10.

12ib id ., p. 40.

13ibid. , p. 115.

^Huck, Charlotte, Children's Literature in the Elementary School, Third Edition Updated, New York, 1979, p. 9.

15personal interview with the author, June10, 1983, N o r f o lk , Va.

1^Paterson, Katherine, Bridqe to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 126.

l^Donelson, Kenneth L., Nilsen, Aleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980, p. 38. 98

l^Buckley, Virginia, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book. August 1978, p. 370.

^Namovicz, Gene Inyart, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August 1981 , p. 399.

20personal interview with the author, June10, 1983, N o r f o lk , Va.

21 Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 3.

22Ib id ., p. 30.

23ibid., p. 47.

24paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales that Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 39.

25paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell,1975, p. 38.

26paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 6.

2?Ibid., p. 94.

281bid., p. 99.

2^ib id ., p. 147.

30ib id ., p. 58.

31 Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 15.

32Ib id ., p. 58.

33ibid., p. 4.

34ib id ., p. 14.

35paterson, Katherine,Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, pp. 12-13.

36ibid., p. 129. 99

371bid. , p. 131.

38Ib id ., p. 156.

3 9 ib id . , p. 167.

40Ibid., p. 135.

4TPersonal interview with the author, June 10, 1983, Norfolk, Va.

^2 ibid.

48Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 86.

44ib id ., p. 45.

45ib id ., p. 130.

46Ib id ., p. 132.

47paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Avon, New York, 1974, p. 122.

48Ibid., p. 161.

49ibid., p. 165.

501bid., p. 168.

Slpaterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, p. 121.

^Personal interview with the author, June 10, 1983, Norfolk, Va.

53op.C it. , p. 130.

840 p .C it., p. 146.

88Personal interview with the author, June 10, 1983, Norfolk, Va.

56paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 156. 100

^^Ibid. , p. 163.

CO Paterson, Katherine, Bridqe to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 31.

59Ibid., p. 114.

60Ib id ., p. 126.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 48.

62personal interview with the author,June 10, 1983, N o r f o lk , Va.

63()p.Cit.., p. 17.

64paterson, Katherine,Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 122.

^ P e r s o n a l interview with the author, June 10, 1983, Norfolk, Va.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 138.

67op.Cit.

880 p .C it., p. 38. CHAPTER FOUR

THE AUTHOR'S CRAFT - SETTING

Plots are generated and characters live within Paterson's care­

fully defined story worlds, or settings. These worlds may be as

elaborately detailed as Rass Island in Jacob Have I Loved or as

deliberately vague as the setting in The Great Gilly Hopkins.

These settings function to create the context of time and place in

the novels and to shape action, characters and themeJ The author

fashions settings which don't overwhelm the stories but support them

with references to what is seen, heard, touched or smelled by the

characters. Paterson's readers can share with Louise " ... the faint

hay smell of the grass mingling with that of the brackish water of

the bay"2 or the magnificence of cherry trees in full bloom as Muna

walks beneath "the pale pink arcade."3 The settings of the novels

function in several ways. A tone and mood of magic and imagination is

established in Bridqe to Terabithia with the creation of the fantasy

kingdom on a tiny island. Details of the rituals and customs of life

in feudal Japan give the readers of The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Of

Nightingales That Weep and The Master Puppeteer the basic information

they need to relate to an unfamiliar world. Rass Island in Jacob Have

I Loved symbolizes Louise's isolation, while the lack of specificity

in describing Thompson Park foreshadow's Gilly's short stay there.

The setting often serves several functions in the story. The orderly

101 102

world of the puppet theater in The Master Puppeteer contrasts with the

societal chaos and introduces the theme of manipulation.

There are basically two kinds of settings in novels - integral

and backdrop.^ An integral setting is an essential component of the

plot, while a setting which functions as a backdrop operates much as

the scenery in a play does. The settings of The Sign of the Chrysanthemum,

Of Nightingales That Weep and The Master Puppeteer as well as Bridge to

Terabithia and Jacob Have I Loved are integral , working to determine

characters and events in the novels. The less defined world of The

Great Gilly Hopkins operates more as backdrop. Although Paterson offers enough details so that the setting comes alive, i t 's vague enough so

that readers can imagine the story happening in th e ir own hometown or at

least in one they know.5

Three of the novels, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Of Nightingales

That Weep and The Master Puppeteer are classified as historical fiction

and the success of these novels depends on the author's skill to repre­

sent an authentic world. She draws on her life experiences in the Orient

and has stated that "... I discovered that a historical setting provides

a rich warp for a writer's woof."^ Paterson's task is to reconstruct

time and place and to faithfully document life in feudal Japan. Her aim

is to provide enough concrete details to make the world real to the

reader, yet not so many as to overshadow the story:

In historical novels, the writer is free to anchor her characters with every fact of life she wants to use - the only lim it being on de­ tails that would impede the progress of the 103

story and therefore drive off all but the most doggedly determined of readers.?

Readers can discover facts of historical life in reference books; historical fiction breathes life into them. Paterson is very conscious of the contemporary perceptions which influence her view of history and has stated,

... I do not forget that it is my twentieth century Western mind that s ifts those far away events and introduces to the reader the characters who allegedly took part in them. My books are not Japanese novels. They are Western novels about Japan.8

These historical novels demonstrate the universality of the human condition and testify to the connectedness of the world. The details of the settings allow her characters to live realistic lives in their worlds, while making us more aware of our own.

Integral Settings - Historical Fiction

In shaping the plots and characters of her historical novels,

Paterson is guided by the demands of the setting:

First I have to search the setting for the warp of my story. Setting for me is not a background against which a story is played out, but the very stuff with which the story will be woven. The characters will not determine the setting, but the setting to a great extent will determine both what they will be like and how they will act.9

For The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, the author searched the setting to pull out the information about class structures which determined the characters and their actions. In feudal Japan, Muna's status as an illegitimate peasant orphan would doom him to an existence in servitude. 104

A name in Oriental cultures reflects one's personality and status;

Muna's name, "no name", makes him a target for jokes and ridicule.

The character's desperate situation motivates him to search for his father, a Heike samurai, and claim the honor due a samurai's son.

The historical reality of the existence of ronins, renegade samurais, gives rise to the character, Takanobu, who becomes Muna's temporary protector. Because ronins followed their own codes of conduct,

Paterson was free to shape a character who acted without scruples and who was driven by greed and self-indulgence. This greed is an agent of conflict in the novel , for how else was Paterson to place Muna in a dilemma where he was forced to choose between Fukuji and honor or

Takanobu and a father's name and protection? The creation of the character, Fukuji, also has roots in history. In a society which recognized an appreciated craftsmanship and artistry, a master sword- maker would be revered. Muna's relationship with the swordmaker allows him to eventually discover his self-worth and find the status which had eluded him. The shaping of Fukuji's character also permitted the author to introduce the theme of the novel - "Through fire is the s p irit forged- " ^ because Muna is like a sword, subjected to numerous tr ia ls , yet emerging whole. Paterson's shaping of Kawaki the sandal- maker and his daughter Akiko is also influenced by the setting. The impoverished craftsman dies and leaves his beautiful daughter alone.

Fidelity to the demands of history compelled Paterson to be honest about Akiko's future - her uncle places her in a brothel. Paterson explains her decision, 105

In The Sign of the Chrysanthemum Akiko ended up in a brothel not because I wanted to scandalize my readers, not because I'm advocating legal prostitution, but-because in twelfth century Japan, a beautiful thirteen year old girl with no protector would have ended up in a brothel. And the penniless boy who loved her would indeed have been powerless to save her.

Muna's powerlessness forces his decision to steal the sword and is reinforced in his existence among the beggars of the Rashomon Gate, a reality of life in historical Heiankyo. Thus, the historical setting of the novel is the force which determines characters and their actions.

The re a litie s of time and place also shape Takiko in Of Nightingales

That Weep. Paterson explains the influence: "She turned, you see, in the course of the story, into a human being, set in a specific time in history and in an actual geographic location, both of which conspired against her budding feminism."12 History proves a relentless conspirator.

Takiko's position as the daughter of Lord Moriyuki, who fought and died for the Heike cause, determines her allegiance to the Emperor during the

Gempei War. Her alliance confirms Hideo, a soldier/spy for the Genji, as her enemy and establishes the central conflict of the novel and molds her character. Further, at a time in her life when beautiful young girls entertain dreams of marriage, Takiko's life in exile demands that she devote her energies to entertaining the ailing boy-Emperor and pray­ ing for a Heike victory - and Hideo's safety. When the war is over, she retreats to Goro's farm, only to be robbed of happiness. Takiko's family is victimized by famine and plague and she must eke out an existence with the embittered Goro. The rigors of poverty destroy her beauty and she loses the musical skill and talent which brought her

recognition. Hideo later rejects her and she moves to establish a new lif e , "to change the fragile d r e a m . The old dream has been destroyed by the events of history which enveloped her.

The settings of The Master Puppeteer, the puppet theater and eighteenth century, Osaka, Japan, also determine character and action.

Paterson discusses the richness of the two settings:

The firs t was that of the puppet theater its e lf , a highly, and, often in the past, harshly, disc­ iplined world where the individual must be w ill­ ing to sacrifice everything for the demands of his art. The other was the late eighteenth- century city of Osaka, ravaged by plague and famine and torn by civil disorder. Already the setting had given me a dramatic contrast - the absolute order of the puppet theater and the chaos outside its gates. It was the charac­ ters who had to bring the two together. The conflict had to take place within themJ^

The characters do bring the two areas together. Jiro, a thirteen year old gnawed at by hunger, apprentices himself to the puppet theater, where there is food. Paterson's extensive research for the book con­ firmed that during this time in history the rice merchants and money­ lenders were making profits at the expense of the starving lower classes and that they did spend money going to the theater. The personalities of

Jiro's parents are also shaped by the setting. Jiro's mother, Isako, is worn down by hunger and poverty and b itte r that Jiro , born in a year of plague, survived while her first son died. Anger and frustration move her to join the night rovers, angry mobs of rioters and looters.

Jiro's father, Hanji, also indignant about the plight of the poor, joins Saburo's band and fights injustice. 107

The setting of the puppet theater gives birth to several charac­ te rs, particularly Saburo, and foreshadows the concept of theme.

Saburo, alias Okado uses the same manipulative techniques he mastered in the puppet theater to deceive the authorities and control his followers. The principle rule of puppetry is that the puppeteer should never overshadow the puppet and Saburo operates with the restraint and patience of a puppeteer, creating the illusions which make events and characters appear to be what they are not. Yoshida,

Saburo's partner in deception is one of the human puppets the master puppeteer manipulates and in inventing his character, Paterson tricks readers into believing that he is Saburo. Yoshida's masquerade of sternness isolates him from his son Kinshi who befriends Muna. When

Kinshi joins the night rovers and Jiro trie s to save him, the worlds of the puppet theater and the chaos of the streets collide as the characters bring the two together. Jiro has unwittingly exposed

Saburo and flees into the riotous streets searching for Kinshi. The descriptions of the violence and looting are a startling contrast to the peace of the puppet theater and recall events in modern history.

Parterson's representations of the rioting and its consequences are proof of her belief that,

In choosing to te ll such a story, I saw that a certain honesty was demanded by history! I could no more prettify the riots of Osaka than I could the riots of Watts or Detroit or Washington. Readers have recoiled from the maiming of Kinshi. The authorities were cruel in eighteenth-century Japan.15 108

These incidents force readers to reflect on the universality of human nature:

At last it was done, the adventure story that I had promised the children, but when I looked at it closely, I realized that the setting had given me more than a simple adventure story. It had given me a plea for justice and com­ passion. There i t was, woven through the whole p a tte r n J 6

The realities of history combined with the truths of story to force a resolution to the conflicts in the novel. The pattern of the histori­ cal novels emerged from the setting as Paterson wove characters and events through the tapestry of time and place.

Integral Settings - Realistic Fiction

The settings of two of Paterson's realistic novels, Jacob Have I

Loved and Bridge to Terabithia also determine the characters and events of the novels. The author does not look to the events of history to shape the novels, but to the nuances of contemporary life which make the story and setting identifiable to readers. Just as the writer of historical fiction must not let informative detail over­ shadow the plot, so too the writer of realistic fiction must extract the universal details of contemporary life which are true to the characters and the story to create an interrelated world.

The setting and the characters of Paterson's novel, Jacob Have I

Loved are so interrelated that they mirror each other: "Once I knew where, the setting itself was so much a part of the plot and had so much to do with developing the characters that I could not possibly 109 separate out the elements."^ The setting of Rass Island in the

Chesapeake Bay rules the characters because they look to the sea for their livelihood. The pattern of their lives revolves on the seasons which dictate the watermen's activities and the whims of nature which bring hurricanes and rob the islanders of precious land. The islanders are cut off from the world and are forced to depend on each other. Paterson's use of historical allusions to the people and events of World War II act as touchstones to the outside world and serve to alert readers to the passage of time in a setting where time is arrested.

The setting of the story most directly shapes its narrator,

Louise. Rass Island becomes both a symbol of her isolation and her harbor of refuge. She is as isolated from her family and herself as the people of Rass Island are cut off from the outside world. The reality of the island's oppression intensifies and magnifies her restlessness, forcing her to think of escape to the outside and cutting the ties her ancestors established on the island two hundred years before.

It is ironic that while the setting acts as a symbol of Louise's isolation, it also becomes her refuge. She loves the water and longs to be her father's partner. However, her status as a female prohibits her from entering this masculine world. Wien Call leaves to join the war effo rt, Louise assumes his place. Through Louise's eyes, Paterson shares with readers the craft of progging for crabs and culling no oysters and the sights and smells of life at sea. Louise gains self- assurance and peace and proclaims this period, "the happiest days of my l i f e . "19 yet, the war ends and with it the realization that she was never meant to be a woman on the island and must leave. Louise dreams vaguely of escape to the mountains and later, more specifically of leaving for medical school. Her assignment as a nurse in the

Appalachian community of Truitt places her on another island:

A mountain locked valley is more like an island than anything else I know. Our water is green grass and often treacherous, our boats, the army surplus jeeps we count on to navigate our wash­ board roads and the hairpin curves across the mountains. There are a few trucks, freely loaned about in good weather to any valley farmer who must take his pigs or calves to market. The rest of us seldom leave the valley.19

In this setting, Louise establishes new connections to her past rather than severing them. She honors her father by choosing to work in a community called Truitt, (her father's name) and in christening her son by this name. Assisting in the birth of Essie's twins forces

Louise to reflect on the story of her own and to reconcile herself to her past. She learns to appreciate her mother's choice and later journeys to Rass to fetch her. The journey forces Louise to realize that she loves Rass Island, "... although for much of my life, I did not think I did."20

The setting of Rass Island lives for readers and Paterson shapes it with realistic detail, uncovering the story and characters who live in it. It is a paradox that the central setting of Bridge to Terabithia, m a vaguely described imaginary kingdom spun of dreams and magic, also becomes as real to readers. Paterson confesses that her first attempts to describe the kingdom by adopting a style appropriate for high fantasy failed.21 Her editor suggested that she concentrate less on developing the setting and focus instead on what happens to Jess and

Leslie there. The kingdom of Terabithia became a symbol of Jess and

Leslie's friendship, and a retreat where they escape from the indigni­ ties of the real world of Lark Creek to become rulers of their destinies. The magic of Terabithia transforms Jess from a powerless insecure boy to one who develops self-confidence and discovers his talents. Leslie introduces him to a world of books and imagination and helps him " ... push back the walls of his mind and see beyond to the shining world - huge and terrible and beautiful and very fragile."22

In Terabithia, Jess acquires the strength to go on without Leslie and the vision to share it with others. The sketchily developed world of Terabithia becomes real to readers, because Paterson shapes it of the fragile, universal dreams and hopes which readers recognize, rather than anchoring it to concrete detail:

... As I talk to children about th is book, I find that something has happened for which I cannot take credit. They have taken my bare- bones Terabithia and supplied their own fanta­ sies I could not count the number of people who have told me that Terabithia is exactly like a magical place they have or had when they were children. But, of course, what has happened is that they have made Terabithia in their own image.23 112

In this novel, the author does not develop the setting so much as the readers do.

The settings of The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Of Nightingales

That Weep, The Master Puppeteer, Jacob Have I Loved, and Bridge to

Terabithia are integral as they determine events and mold characters.

In these novels, story and setting interwine to blend harmoniously.

Any alteration of story would disturb the ordered universe of the works. However, the setting of The Great Gilly Hopkins functions as a backdrop and is not specifically detailed by the author because

Gilly has no roots or connections and a place does not become real until you belong to it. To Gilly, Hollywood Gardens is the same as

Thompson Park, another detour, blocking her final destination to be with her mother. While Gilly is a victim of circumstance, her survival depends on wrestling control of events, rather than being controlled by them. One reviewer of the novel criticized Paterson for placing Gilly in what she believed was an unreal world, " ... mixing up race relationships, learning disabilities, the important relation­ ships between young and old, and a te rrific young girl who gamely comes to terms with her status as a foster child."24 The author responds by explaining that G illy's world is very much like one she knows - Takoma Park, Maryland: "What I had done was set my story in a toned down version of an actual community, but even toned down, it seemed unbelievable to a sophisticated reviewer for "The New York

Times." The setting can be thought of as a universal one, representing 113 a "typical" community. Gilly was dealing with people who live in such a variegated community, not with an assortment of social i s s u e s . "25

It is Gilly's relationship with the people at Thompson Park which shapes her character, not the physical setting. She discovers love and acceptance and chooses a home which will become real because she belongs. Just as Paterson listened to the voices of her stories which demanded integral settings, she responded to the requirements of this novel in focusing on characters, not place.

The setting is the source of story in many of Paterson's novels.

She searches it to discover the connections which bring characters and events together. The setting is an integral force in several of the novels, working to shape characters and events. Details of life in feudal Japan also alert readers of her historical novels to infor­ mation which enriches th e ir understanding of the books. The general­ ized setting of The Great Gilly Hopkins becomes a symbol of G illy's transience and her continual search for a real home. Setting does not dominate the sto ries, but places them in ordered worlds. 114

Footnotes

iDonelson, Kenneth L., Nilson, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980, p. 42.

2Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I L o v e d , C r o w e ll, New York, 1980, p. 10.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 57.

4Donelson, Kenneth L., Nilson, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980, p. 42.

5 l b i d . , p. 43.

Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 83.

7Ib id ., p. 72.

^ Ib id ., p. 73.

®Ibid., p. 85.

lOpaterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 132.

11 Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence On Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 35.

12paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, VolumeXXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 327.

l^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 163.

l^Op.Cit., p. 85.

150p.Cit., p. 74. 115

160 p .C it., p. 89.

^Op.Cit., p. 328.

^Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 135.

19lbid., p. 167.

2^Ibid., p. 11.

21 Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 69.

22paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 126.

220 p .C it., p. 70.

24Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 328.

25Ibid., p. 328. CHAPTER FIVE

THE AUTHOR’S CRAFT - THEME

While plot, character, and setting are the most visible elements of story, theme is underlying and often elusive. It is the glue which holds the story together. Theme reveals the author's purpose and unlocks the story's meaning. It is closely connected to plot but extends beyond i t and as Donelson and Nil sen have noted, " ... it is something that pervades the story and stays with the reader long after the details of plot, setting, and even character have faded.

Plot is specifically anchored to a story, while a similar theme can work in many stories. For instance, such universal themes as accep­ tance of self and others or growing up can apply to varied works such as Burnett's classic The Secret Garden or Paterson's novel, Jacob Have

I Loved.2 Theme should not be confused with the moral of a story.

For readers, a theme is not a lesson to be learned, but a recognition of the author's intent.

Some authors state a theme explicitly as Byars and Paterson do in each of their novels centering on foster children, The Pinballs and The Great Gilly Hopkins.3 Byars' title signals the theme as readers associate the major characters with pinballs which are con­ tinually shot out into the world to land anywhere. Paterson's theme in The Great Gilly Hopkins is voiced by Trotter who jolts Gilly into

116 117 realizing that life is tough and not made of happy endings. Themes may also be subtly developed or multi-layered and readers must work to uncover them. In Paterson's novel Bridge to Terabithia apprecia­ tion of the theme centers on recognizing the presence of bridges which underlie the novel. The bridges connect characters to each other and themselves.

Paterson tackles themes which focus on the re a litie s of the world and stress life and death matters. Muna is continually tested by a cruel world before he confronts reality and accepts who he is; Louise is consumed by hate and guilt which paralyzes and alienates her. The author believes that she is writing about ultimate things, reflecting that:

I seem to be in tune with the questions my chil­ dren and their friends are asking. Is there any chance that human beings can learn to love one another? Will the world last long enough for me to grow up in it? What if I die? And the question they ask, but would never formulate this way, the ancient question of the psalmist as he gazed at the stars millions of light years away: "What is man that thou are mindful of him?" Not all children are interested in these questions, I know, but enough seem to be that the publishers feel that it is worthwhile to keep printing my simple melodies drawn from these haunting themes.4

These simple melodies cut through the trumoil in the novels to help children answer the questions they have. Paterson agrees with author

Jill Patton Walsh who believes that books for children should mirror life and explains, "That is why, you see, I do find the strong themes of my books appropriate for young readers. Like J ill Patton Walsh, I 118 want them to see the nature of the game we are all engaged in so that they may make purposeful moves."5 Yet, the gravity of the themes is buoyed by hope for the future that sustains readers.

Theme in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum

The nature of the game Muna is immersed in continually balances on life and death matters as he totters between the thin edge of despair and hope. The theme of the novel centers on Muna's struggles and his triumph. It is explicitly stated at the novel's close, "Through fire is the s p irit forged." and is the motto Fukuji engraves on the stolen sword.6 Muna is like a sword shaped in the fire of the tria ls he has overcome. The illegitim ate orphan is consumed with escaping from his humble origins and is filled with illusions of a grand name and noble status. Muna's illusions and dreams die hard as they are tested by ordeal. Early in the novel, he is manipulated and deceived by the ronin, Takanobu, who tricks the boy into believing he is dead. Muna again finds himself alone and is racked with guilt because he could not save the ronin from the fire at the tavern. Later, he is devastated by Kawaki's death and the injustice and cruelty that Akiko's placement in a brothel signifies. Muna still clings to a thread of hope as he asks Fukuji to make him an apprentice. The dream is shattered by the swordmaker's reply: "My child," said Fukuji, "the proper question must be, what do you think of yourself? ... If you are not content with yourself, what does it matter what I think?"? A desperate Muna steals the sword, believing that Takanobu will give him 119 a birthright and a name. The ronin refuses and Muna flees and is again alone in the world, robbed of dreams and hope. Hope surfaces with Muna's resolve to return the sword and the realization that he is the master of his future, not others: a grand name does not guaran­ tee happiness, but his acceptance of self makes it possible. Muna's acceptance is hard earned as will be his future. His trials have tempered him, as fire does a fine sword and he has proven worthy.

This major theme of self-actualization and acceptance through ordeal is evidence of Paterson's committment to posing the eternal questions life confronts us with.

Theme in Of Nightingales That Weep

Triumph over the sins brought on by pridefulness and vanity is the major theme of this novel. Paterson develops it by centering on the young g irl, Takiko, who "would be brought low by her flaws as well as exalted by her strengths.T akiko's position as a samurai's daughter gives her free rein to bully servants and conive to get her own way. She is arrogant and revels in the reflected glory of her father's heroic death. The superiority of rank disappears as she and her mother are forced to live on a farm. Takiko's arrogance surfaces in her rejection of the disfigured Goro, her mother's new husband:

"No," she whispered. "Don't let it touch mel"9 Her stubborn refusal to accept this humble life separates her from happiness and her mother.

However, at the New Year she determines to make a new sta rt and basks in compliments on her musical talents given her by family and the peasants. Her new found peace is fleeting, for she is jealous of her new brother and is convinced that her budding beauty will be wasted in the country. Vanity and pride compel her to accept a position in the court, a world built on flattery and extravagence. Takiko is deluded by praise for her beauty and talents and is trapped in her own web of selfishness and pride. Hideo only loves her for her beauty. The vain

Takiko lets her feelings for him overshadow reason. She becomes a traitor to her clan and refuses to return home with Goro to help her mother. The sins of her pridefulness and vanity return to haunt and mock her as she is disfigured by a facial scar and rejected by Hideo.

These sins torment Takiko and she resolves to enter a convent as atonement. There, the Empress suggests that the gift of her music is repayment: "If your music had healing power when you were a vain and thoughtless child, what might i t accomplish now?"10 She marries Goro, the humble man, who recognizes the power of inner beauty. Takiko re­ joices in her new life, a prideful, vain girl no longer. Like the simple arresting melodies Takiko plays on her koto, the theme of this novel sings of triumph and hope.

Theme in The Master Puppeteer

The major theme of The Master Puppeteer emerges from the ordered world of the puppet theater, a world built on illusion and manipulation.

The characters in the novel are as puppets on the stage, playing in a living drama of suspense and adventure. Each must continually play a role, as Jiro realizes: "All of the Hanaza was a play - not just what 121 they did upon the stage, but off it as well. Each person had a part.

That was why when someone like himself didn't know the lines, he could disturb the whole uni verse. "H Yoshida, Okado, Kinshi and Jiro are the principal players upon whom the outcome of the drama depends.

Yoshida, a master of deception, plays the cruel task master and demands obedience and perfection. His masquerade allows him to remain aloof and perform his duties as Okado's eyes and ears without in ter­ ference. He is not what he seems to be, but a foil to Okado. Okado is the master puppeteer the title refers to. His feats as the crafty

Saburo call upon powers of manipulation:

Saburo has many puppets. The whole east wing belongs to him as well as Yoshida and a chosen few on the outside who have sworn their lif e 's blood to his cause. But Saburo is only one. I alone am the master puppeteer.12

Jiro's actions threaten to disrupt the play. He steps out of his role when he enters the locked storehouse and finds the sword which impli­ cates Yoshida. He la te r confides in Okado and unitentionally jeopardizes Saburo's undercover operations. The future of Saburo's band depends on Jiro 's secrecy. The boy agrees to assume a new role as Yoshida's apprentice and to protect Kinshi by remaining silent.

Jiro 's promise assures that the drama will continue as each player remains true to his role. The theme of manipulation and role playing is woven throughout the story as the characters play their parts in a drama of deception. It is reinforced in the title, the author's use of figurative language which alludes to drama, and the setting of the puppet theater, an arena of pretense. 122

Theme in Bridge to Terabithia

Katherine Paterson sees her books as bridges "... that will take children from where they are to where they might be..."13 Her novel,

Bridge to Terabithia^explores the bridges which span the characters' lives, connect them to each other or lead them into unexplored areas.

Each bridge takes characters from where they are to where they might be. The themes of the novel are extensions of the bridge motif and are built from, "the stu ff of life ."14

Paterson has stated that the novel is a story about friendship,, not death and the central theme focuses on the bridge of friendship which Jess and Leslie build.15 in their secret kingdom of Terabithia, the two talk, plan, and share thoughts and feelings. Leslie takes

Jess from the mundane world to one of adventure and imagination. He learns about books and caring and is free to develop his artistic talents. Jess is transformed from a lowly subject in the real world to a leader of a kingdom and begins to rule the fears and doubts which haunt him. Leslie's death almost destroys the bridge of friendship, but two people come to Jess' rescue. His father's understanding patience becomes a bridge between pain and acceptance. Mrs. Myers also helps Jess understand that Leslie's memory will always be with him, becoming a bridge between what was and what will be. This memory can take Jess from despair to hope for himself and his future. Jess be­ comes a builder of bridges and allows Maybelle to enter Terabithia.

Paterson discusses her readers' reactions to his choice and stresses the theme of bridges: 123

They resent the fact that Jesse would build a bridge into the secret kingdom that he and Leslie had shared. The thought of MayBelle following in the footsteps of Leslie is bad enough, but the hint that the thumb-sucking Joyce Ann may come as well is totally abhorrent to these readers. How could I allow Jesse to build a bridge for the un­ worthy? they ask me. Their sense of what is f i t t ­ ing and right and just is offended. I hear my young critics out and do not try to argue with them, for I know as well as they do that MayBelle is not Leslie, nor will she ever be. But perhaps someday they will understand Jesse's bridge as an act of grace, which he built not because of who MayBelle was, but because of who he had become crossing the gully into Terabithia. I allowed him to build the bridge because I dare to believe with the prophet Hosea that the very valley where evil and despair defeat us can become a gate of hope - if there is a bridge.16

The bridge of friendship leads Jess forward to a more promising future.

This powerful novel is sustained by Paterson's ability to interweave the theme with plot and support it. Leslie's death does not overwhelm the reader because the theme acts as a bridge to understanding the tragedy.

Theme in The Great Gilly Hopkins

The central theme of The Great Gilly Hopkins is best stated by

Maime Trotter whose comments persuade Gilly to trade her illusions for the tough realities of life: "... you just fool yourself if you expect good things all the time. They ain't what's regular - don't nobody owe

'em to you."!7 Gilly has fooled herself all of her life. The girl has created an ideal mother who is beautiful and loving. She lives on visions of Courtney rescuing her and giving her love and a home thereby erasing the label of "foster child". G illy's masquerade of toughness 124

is also deceptive; she longs to be loved but is afraid of being hurt

or rejected and adopts the persona of Gruesome Gilly. Gruesome

Gilly terrorizes W.E., defeats three foster families, and resists

Maime's love. Gilly's talent for exaggeration and creating illusion

is exemplified in her le tte r to Courtney: she labels Maime a religious

fanatic and, W.E. as mentally retarded. The letter confirms Gilly's

belief in her mother's lies about wanting Gilly to live with her. How­

ever, experiences at Thompson Park prod her toward the world of reality

and help her to abandon false dreams. At Thompson Park, Paterson has

assembled a cast of characters who are dealt hard lives, but face them

and survive. Gilly's relationships with them prepare her to cope with

the actualities of her dilemma and reinforce the theme. For instance,

Maime enriches her meager life by giving love to W.E., Gilly and Mr.

Randolph. She finds happiness in W.E.'s promotion to the Orange read­

ing group or Gilly's efforts to teach the boy self-defense. Maime

realizes that life is hard, but is willing to work for happiness:

"I said it (life) was tough, nothing to make you happy like doing

good on a tough job, now is there?"^ Maime's love for Gilly enables

her to help Gilly face the biggest disappointment of her life and over­

come it.

Mr. Randolph also finds happiness despite his blindness. He "sees" more clearly than most people and rejoices in the most important

things in his life - the love of friends and the world of books. He

is determined to make it on his own and resists efforts to patronize

him. Mr. Randolph recognizes Gilly's strengths and praises her. His 125 example teaches Gilly that color is blind and that you can "see” with your soul.

Like Gilly, W.E. has been abandoned. He is almost swallowed up by the harshness of his former life. It is Maime and Gilly who help him to overcome his insecurities. He is transformed from a victim to a survivor. W.E. fights for Gilly when he begs her to come home after her futile run away attempt and comforts her when she learns that she must leave Thompson Park: "He sat down next to her, so close that he could feel the warmth of him from her arm through her thigh. It gave her the strength to look up again d e fia n tly ." ^ Maime, Mr. Randolph, and W.E. each know that life is tough, but acknowledge i t , and reach out for happiness.

Their example fortifies Gilly as she faces her mother's callous­ ness. The dream has turned to dust; but Gilly will survive. She recognizes that Nonnie's need is as great as her own and accepts that home is with her grandmother. Her announcement to Nonnie and Courtney,

"I'm ready to go home now," signals her willingness to work for happi­ ness. 20 The theme of this novel reinforces Paterson's contention that her aim- is to tell stories which focus on the unpredictability of life and the possibilities for surviving it.

Theme in Jacob Have I Loved

Paterson's novel, Jacob Have I Loved is tainted by Louise's jealousy of Caroline. Rage boils inside Louise and consumes her. The wronged twin's raw feelings pervade the novel and shape its theme. 126

The theme of sibling rivalry is rooted in the early Bible story of

Cain and Abel and is reiterated by Louise's grandmother: "Romans nine

thirteen," she said. "As it is written, Jacob haveI loved, but Esau

have I hated."21 Paterson has drawn on a biblical heritage of stories

focusing on sibling animosity - Cain and Abel, Jacob and Esau, Leah

and Rachel, Joseph and his brothers - to fashion her contemporary version.

These stories evoke the pain and turmoil that springs up among chil­

dren in a family. Paterson recalls the anguish she relived while writ­

ing the story:

... I know in my heart that the reason I nearly despaired of finishing this book was more the internal storms it stirred up than those that came from without. I was trying to write a story that made my stomach churn every time I sat down at the typewriter. 'Love is strong as death,' says the writer of the song of songs, 'jealousy is cruel as the grave.' I did not want ever again to walk the dark path into that cruelty.22

Paterson takes Louise down that dark path and into the light.

Louise te lls her own story and jealousy has jaded her perspec­ tive. She feels like Esau who was robbed of his inheritance by his

twin, Jacob. Her parents lavish attention and love on Caroline while

seeming to ignore Louise. Louise resents their concern for Caroline.

But she forgets that her twin has always been the weaker of the two and needs more attention. Louise inflates Caroline's comments and

behaviors as confirmation of her twin's viciousness and she dreams of vindication. Louise is jealous of Caroline's beauty and talent and

is furious when Call and the Captain befriend her sister. It appears 127 that Caroline has taken everything, leaving Louise with her boiling anger and self-righteousness.

Louise is so immersed in hate that she doesn't realize that she is the enemy, not Caroline. While Caroline does boast of her accomp­ lishments, they indicate her immaturity, not her intent to be cruel.

Her decision to write a book about her life because, "... once you're famous, information like that is very valuable. If I don't get it down now, I may forget," nauseates Louise, but is a fantasy spun of youthful imagination.23 Caroline dreams of success and is willing to work for it and triumphs. She is confident and energetic and others bask in her joy, especially Call and the Captain. Caroline is always ready to help solve a problem as exemplified by the way she finds homes for Trudy's cats and proposes that the Captain marry Trudy.

Louise also ignores her s is te r's kind gestures. It is Caroline who convinces her not to run away and who comforts her when she balks at drowning the cats. Louise's hate blinds her and her vision is restored by what she learns about herself from her conversations with her mother and the Captain.

Louise leaves Rass Island to find happiness and self-fulfillment.

With time and distance she becomes reconciled to her feelings. The novel's powerful theme born of the mixed feelings of love and hate between siblings echoes in the reader's heart long after the book has been read. Paterson has touched upon emotions that evoke powerful responses and may awaken the buried feelings readers may have experi­ enced. 128

One Theme - Overcoming Family Background

We have explored the major themes of the individual works, focus­ ing on their development and function in the books. Each theme was dictated by the demands of the distinctive plots and characters and is unique.

However, one overarching theme connects the novels and emphasizes the notion of self-determination. Paterson's editor, Virginia Buckley, once asked the author to explain what she was trying to say in the novels set in feudal Japan. The author identified one concept as,

"What you become is more important than your family tr e e ."24 Each protagonist in the three historical novels does overcome family back­ ground to achieve an identity. It is ironic that Muna believes locat­ ing his father and claiming a name will give him a place in the world.

Eventually the boy discovers that he has always been someone and that the name he makes for himself will determine who he is.

In Of Nightingales That Weep, Takiko exploits her status as the daughter of a samurai. She becomes haughty, demanding, and prideful.

The girl is seduced by the attention she receives after the death of her father. She has to lose her mother and brother to the plague before she is humbled and determined to make a new sta rt.

Jiro vows to escape from his mother's wrath and his family's poverty to make something of himself. At the Hanaza, he overcomes the insecurities Isako's contempt marked him with and develops skill and confidence. We feel that in the future he might become the master puppeteer. 129

This pattern of determining your own destiny is also evident in

The Great Gilly Hopkins, Bridge to Terabithia and Jacob Have I Loved.

Gilly is like Muna because she clings to the dream of finding a family and belonging to her mother. She is always playing a game and hiding behind a defensive mask while she waits for Courtney to rescue her.

The dream gets in the way of G illy's becoming herself. Her reunion with Courtney convinces her that they will never belong to each other.

She resolves to go home with her grandmother and come into her own.

It is Leslie who helps Jesse come into his own. In the kingdom of Terabithia he escapes from his nagging mother and whining sisters.

He is free to draw and doesn't have to hide his artwork. Leslie encourages Jesse to develop the talent his father dismisses: "What are they teaching in that damn school?" he had asked. "Bunch of old ladies turning my only son into some kind of a - "He had stopped on the word, but Jesse had gotten the m e s s a g e ."25 Leslie opens the doors to new knowledge which his family is unable to do. Jesse gains the confi­ dence to continue on his own and be what he wants to be. He will no longer be suffocated by his family, but will make his own moves.

Louise also feels trapped by her family. She resents the money her parents spend on piano lessons for Caroline because she would like to go away to school. Her grandmother's incessant taunts aggravate her guilt and seem to confirm her unworthiness. Louise is puzzled by her mother's choice to give up a promising future for the confines of

Rass Island and is secretly afraid that she will be like her mother.26 130

She believes that she has no choices, and feels obligated to stay on the island because of her family. She has to leave them before she can make a promising future for herself. The pervading theme of self- determination is characteristic of each of Paterson's novels. The presence of this theme confirms her belief in respect for the individ­

ual and hope for the future.

Summary

Theme often proves to be tenuous and uncooperative as readers try to grasp the underlying meaning of a story. But it is the thread which connects the elements of the story and ties it to other works of literature which share the same theme. Theme expresses the author's intention and is the key to understanding the story. Paterson's themes spring from the "stuff of life" and are evidence of the obliga­ tion she feels to present the complexities of the world to her audience.

Her novels emphasize the worth of the individual and self-determination.

Each theme contains the promise of hope which underlies each novel. 131

Footnotes

^Donelson, Kenneth L., Nil sen, Aileen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Arizona State University, Scott, Foresman, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980, p. 32.

2B.urnett, Francis H., The Secret Garden, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1910.

%yars, Betsy, The Pinballs, Harper and Row, New York, 1977.

^Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 329.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981 , p. 38.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York , 1981 , p. 38.

^Ibid. , p. 80.

^Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 329.

^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 17.

lO lbid., p. 166.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1 975 , p. 102.

12Ibid., p. 149.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p T T P L

l ^ I b id ., p. 115. 132

15paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children" Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, p. 329.

^Op.Cit. 5 p. 114.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 148.

^ Ib id . , p. 148.

19Ibid., p. 121.

201bid., p. 148.

^P aterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 129.

22paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 122.

23()p.Cit., p. 19.

^B uckley, Virginia, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August 1978, p. 371.

^Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 12.

26personal interview with the author, Norfolk, Virginia, June 10, 1983. CHAPTER SIX

THE AUTHOR'S CRAFT - STYLE

What is Style?

Style is the author's unique signature on a novel. No two authors write alike, just as no two artists paint alike. An author's

individualistic style is often as identifiable as an artist's;

Katherine Paterson's writing style is as distinctive as a painter's

artistic style. Writing style is a blend of the truth as the author perceives it and the choices made in presenting this truth. These choices are shaped by the writer's experiences, personality, and out­

look on the world. Paterson refers to these influences as the sounds she hears in her heart and specifies as the most compelling her family background and experiences in the O rientJ Language is the vehicle

for expressing the outlook and words are the writer's medium of expression:

The life of literature is in its language ... words do not mean anything; people mean things by words, and the essence of an author's work is in the unique molding of language so that his meanings may reach out to and evoke the meanings of others.2

An examination of an author's style concentrates on the way the story is written. Donnelson and Nilsen define style as, "the result or effect of the combining of the lite ra ry element of sto ry ."3 Each book demands a particular style and the author's decisions about pacing,

133 134 rhythm, figurative language, and structure respond to its requirements.

Huck has noted that, "The style of writing should mirror the setting of thestory and the background of the characters."4 Paterson's style in each of the novels confirms her ability to do this. For instance, her historical novels capture Oriental ambience while the styles of her re a listic novels are compatible with the contemporary settings and characters. This versatility identifies her as a superior stylist who can command language.

Paterson's Signature

Her Comments on Style

Critics and reviewers often hail Paterson as a master stylist and point to the lucidity of her prose and the richness of its imagery.^

They recognize the distinctive style of each novel and laud her ability to accomplish this. Curiously, she has stated that she is not overtly conscious of style:

I don't care a fig about style. I'm always amazed if anybody calls me a sty list-o r if anybody appreci­ ates my style because I really don't even think about style. I think about the story. And it seems to me that the story demands its own style; therefore, a story like Of Nightingales That Weep demands quite a different style from The Great Gilly Hopkins. And if I had tried to write The Great Gilly Hopkins in the style of Of Nightingales That Weep, i t would have to tally failed; but even Bridge to Terabithia and The Great Gilly Hopkins are different to me. These stories demanded a different sty le , and one of them has been unfavor­ ably compared to the other because some people feel the style of one is better than the style of the other. Well, that seems to be a matter of personal taste, but to me that was the style in which the 135

story had to be written. Just as the ending is an integral part of the story - it's not something I can manipulate - so is the style. . And I think one of the hard things about writing a book is discovering the style of that book, the language that the story demands to be written in. In other words, discovering the proper voice, the right rhythm, and the music, if you please, of that particular book.6

Her comments about style seem to belie her protests. For Paterson confesses that she is conscious of the demands of the storyand of shaping language to express its vision. Her denials center on making it clear that she does not manipulate the story but lets it guide her.

Perhaps she feels that being labelled a s ty lis t infers that she imposes language on the story rather than uncovering it.

Paterson loves music and her remarks about her works often draw upon musical terminology. Her previous comments stressed her concern in discovering the unique voice and rhythm of a novel. She often reads her books aloud to " ... pick out flaws in the music of the book."7

Paterson again refers to music to compare her writing style for young adult books to those of authors who write for adult audiences:

This is closely related to what I see as a third limitation. Intricacy - density, design - I'm not sure what to call i t , but when I read Mary Lee Settle's Bloodtie, Anne Lyler's Celestial Navigation or John Fowle's Daniel Martin I hear a symphony orchestra. When I read my own Bridge to Terabithia, I hear a flute solo, unaccompanied ... And I, even when I'm dealing with an almost impossibly complicated situation like the Gempei War in twelfth-century Japan, I tend to hear through all the storm and clamor a rather simple melody.8 136

Paterson's melodies are characterized by simplicity, but are not simplistic. Her style captures the essence and discards the super­ fluous: "One thing living in Japan did for me was to make me feel that what is left out of a work is as important, if not more important than what is put in."^ This emphasis on uncovering the essential is sim ilar to the aim of a creator whose works are classified as minimal art. The minimal artist exposes the core of a phenomen. Paterson's accomplishes this through her writing style. This discussion of

Paterson's style has explored generalized characteristics - her sensi­ tivity to finding the language which meets the demands of each story, the stress on discovering the appropriate rhythm or music of a tale and the stripping away of unnecessary detail. The following sections will concentrate on the particularities of Paterson's writing style.

Using Figurative Language - Metaphor and Simile

Katherine Paterson shapes figurative language skillfully to exploit the potential of words to unlock myriad meanings. Her use of metaphor and simile is a trademark of her style. Donelson and Nilsen stress the connection of figurative language to style: "Much of what deter­ mines a w riter's style is how he or she uses figurative language. This is language that is interesting and important above and beyond the literal information it communicates."^

Metaphor and simile are two types of figurative language which convey extended meanings and take readers beyond actuality to possibility.

Appreciation of figurative language demands active reader involvement 137 to discover the most in the language. The intent of a metaphor is to link disimilar things; one thing is another. Paterson fashions a metaphor to describe Maime T rotter, "The door had opened, and a huge hippopotamus of a woman was fillin g the doorway."^ The author's use of this metaphor efficien tly and effectively conveys Maime's size and awkwardness. The reader is invited to make a connection between Maime's physical appearance and that of a hippopotamus. Similes are metaphors or comparisons which are identified by the use of the words, like or as, to convey similarity. Takiko's desperate belief in Hideo's promise of rescue is captured in the simile: "She clung to this like an infant monkey to mother's fur."12 The image of the tenacious infant monkey seeking comfort vividly describes Takiko's need for

Hideo.

The author enlists metaphors and similes to perform diverse functions in the novels. The following passage from Bridge to

Terabithia invites comparison and vivifies Jess's resentment that

Leslie is spending too much time with her father:

Jess's feelings about Leslie's father poked up like a canker sore. You keep biting it, and it gets bigger and worse instead of better. You spend a lot of time trying to keep your teeth away from i t . Then sure as Christmas you forget the silly thing and chomp right down on itJ 3

This comparison forces readers to draw upon th e ir experiences and link them toJess's feelings to get the most from the image. Figurative language can also be employed to appeal to the reader's senses.

Paterson's comparison of birds to street merchants in The Sign of the 138

Chrysanthemum recreates the din of the marketplace: "Birds were chirp­

ing noisily about like haggling street merchants, but there was no

sign of a human presence."14 Readers can hear the confusion and the

contrast of the raucous noise to Muna's solitude reinforces his isola­

tion. Mood or tone can also be set by the images evoked by metaphors

and similes. Jess’s likening of the art gallery to the grove in

Terabithia establishes a climate of peace and calm: "Entering the

gallery was like stepping inside the pine grove. The huge vaulted marble, the cool splash of the fountain and the green growing all

around. "15 The passage echoes of tranquility and mirrors Jess's mood.

Sometimes the impact of an image surprises and jo lts readers. For example, Isako's indictment of Saburo leaps out and compels the

audience to uncover the fullest meaning of this comparison: "Isako

ceased crying and started cursing. 'That bastard son of a ronin. What

does he think we eat meantime - wood chips? May he spend eternity as

a foot manipulator for the devil I'"16 we must think of the devil as a

puppeteer and of Yoshida as a puppet operator. In the world of

puppetry the foot manipulator holds a low rank. Isako's curse effec­

tively assigns the "master puppeteer" to servitude in hell.Paterson can also make a few words call forth numerous images. Her picture of

Captain B illy's ferry in Jacob Have I Loved exemplifies th is:

My father's boat was far from new. It had be­ longed to another waterman before he bought i t , but it was still lively and robust, like a man who's spent his life on the water. Captain B illy's ferry, though much larger, drooped like and old waiting woman.17 139

The economy of the comparison between the vital man and the wasting old woman encapsulizes the differences in the two boats.

Beside creating an image, figurative language can describe. In

Of Nightingales That Weep, Paterson's picture of the trees Takiko passes is vivid: "In the late October sun, persimmons shone like great orange jewels in their tr e e s ."18 This image of the waning light emblazoning the fiery-colored fru it is an evocative one and stands out in the reader's mind. So does this memorable passage from The Master

Puppeteer:

Had his concentration wavered for one instant from the performance, he would have gone to pieces, so he drove himself into the depths of it. He was like a pearl diver leaving the world of light and air, plunging toward the treasure at the bottom of the s e a .>9

Jiro 's terror over Okado's revelation throws him into the same kind of deathly darkness a pearl diver experiences. This discussion of figura­ tive language has centered on Paterson's use of simile and metaphor to invite comparisons, to appeal to the senses, to set a mood, to surprise the reader, to create an image, to describe, and to make a passage memorable. She employs figurative language to shape novel comparisons and to stretch language which extends the reader's experiences.

The Setting as a Source of Figurative Language

The metaphors and similes an author fashions must belong to the unique world of the story and their appropriateness is often dictated by the setting. Paterson confirms that the story world is a source of metaphor for Jacob Have I Loved: "There was no need to hunt about for 140 metaphors - the setting lavished them upon me - which, indeed, I believe any setting will, if the writer will look closely enough and i f it is the proper world for the sto ry .20 The worlds of Jacob Have I

Loved and Of Nightingales That Weep are rich sources of metaphor.

Louise's universe is that of the sea and the imagery in Jacob

Have I Loved testifies to its impact. The girl draws upon her familiar­ ity with the water to describe her island: "The ferry will almost be there before I can see Rass lying low as a terrapin back on the faded olive water of the Chesapeake."21 This comparison of the island to a turtle's back reinforces the dominance of the sea in this novel.

Louise often expresses her thoughts and feelings by connecting them to references inspired by progging for crabs and culling oysters. Her confession that, "The thought of our sodden, muck-filled downstairs dragged at me like a lead weight on a crab pot," effectively communi­ cates her reluctance to tackle the debris of the storm's aftermath.^

She also compares herself to the clean crab pots the watermen set out every spring as she leaves the island to attend college. Louise's description of her complacent behavior towards Caroline during a

Christmas visit is strengthened through another analogy:

A live oyster, a good one, when it hits the cull­ ing board has a tightly closed shell. You throw away the open ones. They're dead already. I was a good oyster in those days. Not even the presence at Christmastime of a radiant, grown­ up Caroline could get under my shell. 23

The repeated associations of thoughts and feelings with images of the sea confirm that Paterson investigated this world closely to shape appropriate metaphors. 141

One of Paterson's tasks in her historical novels is to re-create

not only the re a listic details of life in feudal Japan but also the

ambiance of the setting. She accomplishes this by dovetailing figura­

tive language imbued with the nuances of life in Japan with the story world. This figurative language flavors the novel with the unique expressions, customs, and a way of thinking which labels the fictional world as uniquely Oriental.

The worlds of feudal Japan and of music inspire the figurative language in Of Nightingales That Weep. Paterson's shaping of figura­ tive language is a window on Takiko's distinctly Oriental point of view. Her observations on the Princess Aoi's impatient dismissal of her servants confirms this: "Takiko knew better than to hope that they were all out of hearing - paper doors and silken screens invited curious ears the way day-old fish wooed c a ts ."24 Takiko's ruminations offer an insider's view to the interworkings of court life and intro­ duces readers to a novel expression appropriate to the setting.

Servants tend to gossip and the comment Takiko overhears in reference to her father conveys an Oriental perspective on events: "Why on earth would Lord Kiyomori send for him? He's like an old turnip pickled for twenty years in a barrel of rice w i n e . "25 The comparison imprints a vivid image on the reader's mind and is distinctly Oriental. One's reference points are the events and details of life experienced and the world is explained by drawing on what is known. When Takiko views a battle between the Genji and Heike troops she draws on what she knows: 142

From the ship i t looked to Takiko like a giant picture scroll come to life. She could hear the cries of battle and the whinnying of war-horses, but they were removed and fascinating, flashes of brilliant color upon the silken sand, as the white flags of the Genji pushed in toward the red flags of the Heike. The mountain rose sheer behind, dotted here and there with a green scrub of pine and crowned above with a thick patchwork in shades of green and brown.26

The panorama is indeed reminiscent of Oriental scroll paintings.

Takiko's inner world is one of music. She is not a mere player, but a creator of music and it lives inside her. The girlrecognizes that her talent distinguishes her from others like her aunt:

From that day, nearly a year ago, she could hardly bear to take direction from her aunt, for Lady Uchinaka's playing was square and precise, like the earnest brush-strokes of a clever beginner while the music within Takiko danced like the sweeping calligraphy of a master artist.27

The comparison of her gift to calligraphy captures the grace and rhythm and captivating sim plicity of her music. Takiko's soul is that of a musician's and her thoughts those of an artist. In child­ birth the images of music interface with those of pain:

The daughter of a samurai does not cry out in childbirth. Within her head Takiko laughed at the injunction. It was as though her very body was the koto of a god whose powerful hand struck a chord so fierce that for the wild moment she became the storm music of the sea. ... I am mix­ ing i t all up. She smiled. I am music and storm and strings. I am Izanami as She brooded over creation. The storm built with a deafening crescendo until her flesh could no longer contain i t . 28 143

The music of the Orient and Takiko's koto is the source of figurative

language in this novel and her nightingale's song rings clearly.

A11 us ions

Allusions are another form of figurative language which function

to deepen the meaning of a story and extend comparison. They are brief

references to literary works, historical figures, or events which an

author draws upon to communicate ideas and enhance the story. Done!son

and Nilsen describe the effectiveness of allusions as "an efficient

way to communicate a great deal of information because one reference

triggers the mind to think of the whole idea or story behind i t . "29

Paterson employs literary and historical allusions within the frame

of reference of her readers and communicates ideas and information

which deepen their appreciation of the story.

She responds to her editor's concern over the number of literary

allusions in Bridge to Terabithia:

You'll notice that when my characters read books they tend to read fantasy-fairy tales or C.S. Lewis or Tolkein. And, as an aside, there was some discussion with my editor about a number of literary allusions in Bridge to Terabithia. She didn't mind, but would they bother children who hadn't read the books? My feeling was that it ought to bother them so much that they'd rush out and get the books and read them. I was absolutely delighted when a fifth grader asked me shyly if that remark on page 57 about the assistant pig keeper meant that Jesse was reading The Book of Three, which was obviously one of her favorite books.30

Paterson's extensive references to literary works and characters, especially fantasy tales, strengthens her novel, Bridge to Terabithia. Their use is particularly appropriate for the fantasy world created by the children. When Leslie first proposes the idea of Terabithia she likens the kingdom to that of Narnia, C.S. Lewis' mythical creation.

Readers who recognize the connection will already know how a fantasy kingdom operates. One way that Leslie helps Jess to grow is to share books with him. She te lls him of Moby Dick and Hamlet and her recount­ ing of the tales seizes his imagination and motivates him to speculate on capturing in paint the images the stories evoke. Jess discovers the world of literature and Paterson mentions that he was reading

"the adventures of an assistant pig keeper" which is a reference to

Lloyd Alexander's fantasy works, The Chronicles of Pyrdain. The main character is like Jess, a young boy struggling to be someone worthy.

Another reference to a fantasy character and two historical figures triggers associations in the reader's mind. Leslie reflects on the story of Christ's crucifixion and observes that

The whole Jesus thing is really interesting, is n 't it? "What d'you mean?" "All those people wanting to kill him when he didn't do anything to hurt ihem." She hesitated. "It's really kind of a beautiful story - like Abraham Lincoln or Socrates - or As! an.31

The allusions to Lincoln and Socrates who were killed because they believed in a vision of truth others couldn't accept prompts us to connect these notions to the story of Christ. The references to

Aslan, a character in the Nania books, extends this concept. Further,

Aslan is much iike a Christ-figure in these allegories. These refer­ ences connect to the world of the book by focusing on the belief in 145 the inherent goodness of humanity and the hope for the world which underlies the novel.

Literary allusions also drawn from fantasy operate to more fully develop Gilly's character in The Great Gilly Hopkins. G illy's given name, Galadriel, is inspired by a character from Tolkein's fantasy trilogy. Galadriel was an important queen in the book. The unique name destines Gilly for potential greatness and makes her special.

Paterson's further draws our attention to Gilly's need to stand out in a crucial passage which pivots on her selection of fairy tale a l1usions :

No, what she wanted was something Trotter had no power over. To stop being a "foster child," the quotation marks dragging the phrase down, almost drowning it. To be real without any quotation marks. To belong and to possess. To be herself, to be the swan, to be the ugly duckling no longer Cap O'Rushes, her disguise thrown off - Cinderella with both slippers on her feet - Snow White beyond the dwarfs - Galadriel Hopkins come into her ow n .32

The chain of allusions link to reinforce the notion that Gilly must step out on her own. The fairy tale references all point to characters whose greatness is masked. The ugly duckling's potential is hidden as is Cinderella's. Three of the characters, Cap O'Rushes, Cinderella, and Snow White are rescued by someone else. But Gilly must save her­ self; Galadriel Hopkins has to come into her own on her own. Gilly begins to realize her greatness at the novel's close when she returns home with Nonnie.

The Bible is man's firs t literatu re and fam iliarity with biblical tales helps reader's connect to Paterson's Jacob Have I Loved. The 146

genesis of the plot and characters spring from the Bible and biblical

allusions influence the author's contemporary tale. The allusions

stress the theme of sibling rivalry and voice Louise's darkest feelings more eloquently than she can. The title spotlights the primary

emphasis on the theme and Louise's grandmother who continually spouts

pietisms introduces the reference and acts much as the chorus in an

ancient Greek play to comment on events. Upon reading the complete

verse Louise's self-pity seems to be justified:

It was God himself who hated me. And without cause. "Therefore," verse eighteen had gone on to rub it in, "hath he mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will be hardeneth." God had chosen to hate me. And if mv heart was hard, that was his doing as well.33

The bible is so much a part of Louise's life that her hate and guilt

are voiced through references to the Bible. When Louise fantasizes about besting Caroline she recalls the dreams of Joseph:

In my wildest daydreams there was a scene taken from the dreams of Joseph. Joseph dreamed that one day all his brothers and his parents as well would bow down to him. I tried to imagine Caroline bowing down to me. At f ir s t, of course she laughingly refused, but then a giant hand descended from the sky and shoved her to her knees.34

Louise's hate intensifies and again she dreams of exacting revenge.

She is shaken by a nightmare in which she beats her twin to death with a pole. The guilt ridden Louise labels herself a murderer and compares herself to Cain who killed his brother. In her panic, she again turns to the Bible seeking God's forgiveness: 147

My wickedness was unforgi veabl e , yet I begged the Lord to have mercy on me, a sinner. Hadn't God forgiven David who not only committed murder, but adultery as well? And then I would remember that David was one of God's pets. God always found a way to let his pets get by with murder. How about Moses? How about Paul , holding the coats while Stephen was stoned? I would search the Scriptures, but not for enlightenment or instruction. I was looking for some tiny shred of evidence that I was not to be eternally damned for hating my sister.35

Louise's redemption comes not from God but with her reconciliation to

her feeling about Caroline. It is fitting that the voice she hears at

the novel's close is Caroline's singing an old hymn:

I wonder as I wander out under the sky Why Jesus the Savior did come for to die For poor on'ry people like you and like I I wonder as I wander-out under the sky.36

Paterson's use of Biblical allusions confirms the universality of the novel's theme and trigger's feelings mankind has shared for centuries.

Jacob Have I Loved as a Bible Tale

Paterson has confirmed that biblical stories of sibling rivalry were the genesis of her novel Jacob Have I L o v e d .37 The style she adopts for the book is also reminiscent of a biblical tale and Jacob

Have I Loved becomes a contemporary version of the conflicts that separate siblings. In a recent book, The Great Code - The Bible and

Literature, Northrup Frye identifies topics, motifs, and stylistic trademarks which typify the Bible; Jacob Have I Loved incorporates many of these concepts.

Frye stresses the strong foundation of eloquent language which the Bible stories are rooted in metaphor is a particularly powerful 148

agent in communicating the m e s s a g e .38 Paterson's novel is also

dominated by rich language and metaphor. The author has noted the

infl uence:

The very language of the book, the metaphors, must belong to the world of the story. Louise's language is the language of the water she loves and of be Bible which she thinks she has re­ jected, but which is as much a part of her blood as the sea i t s e l f . 39

We have noted the influence of setting as the source of metaphor and the function of Biblical allusions in other sections of this chapter.

Frye also notes pervasive motifs which infuse the literature of

the Bible. Water imagery is especially prominent and the sea

symbolizes life.40 Louise's world of Rass Island is ruled by the sea

and her family is dependent on its bounty. The girl and her father

are much like fisherman of old, working in harmony with nature and

reliant on its good will. But nature is capricious. Frye identifies a flood archetype in the Bible tales and postulates that the disaster

functions to throw the world into chaos and sh ift characters and events to an inner focus.41 The hurricane and ensuing flood which assaults Rass Island also turns the world of the novel upside down and

intensifies emotions. The Bradshaws and the Captain are drawn together

in the crisis and read from the Bible for reassurance. The flood claims a part of the island and the Captain loses his home. Louise's

impulsive gesture of comfort adds guilt and remorse to the hate for

Caroline she is already burdened by: "What must he think of me? I

knew that anything that made a person feel the way I felt at that 149 moment had to be a deadly sin. But I was less concerned at that moment with God's judgment than the C aptain's."42 Louise continues to struggle with her shame and her love for the Captain.

Frye confirms the repetition of the theme of sibling rivalry in the Bible tales: "... there is one theme that recurs frequently in the early books of the Bible: the passing over of the first born son ... in favor of a younger o n e ."43 This theme is the core of the novel and is rooted in the Biblical reference to the earliest slighting of an eldest child in favor of the younger - Abraham's rejection of Ishmael for

Issac. However, Louise and Caroline's conflict most obviously parallels the story of Jacob and Esau. Like their Biblical counterparts Louise and Caroline are twins. In the Biblical tale; Esau the first born is supplanted by Jacob the second twin who grabs his brother's heel at birth. Louise also is the eldest twin and contends that Caroline has superceded her by robbing her of everything just as Jacob stole Esau's birthright. The Bible refers to Jacob as a "child of favor" and he is called Israel. Certainly, Caroline appears to be favored and Louise ignored. There are also parallels in the characters' relationships with their parents. Jacob was favored by his mother, as is Caroline. Esau belonged to his father and Louise, who helps to provide food for her family as her Biblical twin, did is close to h e r s . 44 The two tales mirror each other only the times and the worlds are different.

Another Biblical tale of sibling rivalry impacts on the novel, that of Leah and Rachel : 150

There is another sibling rivalry in the story of Jacob. It is, of course, the story of Leah and Rachel. "Jacob have I loved Poor Leah, the homely elder siste r. Married in trickery to the man passionately in love with her younger siste r. She goes to his bed and must lie there and bear his seeing who she is. Watch his face as the truth of his father-in-law's treachery dawns. His disappointment. How does he react? What does he say? Even i f , and i t is hard to believe he might have been, even i f in his own disappointment he remembers her pain and tries to be tactful and kind, that very kindness would be next to unbearable, if Leah loves him at all. Esau's grief is nothing compared to Leah's. She must watch her husband go joyfully to her siste r and joylessly come to her. But God does give her many sons. That would be a comfort i f we did not know that Rachel, who only has two sons, is the mother of Joseph - that younger brother of all younger brothers. This puts a new dimension into the phrase, "Jacob have I loved ..." It is a woman speaking now, a wronged and grieving woman, not God. The loving is not here a matter of divine election but of the eternal weight of women who have neither the beauty of Rachel nor the cleverness of Rebekkah. What shall we do for the Leah's?45

Louise is another Leah, the less attractive elder sis te r who loses

Call to Caroline. But Louise does find love and peace.

The influence of the literature of the Bible on this novel is evi­ dent. Paterson has drawn from a commonly shared heritage to fashion a variant of a tale stamped with the signature of the past.

Literary Symbol

Symbolization is a powerful literary element which invests ideas or qualities with intangible meanings. An author selects symbols which communicate deeper meanings and take readers into the heart of the story. The symbol has a dual nature, with one foot in the literal 151 world and the other in the abstract. Huck defines literary symbols as

" recurring concrete objects or events that represent an abstract idea."46 Literary symbols support and extend central concepts in four of the Paterson novels.

The t i t l e of the novel, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, signals the importance of the chrystanthemum as a literary symbol. Muna's search centers on discovering the samurai warrior who is his father.

The man will be identified by the tiny chrysanthemum tatoo he bears on his le ft shoulder. All of Muna's dreams are wrapped up in this sign of the crysanthemum. However, Fukuji discovers that the tatoo is not a distinguishing mark, but a commonplace decoration. Lord

Kijomori reveals the history of the tatoo to the swordmaker:

It was a youthful stunt. After one of the voyages to the Inland Sea, when my father took me pirate chasing, a group of us took it into our heads to honor our great victories with a suitable tatoo ... I'm told it started quite a rage for chrysanthemum tattoos at the time.47

Some two hundred men bear the sign of the chrysanthemum, including

Takanobu. It ceases to be a symbol of hope for Muna and becomes one of futility. But the chrysanthemum re-appears on the sheath of the magnificent sword Fukuji has crafted. This sword is symbolic of the theme, "Through fire is the s p irit f o r g e d ."48 Muna and the sword are alike because they have been shaped through trial. At the novel's end, Muna is worthy of the sword and Fukuji's g ift acknowledges the boy's passage into manhood. The sign of the chrysanthemum now symbolizes this promise. 152

The nightingale and the Japanese musical instrument, the Koto, are given symbolic meaning in the novel, Of Nightingales That Weep.

Paterson introduces the symbol of the nightingale in a poem which precedes the title page of the novel :

And lightly he ran, Plucked at the w arrior's sleeve, And through his tears might seem like the long woe Of nightingales that weep, Yet were they tears of meeting - joy, Of happiness too great for human heart. So think we, yet on that we might change This fragile dream of joy Into the lasting love of waking life'.

Zembo Motoyaso^

The nightingale represents the protagonist Takiko. Her sweet song is like that of the bird's and this is the nickname she earns at court.

During the course of the novel, she becomes a nightingale that weeps over lost love and beauty. The sweet song is silenced by despair.

But Goro's gift lifts Takiko out of oblivion into joy. His strange cup is outwardly misshapen and grotesque. However the inside is beautiful: "She lifted the lid and gasped. The underside of the lid had been painstakingly gold-leafed. Etched in the gold was a delicate line painting of a bird in flight - perhaps a nightingale."50 Takiko is like the cup. Outwardly she is ugly but the music lives inside her and has the power to heal. She returns to Goro and discovers the lasting love of waking life the poem refers to.

The koto is also a literary symbol. The musical instrument connects Takiko to her family and represents her tie to them. She 153

cherishes the instrument which had been Goro's mother's and it comforts

her when she is homesick. Takiko despairs at having to leave it be­

hind when the Imperial family flees into exile. Goro later discovers

the abandoned Koto when he journeys to find the girl. The potter

returns home with the instrument and the family weeps over it, "as

though i t were Takiko's body he had brought."51 The koto reminds the

dying Chieko of her daughter and she directs Goro to tell the girl

that the Koto was saved. The koto also represents Takiko to Goro and when his grief incites him to burn the hut, he cannot bear to see it

destroyed and rescues the instrument. Even though he blames Takiko

for his family's death this effort signifies his love for her. His

love is returned at the novel's close as Takiko is giving birth to

their child and her body is compared to that of a koto being played by a god. The two symbols in this novel, the nightingale and the koto* are extensions of the characters and the theme and lift them to an abstract realm.

Just as the sign of the chrysanthemum represent his father to

Muna, a beloved photograph represent her mother to Gilly. The picture

is G illy's treasured possession and the link to her dreams. It is the only piece of Courtney she has:

Out of the pasteboard frame and through the plastic cover the brown eyes of the women laughed up at her as they always did. The glossy black hair hung in gentle waves with­ out a hair astray. She looked as though she were the star of some TV show, but she wasn't. See - right there in the corner she had 154

written "For ray beautiful Galadriel, I will always love you." She wrote that to me, Gilly told herself, as she did each time she looked at it, only to m e.52

The photo gives Gilly a false sense of permanence in her unstable life.

But the ideal mother in the photo doesn't exist and will live only in her dreams. Gilly is a changed person and when she trie s to put

Courtney's picture on the bureau in her new bedroom she senses that something is amiss:

The face didn't fit in this room any more than i t had f it in all the others. Oh, Courtney why did you go away and leave her? Why did you go away and leave me? She jumped up and slid the picture face-down under the T-shirts a g a i n53 .

Courtney's picture does not f it in because she does not belong in

Gilly's life. Her illusions are destroyed when the woman she meets at the airport isn't the dream mother in the photograph. The lie repre­ sented by the photograph fades into the pain of reality and is dis­ carded.

Two symbols are woven into the novel, Bridge to Terabithia. The

imaginary island kingdom of Terabithia and the bridge Jess builds to it are laden with secret meanings. The kingdom represents a fantasy world where children can be rulers and harmony prevails. The real world is arrested while Jess and Leslie plan, imagine and grow.

Terabithia is built on fantastic dreams and works its magic on Jess transforming him from a frog to a prince. When the real world does

intrude Jess has become strong enough to confront it. He is willing to share the dream Terabithia symbolizes with others - that the world is 155 full of possibilities. His act of grace, building the bridge, is symbolic of the bridges love can build. When Jess leads MayBelle across the gully into Terabithia i t is symbolic gesture of hope.

Nature as a Symbol

The cycles of the seasons can also act as lite ra ry symbols. For centuries, authors have drawn from nature and given it symbolic mean­ ings. The Canadian critic, Northrup Frye, has noted that these uni­ versal patterns of nature are often imposed on literary works and establish them as convention. For instance,spring is generally associated with youth and growth and winter with death and gloom54 .

Paterson employs these conventions endowing seasons and the holidays associated with them with symbolic intent:

Every time I change the season in a novel , I remember that I have lived with this rhythm. I have known the glory of spring as seen in the cherry blossoms, which so quickly fade and fall to the earth, reminding us that life, too, is fleeting, but that the seasons continue, the earth turns, and an order even greater than our single lives pervades.55

She uses this pattern in the novels to signal character change and to mark major events in the novels.

In many cultures, the New Year signifies hope for a better future.

The celebration of the holiday is especially significant in Oriental cultures. Paterson draws from this tradition to associate the signifi­ cance of the day with turning points in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum and Of Nightingales That Weep. Muna is rescued by Fukuji on New Year's

Eve and the swordmaker fights to save the boy's life . He is awakened the next day with the traditional greeting "A New Year had dawned. I wish you h a p p in e s s ."56 Muna shares the customary New Year's soup and rice dumpling with Fukuji and feels the peace and security he had been lacking. He believes that his future looks brighter. Yet the year does not prove to be lucky for the orphan. Akiko is lost to him,

Takanobu deceives him and he wastes away at Rashomon Gate. Another

New Year dawns as Muna again returns to Fukuji's protection. This holiday marks the boy's fifteenth birthday and signals his official passage into manhood. Tradition dictated that Muna choose a new name that he will pass on to his children but he elects to keep the name of

Muna. The New Year will be promising because Muna has a name and a future as a swordmaker.

Takiko also makes a new s ta rt at New Years. She has languished for months at Goro's farm cacooned in her bitterness and hurt. How­ ever the import of the New Year's meaning convinces Takiko that she must change:

At midnight the distant bell rang out the one hundred and eight strokes that hailed a New Year. Lying between her quilts. Takiko listened. The New Year had begun. She must make a new s ta rt. It would please Fusa. And her mother. As she was falling back to sleep. She had the feeling that her mother's arms were about her once a g a i n57 .

Takiko embraces her new life and resumes playing her music and learns to fashion pottery from Goro. During the next two years her life changes drastically as she leaves home for a life at court. She be­ comes a victim of her prideful ness and vanity and discovers love. 157

Takiko returns after the Heike defeat to face abject poverty and

Goro's venomous abuse. Hideo's rejection and her disfigurement seem to doom her to a future of unhappiness. As another New Year approaches,,

Takiko resolves to enter a convent as attonement for her sins. But a new life is not destined to begin in the convent; she belongs with

Goro as his wife. Takiko celebrates the New Year at home and begins a promising life.

Winter melts into spring and promises happiness. Good feelings and prosperity are associated with this season and spirits are lifted.

Paterson changes the seasons in The Sign of the Chrysanthemum to signal a change in mood of her major characters. With the advent of early spring Muna is restored togood health and determines to prove him­ s e lf worthy of his new master. He finds a peace and happiness in his new life . Spring in Japan means the splendor of cherry blossoms in bloom. The cherry blossom festival is a major event and Paterson invests i t with symbolic meaning:

The boughs of the cherry trees met in an arch above Sanjo Avenue. Muna walked beneath the pale pink arcade. It was as though all the ugliness he had ever known was excluded from this para­ dise. Even the people he saw seemed clothed in a glow of perfection. No one spoke loudly, but there was a quiet friendliness among the viewers. Here the proud and the poor mingled - court ladies in th eir flowing brocade robes, long black hair flowing to their waists, painted eyebrows and blackened teeth; street urchins, their faces and hands sticky with rice candy; samurai of the noble families in silk tunics with full trousers; peddlars; an occasional farmer with his mouth agape. They all belonged to one another under the sheltering branches of the cherry trees.58 158

The hope that spring signifies unites the people and hints at happi­

ness. Muna is caught up in the gaiety and realizes his good fortune

and joy.

Paterson also draws upon the symbolism of spring to indicate a

new sta rt for Louise in Jacob Have I Loved. It is spring when Louise

decides to leave Rass Island and go to college:

Every spring a waterman starts out with brand clean crab pots. Crabs are parculiar critters and they won't step into your little wire house if your bait is rank or your wire rusty and clogged with sea growth. But throw,down a nice shiny pot with a bait box full of alewife that's just barely short of fresh, and they'll come swimming in the downstairs door, and before they know it they're snug in the upstairs and on the way to market. That's the way I started out that spring. Shiny as a new crab pot, all set to capture the w o r ld .59

Louise is caught up in the excitement of being on her own and meeting the future. It's spring and life is good. But the happiness is deceptive: "I had forgotten that life, like a crab pot, catches a lot of trash you haven't bargained for."60 Louise's advisor convinces her that she should enter nursing instead of medical school. The joy of spring is momentarily tarnished by the harshness of reality.

Paterson continues to juxtapose the happiness that a season or

holiday suggests with events which destroy that joy in Bridge to

Terabithia and The Great Gilly Hopkins. This contrast heightens the

impact of these turning points and intensifies the drama. Despair

is magnified when dreams are about to be realized. 159

Leslie's death in Bridge to Terabithia coincides with the chil­ dren's Easter vacation. Symbolically Easter denotes a time of rejoic­ ing in Christ's resurrection. Attention is focused on his death and the promised rebirth. Leslie v isits the Aaron's church on Easter

Sunday and the children discuss Christ's cruxifixion. The girl con­ fesses that she doesn't believe in the Bible and MayBelle is alarmed that Leslie will go to hell if she dies. Leslie drowns that week.

Jess is overwhelmed with concern that Leslie is in hell. His father reassures him: "Lord, boy, don't be a fool. God ain't gonna send any little girls to hell."61 Eventually Jess realizes that Leslie's memory will always live within him. When the questions about life and death which Leslie's drowning raises are connected to the symbolism of Easter, Paterson builds a bridge of hope.

Two major holidays, Thanksgiving and Christmas,also mark critical periods in Gilly's life. The Thanksgiving holiday stresses the importance of family and recognition of life's blessings. A major change in Gilly's life parallels the advent of Thanksgiving. Gilly assumes the responsibility for nursing Mr. Randolph, Maime, and W.E. who have become a real family to her. A holiday celebration is post­ poned until everyone is well. It is ironic that Gilly's grandmother appears on this day to claim her. On the very day when Gilly feels that she has something to be thankful for her happiness is threatened.

The delayed Thanksgiving celebration is marred by Gilly's apprehension that Miss Ellis will come to wrench her away from the people she loves. 160

The intimacy the celebration evokes strengthens her bond to them and

intensifies the pain of the inevitable separation.

Gilly anticipates spending the next family holiday, Christmas,

with her mother. She and Nonnie nervously prepare for Courtney's

arrival and the importance of a family during this holiday season is

emphasized as the two decorate the tree:

Every ornament they hung had a family history, and Gilly half listened as Nonnie recounted each tale. She was too excited to concentrate fully, but she did grasp that the lopsided pasteboard star was one that Chadwell had made in the third grade. Most of the glued-on glitter had long departed. There was a yarn snowman that Courtney had made when a Brownie, it was gray now, and beginning to ravel.62

The story of the ornaments gives Gilly a sense of family history and

roots she yearns for and is another link to her mother. But Gilly will

never belong to Courtney; the dream is a lie. The fairy tale aura

which surrounds the Christmas season and promises that wishes will

come true dissipates into despair. At a time when the joy of giving

is emphasized, everything is taken away from Gilly. Happiness will

not be given to Gilly. She must make her own.

The Art of Conversation

The language of conversation must also be appropriate to the

setting of the novel. Dialogue is often marked with regional trade­ marks which uncover the setting and reveal more about the characters.

The dialogue in Bridge to Terabithia and Jacob Have I Loved is p artic­

ularly noteworthy because it reflects the settings of the Chesapeake 161

Bay and both the actual world of rural Virginia and the fantasy one of

Terabithia. In addition,the characters' speech adds texture to their portrayal. Snatches of dialogue in Jacob Have I Loved capture the essence of the watermen's distinctive speech. One reviewer notes that

Paterson

strived for a semblance of speech rather than a lite ra l rendering of speech. In Jacob Have I Loved she succeeds admirably at the difficult task of portraying Chesapeake Bay watermen's speech, using the lexical items and pacing of that dialect rather than attempting to repre­ sent it phonetically.63

The watermen's speech is typified by the use of the double negative.

Call's reaction to one of Louise's jokes illustrates this: "That a in 't neither funny about i t . He had broken into a watermen's emphatic negative."64 He also slips into the speech when the Captain catches

Louise and him peeking in his window: "You don't seem like neither spy."65 Paterson incorporates the unique vocabulary and rhythm of the dialect into her characters' conversations. The expression, "Oh my blessed," is a common exclamation: "My grandmother caught me before I got to the door. 'Louise Bradshaw! Don't you go coming in the house dirty like that. Oh, my blessed, what a mess! Susan,' she called back in to my mother, 'she's full ruined every scrap of clothes she owns'."^

This passage also exemplifies the choppy rhythm of the dialect.

Paterson's ab ility to capture the nuances of the speech further anchors the story in the world o f the Chesapeake Bay.

The speech in Bridge to Terabithia must tie the characters to two settings - rural Virginia and the kingdom of Terabithia. The speech of 162

Jess and his family is peppered with the expressions and patterns of the Southern dialect. For instance, Ellie's disparaging comments about her brother typify the elongated stress sometimes given to words and incorporates a regional expression: "We-ell , look atthe big

0-lympic star," said E llie, banging two cups onto the table,so that the strong, black coffee sloshed out. "Sweating like a knock-kneed m u le ."67 jess's use of the double negative also labels his speech as regional : "Miss Bessie strolled over to a greenish patch - most of the field was brown and dry - and yanked up a mouthful. That's a g irl.

Just eat your breakfast. Don't pay me no mind."68 The speech of

Jess's family contrast to that of Leslie's. The Burke's speech approx­ imates standard dialect and reflects their advanced education. In addition the content of their conversation is foreign to Jess and makes him feel alienated:

They were always nice to Jess when he went over, but then they would suddenly begin talking about French politics or string quartets (who he first thought was a square box made out of string), or how to save the timber wolves or redwoods or singing whales and he was scared to open his mouth and show once and for all how dumb he w a s .69

Yet, he belongs in Terabithia and adopts its special language. The language of Terabithia is reminiscent of the ornate and flowery speech in fantasy tales of knights and castles. The children's invention of this special language acts much like the code of a secret society and is the key to entering their magic world: "Leslie's eyes were sparkling.

'Arise' - she barely swallowed a giggle - 'arise, king of Terabithia, 163 and le t us proceed into our kingdom."70 The children refer to each other as king, sire, and queen, and this royal language is the vehicle for expressing their most important thoughts and ideas:

Leslie lifted her arms and face up toward the dark green canopy. "0 Spirits of the grove," she began solemnly. "We are come on behalf of our beloved kingdom which lies even now under the spell of some e v il, unknown force. Give us, we beseech thee, wisdom to discern this evil and power to overcome i t . 71

The children cannot overcome the evil which disrupts the kingdom but the language of Terabithia continues to live in Jess and gives him faith in the power to express himself. Paterson's decision to use the language of fantasy to help establish her setting and her charac­ ters works magic in the novel.

Summary

Paterson's style is marked by her distinctive use of language to tell her stories. She concentrates on listening to the novel's demands and shapes language to fit the story world. Her style is characterized by stripping away superfluous detail to reveal the essence of the message. She employs metaphors and similes extensively to stretch language and extend meanings. Appreciation of this figurative language demand active reader involvement. The setting also evokes figurative language to create a re a listic world. Paterson's use of allusions communicates ideas and information beyond the literal world.

Biblical allusions are particularly essential in Jacob Have I Loved and are the key to understanding the theme. Literary symbols support 164 and extend the story and character development in several of the novels.

The symbols operate as physical objects, nature, or events. Paterson talents as a stylist identify her works as superior. 165

Footnotes

Ipaterson, Katherine, "Sounds in the Heart," The Horn Book Magazine, Boston, Ma., December 1981, p. 695.

^Vandergrift, Kay E ., Child and Story: The Literary Connection, Neal-Shuman Publishers, 1980, p. 125.

^Donelson, Kenneth L., Nil sen, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman and Co., Glenview, Illinois, 1980, p. 45.

^Huck, Charlotte, Children's Literature in the Elementary School, Third Edition Updated, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1976, p. 12.

5Jones, Linda T ., "Profile Katherine Paterson," Language Arts, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Illinois, Vol. 58, No. 2, February 1981, p. 194.

®Ibid. , p. 194.

^Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice. Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, Columbus, Ohio, p. 330.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 36.

9paterson, Katherine, "Sounds in the Heart," The Horn Book Magazine, Boston, Ma., August 1981, p. 701.

^Donelson, Kenneth L., Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman and Co., Glenview, Illinois, 1980, p. 46.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 4.

^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York , 1974, p. 151.

^Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 68.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 100. 166

150p.Cit., p. 99.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 23.

^Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 41.

18paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 13.

^Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Crowell, New York, 1975, p. 152.

20paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, p. 328.

Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 9.

Ibid. , p. 95.

23Ibid., p. 137.

^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 63.

23Ibid., p. 3.

28Ibid., p. 81.

2^Ibid., p. 2.

28Ibid., p. 169.

29oonelson, Kenneth L., Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman and Co., Glenview, Illinois, 1980, p. 48.

30Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 69.

•^Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 84. 167

32Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gill.y Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 124.

33paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 131.

3^Ibid., p. 35.

35Ibid., p. 60.

35ibid., p. 32.

37paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 117.

38prye, Northrup, The Great Code the Bible and Literature Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York and London, 1982, Chapter 1.

OQ Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, Columbus, Ohio, p. 328.

400p.Cit., Chapter 6.

Op.Cit. , p. 36.

42paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 99.

43()p. Cit. , p. 180.

44jhe Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible an Illustrated Encyclopedia, Abingdon Press, New York, 1962, p. 814.

45Paterson,. Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, pp. 124-125.

46Huck, Charlotte, Children's Literature in the Elementary School, Third Edition Updated, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1976, p.12.

47paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 112. 168

48Ibid. , p. 133.

48Paterson, Katherine, Of Niqhtinqales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, XIV.

50Ibid., p. 148.

Ibid., p. 73.

8^Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 9.

53Ibid. , p. 131.

84Sloan, Glenna Davis, The Child as Critic Teaching Literature in the Elementary School, Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1975, p. 21.

88Paterson, Katherine, "The Sounds in the Heart," The Horn Book Magazine, Boston, Ma., December 1981, p. 700.

88Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Crowell, New York, 1973, p. 45.

8^Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Crowell, New York, 1974, p. 26.

880p.Cit. , p. 57.

8^Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 165.

60Ibid., p. 166.

^Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, New York, 1977, p. 116.

^^Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Crowell, New York, 1978, p. 142.

CO Paterson, Katherine, "The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, p. 328. ^Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Crowell, New York, 1980, p. 9.

Ibid., p. 56.

661bid., p. 18.

67paterson,Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Crowell, NewYork, 1977, p. 5.

68Ib id ., p. 2.

69ibid. , p. 45.

701bid. , p. 89.

71 Ibid., p. 91. CHAPTER SEVEN

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM

Purpose

Paterson's works have been viewed through literary eyes concentrat­ ing on the integration of literary elements and searching for overarch­ ing patterns which unite the novels. But the impact of a book is never fully realized until it is read. Paterson recognizes the reader as the writer's ally:

The writer does not pass through the gates of excellence alone, but in the company of readers. Most of my readers are young, storming the gates for a good story, always hopeful that the next book they pick up will be the best they have ever read.I

These readers choose Paterson's books because they are enjoyable and interesting. One thrust of this study has been to identify Paterson's work as those good stories readers are clamoring for. Another aim is to suggest strategies for educators which will guide readers of middle school age to connect with the books.

Children this age are in a continual state of transition. They are moving from childhood into adolescence and from a state of naive thinking into one characterized by more sophisticated thought. They are evolving from readers whose judgments about books are founded on emotional response to readers who can learn to evaluate books through a critic's eyes. Educators who are attuned to the young adolescent's

170 171 developmental status can create classroom climates and plan literary encounters which meet and challenge young adolescents' abilities and which ease these transitions. Paterson's works are especially suit­ able for study in the middle school because they are interesting and readers get a sense of what good fiction is and reflect the middle school child's outlook on the world. The books can become bridges which lead children to adopt more complex literary standards.

This chapter will focus on advancing a portrait of the middle school child, will stress the opportunity for the middle school curric­ ulum to meet the unique needs of the young adolescent, and will suggest means for educators to include Paterson's books in a middle school literature curriculum aimed at offering opportunities to enjoy books and become enthusiastic about reading as well as developing critical outlooks.

A Developmental Portrait of the Middle School Child

Any educational endeavor must start with the child and acknowledge how he or she learns. The three C's of schooling should be the child, the learner's cognitive capabilities and a curriculum which recognizes the child's interests and needs. The middle school aged learner (11-14) is experiencing radical physical, emotional, social, and intellectual changes and educators need to understand their impact. Early adolescence is marked by unparalleled physical growth. Young males and females are entering puberty and are approaching sexual maturity.

They are preoccupied with these changes and the questions and dilemmas they pose. 172

This rapid physical maturing is accompanied by changes in emotions

as the early adolescent becomes increasingly introspective. The

individual begins to examine the self which LeFrancois identifies as

"the nebulous essence of an individual."2 The youth's establishment of this ego identity is critical to development, "During adolescence his task is to bring all of this knowledge about himself together and to arrange it into some meaningful workable whole that he can call himself and within which he can live reasonably well."3 This concern with ego is often evidenced by self-consciousness as adolescents concentrate on their physical appearance, actions and their impact on others. They are keenly aware of the responses of significant others and are often irrational, investing these actions with uninten­ tional meaning. Elkind notes that, "Although the adolescent continues to view his parents and siblings with affection he now begins to look at them with a more critical eye."4 There is a demand for independence from parents, coupled with a desire to be favorably recognized by them.

The adolescent also expresses emotionally charged thoughts which often place him or her in opposition to adults. Yet,while adolescents tend to reject adults and siblings they fear alienation and rejection.

They seek acceptance in peer groups and look to their contemporaries for approval and companionship. There is a noticeable shift from previous involvement in solitary activities to participation in group activities. Adolescents form inseparable pairs or join groups of like minded peers and male/female friendships and same sex friendships 173

become important. This is a period of intense sociability as the

family and the school move into the background.

The reading interests of young adolescents reflect their intro­

spective natures and confirm their move from solitary to group activi­

ties. Many researchers have noted that reading which exemplifies a

solitary activity seems to reach a peak at age thirteen and declines

thereafter:

Whether or not ages 12-13 represent the "reading peak" is a contested topic in the research, but most of the evidence indicates a steady increase in the amount of reading during the elementary years up to seventh and eighth grades. Despite deviations in findings, the persistence of the reading peak suggests that basic adolescent needs are operating.5

This audience gravitates to mysteries, adventure stories, romances and

books labeled as young adult realistic fiction which supposedly mirrors

the adolescent's world. El kind agrees with Purves and Beach that this

reading is probably meeting a need: "Perhaps as a consequence of the

inner directiveness of the thirteen year old, reading tends to increase

and favorite books are read and re-read."® Adolescents seem to be

seeking answers in the books they choose and their experiences with

these literary texts are colored by their inconsistent outlook on the

world and slowly evolving sense of self.? Literature is a bridge to

understanding self and the world.

The physical, emotional, and social changes which typify the young adolescent experience is concurrent with cognitive transition: 174

The changes that take place in adolescents' mental prowess are quantitative and qualitative and have to do with both the amount and kinds of knowledge and mental abilities that adolescents have at their disposal.8

Piaget would label this cognitive transition as the shift from the level of concrete thought to that of formal operations (ages 11-15). The formal operational thinker becomes capable of hypothetical and deduc­ tive reasoning. This means that the learner can consider all the possible consequences of a phenomenon as well as those which don't exist. There is also increased understanding of causation and w ill­ ingness to ask and explain "why?". These capabilities are classified as abstract thinking as are other new developed awarenesses - the ability to understand metaphor, increased awareness of multiple mean­ ings and the ability to see patterns which establish connections between old and new learning and among pieces of new information.

Piaget's notion of cognitive growth during this period is challenged by Epstein.9 This researcher proposes the notion of brain growth periodization. He suggests that a brain growth spurt occurs between the ages ten through twelve is followed by arrested growth from twelve through fourteen. The implication for educators of his hypothesis is that novel concepts should not be taught during this period. Arnold recognizes both Piaget's and Epstein's work and cautions educators against assuming that adolescents are in any fixed stage of cognitive development:

Variability is the chief characteristic of cogni­ tive development in early adolescence. The 175

majority of students are in phases of transition from concrete to formal operational thought ... a student may be able to think formally about some topics but not about others, or to think formally in one moment but not the next JO

He suggests that educational strategies should acknowledge this variability and promote enough cognitive dissonance so that learners are challenged but not overwhelmed.

This discussion of adolescent development confirms it as a time of intense and drastic change. One's perceptions of self, others, and school are altered. Alexander and George note that the middle school movement emerged in response to the inadequacies of junior high schools to meet the unique needs of early adolescents.H The formation of schools encompassing grades six through eight was motivated by efforts to establish learning environments which recognized this adolescent period as primarilly a social/emotional one. In addition, learning strategies were planned to acknowledge the youths' fluctuating cogni­ tive ab ilities.^ Elkind notes the adolescent's new perception of the school :

During adolescence, then, the school becomes much more than a place of learning; rather it becomes a stage on which much of the drama of adolescent friendships, rivalries, and hostilities take place and find their fullest expression.12

Arnold believes that most middle schools do not meet the young adolescents needs and proposes changes that reflect the need of youths to understand themselves and their world. He feels that emphasis on the cognitive domain should be balanced with opportunities for social and emotional outlets.13 176

Child's Development As a Critic

The young adolescent’s physical, emotional, social and intellec­ tual growth is paralleled by transformation into a more discerning reader. The youth's ability to assume a critic's stance is under­ pinned by his or her developmental needs and abilities. Three recent studies address the impact of development on the young adolescent's transactions with literature.

Schlager contends that children's choices in literature are directly influenced by their developmental stage.The investigator looks to two disciplines for data - child development and literature for children. She began with profiles of seven to twelve year olds and adopted Piaget's and Erikson's schemas for development. Next she rank ordered the Newbery Books according to their frequency of circula­ tion. She further analyzed this literature to identify characteristics of early adolescence. Schlager found that O'Dell's novel, Island of the Blue Dolphins,was the most circulated book in the survey and mirrors the young adolescent's outlook on the world.^ The protagonist must survive alone on an island. Karana assumes control of her destiny and is severly tested. She becomes a competent young woman. The novel gives voice to the young adolescent's struggle for independence and search for self. In contrast, Dobry, the least circulated book, does not reflect the young reader's viewpoint and is difficult for readers to relate to .16Schlager contended that the key to a child's book selection is his or her developmental stage: "Books that reflect the 177 child's perception of the world are the books children clamor for."I?

She suggests that good writing alone does not make a book suitable for the middle grade reader; the choice must reflect the youth's developmental perspective.

Another investigator, Protherough, has specified stages children undergo as they gradually adopt objective standards for judging storiesHe investigated children's responses to stories and found

"that there are three broad stages of development in evaluation, marked off from each other by the relationship that is envisaged between the reader and the text.19

Level One is most typical of eleven to twelve year olds.

Responses and judgments to stories are dominated by emotions: "I like it. It is a good book." The emotion becomes synonymous with the judgment. Children can't get beyond this evaluation which appears to them to be self-evident. These readers are likely to report that all adventure stories or mysteries are good because they like the genre and can't discriminate between books within the classification. Twelve to thirteen year old youths are likely to be in Level Two. These readers begin to think more about the effect the book has on them such as, "The part about the boy having to shoot the deer made me sad."

This comment indicates a growing awareness of the relationship between the reader and the book. They also will speculate about the story:

"Children sometimes seem to imagine that novels or stories could be different from the way they are: they would be better if ended another way, or omitted parts, or if the characters were different."20 This 178 tendency is indicative of the ability to think about hypothetical situations. Youths of thirteen years and older are most likely to be in Level III. These readers become concerned with finding objective reasons for their literary judgments and begin to apply technical terminology. They realize that judgments should be expressed in terms which other readers can understand. Protherough believed that this level was critical: "This is the key stage at which children learn (or not) that reading in a certain way, choosing to concentrate on a particular aspect of the text is to become a c ritic ."21

Protherough's work points to the importance of recognizing that the process is a gradual , continual one and that readers discover meaning and form judgments simultaneously.

This concern with how a story means is reiterated by Applebee who studied the child's evolving concept of story from early childhood through adolescence.22 Applebee contends that the adolescent adopts a spectator's role toward literature and can analyze a story and make generalizations about its meaning: "The characteristic of analysis is that a work is treated in terms of 'how it works' : its mechanics, the logic of its structure, its images and s y m b o l s ."23 Applebee reported that the last stage of judgment adolescents reach is the ability to generalize about the theme of story. The work of Schlager, Protherough and Applebee confirms the developmental connection between the child and the story and charts the early adolescent's readiness to assume a critic's role. The young critic is guided by the meaning he or she discovers in the work and objective judgments of this work. 179

But what does it mean to be a young critic of literature? Frye proposed that one value of discovering literature is its potential to foster what he labels the educated imagination - a disposition to dis­ covering and formulating an aesthetic view of the world as well as a scientific one.24 The impetus of literary criticism is the reader's discovery of and unique appreciation of the world of books coupled with a willingness to adopt a critical stance toward the literature.

Young readers must first discover satisfaction in their reading as a prelude to assume a critic's stance: "That a student should read more books with satisfaction may be set down as one objective; as a second, he should read books with more satisfaction."25 The young critic's goal is not to analyze books with detachment or with a desire to please the teacher: "We may analyze the things we love because we care about them so much that we want to understand how they work."26

The reader's private response preceeds objective evaluation and inter­ twines with evaluative judgment in the art of criticism:

The experience of literature is a very private experience that cannot be fully communicated to another. When a reader moves back from the experience to talk about it, the literature i t ­ self becomes more and more distanced as the shared meanings in language replace personal experience as the focal point of the response to literature. At this point, the reader is involved in criticism or in studying about literature rather than engaging in an experi­ ence with 1iterature.27 —

The critic's aim is to enhance reading enjoyment by increasing his or her ability to enter into a story and to develop insights which might have been overlooked. The young critic is moving from liking toward 180 judging and acquires an increasing sense of literary form. Criticism becomes an investigative tool and characterizes an approach to inquir­ ing into and thinking about books. The reader adopts the spectator's role to clarify the literary experience and deepen understanding and enjoyment:

The main point is that the spectator role offers a way to articulate and explore our own view of the world, presenting alternatives, clarifying dark corners, posing contradictions, reconciling conflicts within the realm of our subjective personal experience.28

The middle school aged critic responds privately and personally to a novel and returns to the book to discover what evoked the response with the intent of more fully enjoying and appreciating the story world. To be a critic is to look at a book through informed eyes.

The Educator's Role in Nurturing Critics -

A Philosophical Framework

Middle school age children can best become critics in a learning environment which promotes exploration, responds to their developmental needs and facilitates their reading interests. The teacher's influence is an important factor in shaping children's perceptions of literature as critics. His or her first responsibility is to know how young adolescents learn and view their world. In planning literary encounters teachers must recognize that these young readers are in a period of transition and that their reading interests and their abilities to enjoy and evaluate literature are diverse. Youths can begin to appreciate what literature is and how it works if they are exposed to 181 a variety of works repeatedly. This implies that the effective litera­ ture teacher is very familiar with books and knowledgeable about literary structure. Teachers need to understand more about litera­ ture than the students are expected to so that they can effectively plan and guide literary explorations:

It is the teacher's business to know it (literary structure) and to structure the students' experi­ ences with literature in such a way that the child will discover for himself the significant patterns in literature at the same time as he enioys each literary experience for it's own sake.2*

Literary exploration starts with the teacher's recognition of the reader's affective response to the work. This is particularly important to consider when working with the young adolescent whose world is usually colored by emotion. Literature is especially appropriate in a middle school curriculum because it reveals human­ kind's affective nature and taps into the reader's experiences. Chil­ dren learn to become critics as the teacher helps them to focus on differences between their personal reading experience and how the text evoked it. As readers look to the text, the teacher helps them to focus on the integration of literary elements and to use the known , terminology of literature to share their insights with others:

The beginnings of a specialized vocabulary for talking about books and new strategies for com­ paring and evaluating seem to come largely from the teacher's influence in the community of readers. Once a teacher emphasizes an aspect of a book, what she has touched echoes through the year. The teacher's calling attention to multiple interpretations of a title , such as 182

Paterson's Bridge to Terabithia allowed children to consider the title as a metaphor.30

Protherough noted that the youths' early attempts at criticism are tentative and clearly influenced by the teacher. Teaching literary criticism then is not overt teaching of literary dictums but a continually evolving process centered on exploration and nurturing response. The aim is to help readers uncover and crystallize their version of the world they discover in the work so that they can appreciate it for themselves and share it with others.

A Rationale for Including Paterson's Books in a

Middle School Literature Program

The middle school child's development as a critic can be facili­ tated by an exploration of Katherine Paterson's works. This is a good time to study an author because these youths are capable of recognizing this author's specialities and distinctive style. They can also think speculatively about the people, events, and meanings in her books and can discern patterns as pieces fit and are bonded by meaning. Paterson's novels offer an exposure to guality literature for young adults:

In choosing books we should perhaps give more thought to selecting texts that will extend children's sense of what fiction is and does rather than simply looking for novels that will fit a given theme or provide interesting follow up activities . ^

Paterson's works invite opportunities for aesthetic reading and point readers toward excellence. Youths can begin to acquire literary 183 standards as the books become bridges to future transactions with more complex adult-like literature.

Paterson's works mirror the early adolescents' developmental view of the world and respond to their aesthetic sensibilities. Schlager's work stresses the necessity for books to reflect the reader's develop­ mental stage and Paterson's books tap into this outlook. Schlager notes that youths are concerned with exploring their inner and outer worl ds :

Erickson terms the phenomenon whereby the seven to twelve year old simultaneously gains a keen desire to handle reality situations independently and to assess his or her own ability to cope and succeed in reality situations, "reality orienta­ tion." It is a significant aspect of this develop­ mental period. And it is therefore highly gratify­ ing for the young reader to observe a fictional peer's successful struggle with the problems of the survival.32

We have noted that each of Paterson's protagonists are forced into the world alone and must surmount obstacles before they can come into their own, especially Muna and Gilly. These characters' fictional struggles echo the reader's inner chaos. The paramount developmental task facing the adolescent is the fusing of a strong identity. This same task faces the major characters in Paterson's novels. Each is introspec­ tive and in search of self. For instance, Louise is consumed with establishing an identity which her sister cannot take away. Just as adolescents fear rejection and loneliness, so do their fictional counter­ parts. Jess is acutely aware of his position as an outsider and determines to be the best at something to change this status. Erickson 184 has labeled the adolescent's viewpoint that he or she is capable enough to handle a situation without adult assistance "cognitive conceit." This attitude is especially characteristic of Gilly who refuses all adult help. Adolescents also become very critical of adults and siblings. Jess's and Louise's views of their family give a voice ti this jaundiced outlook.

In addition to buttressing the early adolescent's emotional out­ looks, a consideration of Paterson's works offer youths the opportunity to apply continually developing critical thinking skills which enhance their ability to evaluate literature. With the ability to think speculatively comes the potential to consider important issues which impact on the novels - What if Gilly had gone back to Thompson Park?

What might happen between Caroline and Louise as they reconcile?

Will Jiro become a master puppeteer?

We have noted that youths become more sensitive to metaphor and simile and can begin to appreciate Paterson's extensive use of figura­ tive language to invest her stories with multiple meanings. This ability to see more, opens doors to considering the function of symbols and allusions in the novels to unlock extended meanings. A study of this author's books provide middle school readers an opportunity to discover novels which reflect their developmental status and encourage their development as critics. 185

Suggestions for Planning Literary Encounters

All of Paterson's novels are powerful and well written. In con­ sidering their potential for the classroom the strength of each work and its possibility for enhancing students' explorations must first be identified. Each of the historical novels has the potential to dis­ engage readers. The Sign of the Chrysanthemum has not enjoyed wide appeal and is the least accessible to young readers who have difficulty entering into the emotional world of the story. It is most appropriate to suggest this novel for individualized reading and to give the reader help in focusing on the theme. Of Nightingales That Weep can best be introduced as a love story. Females might be most interested in read­ ing this novel and should be guided to considering the transformation of Takiko's character and the theme which is the vehicle for this change. We have noted that young adolescents enjoy adventure and mystery stories. The Master Puppeteer is a good choice to read aloud to a middle school audience. The plot and characters dominate the novel and a consideration of the working of this particular mystery is a foundation for appreciating how other mysteries are structured. Key questions to explore are: How does Paterson develop the mystery? How does the author use foreshadowing? Were you surprised at anything that happened? Is Jiro the same at the beginning of the novel as he is at the end? The setting also impacts on the story. Readers can investi­ gate the Bunraku puppet theater to build background for appreciating the setting. 186

The realistic novels are most appropriate for small group and whole class study. The intense emotions Bridge to Terabithia evokes make it most appropriate for small group consideration. Young readers are most likely to share their personal responses to this novel in an intimate setting. Fascination with the idea of a secret kingdom should not lead readers so far away from the book that they lose focus on what happens to Leslie and Jess there. They will also want to compare Jess and Leslie's families and discover how Jess's rela­ tionship with his changes. It would be helpful for the group to chart the differences in the language used by the characters and to consider what it reveals about them. The teacher will need to guide readers to examine the central concept of the book - the overarching theme of bridges. Young readers will most likely focus on Leslie's death and might want to read two other books in which characters die, Beat the Turtle Prum33 and A Summer to Die.34 it is essential for teachers to be prepared for young reader's intense emotional response to the book and to help them differentiate this emotion from their evalua­ tion of the novel as a work of literature.

The raw emotions of Jacob Have I Loved are also best explored in small groups. The theme and style of the novel marks this as Paterson's most complex work and it has appealed to both young and adult readers.

Teachers can help young readers enter'more fully into the story if the

Biblical genisis of the sibling rivalry which overshadow the novel is identified. In addition,it is essential to consider the role of 187

Biblical allusions to add dimension to the story. This is Louise's

story and readers need to investigate her perception of Caroline and discuss if it is a valid one. This inquiry will probably lead to a consideration of Paterson's choice of point of view and speculation

about how the story would be altered if another stance was adopted.

The relationship of the setting to the novel should also be clarified.

Teachers may want to share two books which are windows to Louise's world of the Chesapeake Bay - Beautiful Swimmers35 and Chesapeake.36

The Great Gilly Hopkins stands out as an excellent choice for whole class study. Young readers are intrigued ty the brash but engaging protagonist and become caught up in debate over Gilly's final choice. An exploration of the novel should focus on these two story dimensions. Readers can consider how Paterson lets us know about

Gilly, particularly through her relationships with Maime, W.E., Mr.

Randolph, and Nonnie. They may also want to read the story "Maggie's

Gift "37 and draw parallels between the characters of Genevieve and

Gilly. Inevitably, discussion will be directed to a focus on the novel's resolution and theme. Teacher's can help reader's consider the implications of Gilly's choice by asking - Who needs Gilly more?

Maime or Nonnie? What will Gilly's future be if she stayed with Maime instead of Nonnie? An interesting activity which directs students back to the book to confirm their judgments of the novel is to ask them to consider making a television movie of the book and to choose pivotal scenes to include. The class can then view a videotape of the 188 production which was aired by CBS on Thanksgiving Day, 1981.38 stu­ dents can compare and contrast their "movie" with the actual pre­ sentation. The class can also be directed to other books which feature characters searching for a home and parents - Dicey's Song39, Rainbow

Jordan*^ , Child of the Owl 41 , P inballs^, and Goodnight, Mr. T o m .43

They can chart similarities and differences - an activity which focuses on the universality of the theme and offers an opportunity to consider various authors' treatments of the same subject.

Discussion as Exploration

Paterson's books invite speculation which demands to be talked about - Was Gilly wrong? Why did Leslie have to die? Talk about books encourages evaluation. Discussion of literature is a valuable tool which enables readers to discover the most in their reading:

"Literary discussion remains the primary means of helping children develop as critics of story."44 we have noted that adolescents pre­ fer interaction activities and are willing to share their thoughts and ideas. LeFrancois confirms that, "During this time conversational talents that were previously more important for girls than boys be­ come more important for both."45 Adolescents are willing to share their beliefs and ideas and respond to those of others. Discussion is an approach which meets these needs as students share their insights in group discussion, in teacher/student conferences, and in peer dyads.

The teacher facilitates discussion by assuring time and opportunity for exploratory talk. Barnes stresses the necessity for such talk in 189 the classroom. He believes that the exploratory talk which is promoted in an atmosphere of trust and respect for other's comments permits one to think aloud to explain something to yourself.46 Participants talk to speculate and are lead towards reordering their experiences with literature so that others can understand the speaker's intent.

Exploratory talk directs participants to return to the text as they grope toward articulating their reaction to and perception of it.

The teacher's role in discussion is not to lead students to con­ firm his or her perception of the work or to confine discussion strictly to the text but to select student responses and ask for elaboration and re-statement:

To direct the student reader's attention exclus­ ively to the text is to limit the reader to efferent reading - getting the text straight. To direct the reader's attention to the indi­ vidual experience of the text and the process of creating meaning is to teach aesthetic reading - the creation of literature out of the literary text.47

Such discussion leads readers to value personal response and use evaluative perceptions to articulate it. The following guidelines for discussion of a work point toward clarifying response through refer­ ence to literary elements which influence perception of the text:

Plot: What idea(s) does the story make you think about? How does

Paterson get you to do this? How does Paterson get the story started?

Did the story end as you anticipated? Did the Paterson prepare you for the ending? What would happen if the ending were changed? Characters: Which characters) do you know the most about? The least? Are some more important? How are the characters revealed?

Do they stay the same?

Setting: When/where does the story take place? Is the time and place important to the story? How does Paterson reveal the time and place of the story? What would happen to the story if the time and place were changed?

Sty!e: Is there anything that seems to make Paterson's writing unique?

What patterns do you notice?

Theme: What is the big idea the story makes you think about?

*** In discussing theme it is important to remember that Applebee identified this as the last stage of judgment to emerge and that Wilson noted that the teacher usually has to initiate the idea of theme in a discussion.^8

Overview of the Work: How are the major characters alike? How are they different? How do the characters determine to get what they want?

Are there any ideas which are repeated in the stories? Do the charac­ ters always get what they expected? Could these stories have happened anywhere? What do you think the author is trying to say in these books?

Discussion makes private perceptions public and as individuals share their unique outlooks others reflect upon their own and modify or con­ tinue to hold them. The teacher needs to insure that exploratory talk about books is a central focus of helping children to become critics. 191

Experiences Which Extend Readers' Book Experiences

Discriminately selected activities which lead readers back to the

book to clarify perceptions and evaluations are other outlets for expression. The motive for extensions is a desire to articulate and deepen response. Students should be encouraged to initiate activities and the teacher can offer suggestions. The following activities

facilitate the middle grade child's desire to participate in group activities and his or her need for self-expression. Teachers dignify the students' efforts by providing materials and time for work and inviting them to display or share their products.

Drama emphasizes interaction and verbal expression. Social skills are practiced in a group and the student can assume a variety of roles - facilitator, idea generator, doer, organizer, listener and critic. The group can become involved in improvisation which is characterized by spontaneous dialogue and action or creative drama.

Huck discusses the idea behind creative drama:

Creative drama is structured and cooperatively planned ... It goes beyond dramatic play or simple improvisation in that it has a form with a beginning, middle, and an end. The dialogue is always created by the players whether the content is taken from a story, poem, or chapter of a book.49

The emphasis on student creation is central. Students who choose to dramatize scenes from Paterson's books must return to the works to select pivotal episodes which move the story forward or are essential to character development. The following suggestions for The Great Gilly 192

Hopkins, The Master Puppeteer and Bridge to Terabithia provide for interaction and pinpoint the impact of an event. Jacob Have I Loved does not lend itself to drama because Louise is pre-occupied with her­ self. Some scenes from The Great Gilly Hopkins which are appropriate for creative drama are: the opening scene in the car with Miss Ellis, her experience at the bus station and her reunion with Maime and W.E. at the police station. The incident when Maime falls down on Gilly is not pivotal and only an outlet for slapstick comedy. Gilly's re­ union with her mother evokes an intensity of emotion which young adolescents may have a difficulty in expressing. Jiro's confronta­ tion in the storehouse with Okado is another rich source for drama in

The Master Puppeteer.

Writing activities also help students deepen perceptions of a novel. Reading and writing are closely connected; reading is the reception of thoughts and writing the production of them. Moffett discusses what transpires when we write:

Human beings are born composers. By drawing off traits of the world and rearranging them accord­ ing to some mental order, people constantly com­ pose reality; for composition literally means putting together, selecting and arranging the elements of a medium.50

When students write about literature they present their own reality of a work and must return to the novel to select and arrange their ... thoughts. Students often spontaneously initiate writing. However the teacher should always be alert to possibilities. Itis valuable for students to experience a range of writing modes and they can begin by 193

adopting the point of view of one of the characters. They can assume

G illy's persona and write about an incident from her fir s t person

point of view. Another possibility is for Maime to write le tte rs to the girl. Students can also write a report on Gilly that Miss Ellis would put in her files or an ancedotal record from Miss Harris,

Gilly's teacher. It would also be valuable to adopt Caroline's view­ point about life with her sister. Readers can keep journals of their private responses to books. Someone who is unable to talk about

Leslie's death in Bridge to Terabithia might want to write about it.

Readers who study Paterson's novels may elect to write letters to her and express reactions or ask questions. Requirements which compel students to write letters to an author demean students' responses and take away from the author's time. However^ le tte rs prompted by a genuine desire to communicate with the author will most likely be welcomed. Letters should be sent to the publisher who will relay them to the author.

Opportunities for artistic expression need also be encouraged.

Several of Paterson's characters are artists - Goro, Takiko, Caroline,

Jiro and Jess. Students can attempt to replicate with clay Goro's misshapen cup and the object can be a living symbol of the book.

Those interested in music can learn about the instrument Takiko played or locate the humn Caroline sang at the Christmas concert and reflect on its meaning in the book. They can also explore the world of

Japanese puppetry to learn more about Jero's world. Jess viewed his 194

world through the eyes of an artist and students can try to paint

Terabithia as they believe Jess saw it. Paterson's explicit descrip­

tion of Rass Island (p. 9) invites artistic rendering and helps readers

place Louise in her world.

Paterson has written two books which were awarded the Newbery

Medal and one which was designated a Newbery honor book. Students

will want to know more about what the Newbery Medal signifies and can

locate a reference book such as Newbery and Caldecott Medal and Honor

Books by Peterson and S o ltf o r background information.51 A logical

next step is to form a mock selection committee and read the winners

and honor book from 1978, 1979, and 1981 picking th eir own winner.

1978

Bridge to Terabithia - Katherine Paterson

Anpao: An American Indian Odyssey - Jamake Highwater^2

Ramona and Her Father - Beverly C le a r y 5 3

1979

The Westing Game - Ellen R askin^

The Great Gilly Hopkins - Katherine feterson

1981

Jacob Have I Loved - Katherine Paterson

The Fledgling - Jane Langton55

A Ring of Endless Light - Madeleine L’Engle^

The panels should formulate their own selection criteria for that activity which will involve them in discussion and literary criticism. 195

It is traditional for Newbery winners to deliver acceptance speeches and their comments offer new insights to their writing pro­ cess and their novels. These speeches and biographical sketches of the winners are always published in the August issue of the Horn Book.

Students can read their speeches and then pretend to be Paterson and read them to the class.

Ideally, a study of an author would be highlighted by the author's visit to the school. Visits are most successful when planning is thorough and students are well-prepared. Paterson does visit schools and expects that children will have read her books and want to discuss them with her. She prefers informal small group settings. Teachers can prepare students for an author's visit by helping them think of questions to ask and suggesting that they locate biographical informa­ tion on the author . ^ Students can stage a mock interview of the author as a rehearsal for her visit. The article, "When Writers Visit

Schools: A Symposium," is a collection of authors' observations on visiting classrooms; their insights are helpful to anyone organizing an author's visit.58 The day can be valuable for both the author and the children. The writer has an opportunity to meet her audience and children learn that Paterson is a real person and that writing is work!

A phone interview with the author can also be arranged if a personal visit is difficult to arrange. 196

Summary

Katherine Paterson's intentions are never fully realized until a reader connects to her novels. She writes for a young audience whose lives are in constant transition. These adolescents are struggling to achieve identities and to find stability. A literature program for the middle school acknowledges the adolescents' developmental needs and interests. Schlager has suggested that young adolescents select litera­ ture which reflects their view of the world and Paterson's novels mirror this outlook. Protherough and Applebee have noted that adolescent readers move from evaluations of literature motivated by emotion to those formulated by applying more objective standards. The youth who learns to distinguish his or her emotional judgments from objective ones is developing into a critic. To become a critic is to appreciate a work more fully and to discover how it works. The reader is clarifying his or her perception for self, not the teacher and needs to reorder it so that others can reflect on it. The teacher's role in nurturing critics is to help readers discover their outlooks and elabo­ rate on and clarify them. Discussion promotes literatu re exploration as do various extension activities. Young critics learn what litera­ ture is as they become engaged in re-creating the author's version of the world and connecting their own to it. 197

Footnotes

1 Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981, p. 4.

2LeFrancois, Guy, Of Children an Introduction to Child Development 3rd edition, University of Alberta, Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, Ca., 1980, p. 435.

^Elkind, David, A Sympathetic Understanding of the Child: Birth to Sixteen, Allyn and Bacon Inc., Boston, 1974, p. 153.

4Ib id ., p. 162.

^Purves, Alan C., Beach, Richard, Literature and the Reader Research in Response to Literature, Reading Interests and the Teaching of Literature, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Illin o is , 1972, p. 85.

^Op.Cit. , p. 185.

^Rosenblatt, Louise, Literature as Exploration, Third Edition, Noble and Noble, New York, 1976, p. 31.

80p.C it., p. 174.

^Epstein, Herman T. , Toepfer, Conrad, E. Jr., "A Neuroscience Basis for Reorganizing Middle School Education," Educational Leadership, May 1978, pp. 656-660.

^A rnold, J . , "Rhetoric and Reform in Middle Schools," Phi Delta Kappan , March 1982, p. 454.

^Alexander, William, "What Has Happened to the Middle School?" NASSP Bulletin, May 1971, pp. 132-141 and Gatewood, Thomas E., "What Research Says About the Middle School," Educational Leadership, December 1973, pp. 221-224.

l^Elkind, David, A Sympathetic Understanding of the Child: Birth to Sixteen, Allyn and Bacon Inc., Boston, 1974, p. 165.

^Arnold, J., "Rhetoric and Reform in Middle School, " Phi Delta Kappan, March 1982, p. 45. 198

^Schlager, Norma, "Predicting Children's Choices in Literature: A Developmental Approach," Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1978, Vol. 9, No. 3, Whole no. 30, APS Publications Inc., New York, pp. 133-144.

1^0'Dell, Scott, Island of the Blue Dolphins, Boston, Houghton- Mifflin, 1960.

^Shannon, Monica, Dobry, New York, Viking, 1934.

^Schlager, Norma, "Predicting Children's Choices in Literature: A Developmental Approach," Children's Literature in Education. Autumn 1978, Vol. 9, No. 3, Whole no. 30, APS Publications Inc., New York, p. 137.

^Protherough, Robert, "How Children Judge Stories, Children's Literature in Education," APS Publications Inc., New York, pp. 3-13.

19Ib id ., p. 7.

20Ibid., p. 9.

21 Ib id ., p. 10.

22Applebee, Arthur N., The Child's Concept of Story, Ages Two to Seventeen, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago Press, Chicago, 1978.

231bid., p. 108.

2^Frye, Northrup, The Educated Imagination, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1964.

25Britton, James, "The Nature of the Readers' Satisfaction," The Cool Web the Patterns of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Bodley Head Ltd., London, 1977, p. 116.

2^Vandergrift, Kay E., Child and Story: The Literary Connection, Neal-Shuman Publishers Inc., New York, 1980, p. 108.

27Ibid., p. 17.

28Applebee, Arthur N., The Child's C oncept of Story, Ages Two to Seventeen, The University of Chicago P r e s s , Chicago, 1978, p. 134. 199

^S lo an , Glenna Davis, The Child as Critic Teaching Literature in the Elementary School, Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York and London, 1978, p. 44.

SOHepler, Susan I ., Hickman, Janet, "The Book Was Okay, I Love You - Social Aspects of Response to Literature," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, No. 4, Autumn 1982, p. 282.

31Protherough, Robert, "How Children Judge Stories," Chi 1dren1s Literature in Education, APS Publications, New York, p. 12.

32schlager, Norma, "Predicting Children's Choices in Literature: A Developmental Approach, Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1978, Vol. 9, No. 3, Whole no. 30, APS Publications Inc., New York, p. 38.

^Greene, Constance C ., Beat the Turtle Drum, ill us., Donna Diamond, Viking, 1976.

^Lowry, Lois, A Summer to Die, ill us. Jenni Oliver, Houghton, 1977.

■^Warner, William, Beautiful Swimmers: Waterman, Crabs and the Chesapeake Bay, L ittle Brown and Co., 1976.

36Michener, James, Chesapeake, Random House,New Y ork, 1978.

37paterson, Katherine, "Maggie'sGift," Angels and Other Strangers, Avon, New York, 1980, pp. 49-63.

^Columbia Broadcasting System, New York.

39voight, Cynthia, Dicey's Song, Antheneum,New York, 1983.

40childress, Alice, Rainbow Jordan, Coward, New York, 1981.

^Y ep, Laurence, Child of the Owl, Harper and Row, 1977.

^^Byars, Betsy, The Pinballs, Harper and Row, 1977.

^Maqorian, Michelle, Good Night, Mr. Tom, Harper and Row, New York, 1982.

^Vandergrift, Kay E., Child and Story: The Literary Connection, Neal-Shuman Publishers Inc., New York, 1980, p. 196. 200

^LeFrancois, Guy, Of Children An Introduction to Child Development 3rd Edition, University of Alberta, Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, Ca., 1980, p. 424.

^B arnes, Douglas, From Communication to Curriculum, Penguin Books, Ltd. , London , 1975.

^Webb, Agnes, J ., "Transactions with Literary Texts: Conversations in the Classroom," English Journal, Vol. 71, No. 3, March 1982, p. 59.

4 8 w i l s o n , R.R., " In -D ep th Book Discussions of Selected 6th Graders' Response to Literature," Ohio State University,1975 (dissertation).

^Huck, Charlotte S., Children's Literature in the Elementary School Third Edition Updated, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1976, p. 661.

^Moffett, James, Wagner, Betty Jane, Student-Centered Language Arts and Reading, K-l3 A Handbook for Teachers, Second Edition, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976, p. 8.

51 Peterson, Kauffman, Linda and Solt, Leathers, Marilyn, Newbery and Caldecott Medal and Honor Books An Annotated Bibliography, G.K. Hall and Co., 70 Lincoln Street, Boston, 1982.

^Hiqhwater, Jamake, Anpao: An American Indian Odyssey, Lippincott, 1977.

.^-^Cleary, Beverly, Ramona and Her Father, Morrow, 1977.

^R askin, Ellen, The Westing Game, E.P. Dutton, New York, 1978.

^Langton, Jane, The Fledgling, illu s . Erik Blegvad, Harper and Row, New York, 1980.

56i_'Engle, Madeleine, A Ring of E n d le s s Light, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, New York, 1980.

^ aCommire, Anne, Something About the Author, Vol. 13, Gale Research Book Tower, D etroit, pp. 176-177.

Martha, E ., and Marquardt, Authors of Books for Young People, Meutchen, New Jersey, Scare Press Inc., 1979. ^ cBioqraphy Index, 1949-1979, Vol. 11, H.W. Wilson Co., New York.

^Contem porary Authors, Vol. 21R, Gale Research Co., Detroit, 1977.

58Miles, Betty, Editor, "When Writers Visit Schools: A Symposium," Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1980, Vol. 1 No. 3, Whole no. 38, pp. 133-145.

Gold, N. and Donovan E ., Adolescent Development Reading in Research and Theory, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1969.

Piaget, J ., Intellectual Development From Adolescence to Adulthood, Human Development, 1972, pp. 1-12. CHAPTER EIGHT

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this study was to offer a literary analysis of the novels of Katherine Paterson and to suggest educational implications for th e ir use in the middle school classroom. The body of Paterson's works (The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Of Nightingales That Weep, The

Master Puppeteer, Bridge to Terabithia, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Jacob

Have I Loved) were closely read and analyzed to discern patterns and distinguishing characteristics and to delineate the development of plot, setting, characterization, theme, and style in the books. The researcher searched the literature for articles or books about

Paterson and for reviews of her books as sources of information about this author and her novels. The views she expressed in her book, The

Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books also offered insight to the writer's views on literature in general and to her books specifically.^ The researcher went to Virginia and interviewed

Katherine Paterson. Her comments about her aims in writing and the practice of her craft revealed more insights about the person behind the book.

This study is unique. A review of significant lite ra tu re confirmed that investigators have written biographical profiles of authors of children's books or have analyzed specific books. However, no one had critiqued the body of an author's works and suggested implications

202 203 for their use in the middle school. No one had studied the works of

Katherine Paterson.

Katherine Paterson is recognized as a distinguished author of literature for children and young adults and her novels are worthy of study. She has written six novels for young audiences and both Bridge to Terabithia and Jacob Have I Loved have been honored with the Newbery

Award while The Great Gilly Hopkins was designated as an honor book and received The National Book Award. Her realistic novels are especially popular with young adolescents. The books are characterized by a perception of the human condition and a belief in hope for the world which these young readers recognize.

This study was rooted in the premise that children's literatu re is not divorced from adult literatu re but belongs to one family. Litera­ ture for children and young adults needs to be critiqued by the same standards as literature for adults. Two characteristics of books designated as most appropriate for children or young adults are the creation of a story world which reflects a child's unique outlook and the understanding that the content must recognize the reader's compara­ tively limited range of experiences and emotions. Current educational practice tends to ignore the value of including literature which specifically meets the needs of the middle school audience in the curriculum. Middle school age youth are often catapulted from elementary school classrooms which focus on enjoyment of children's literatu re to middle school classrooms which emphasize analysis of adult literatu re

or classics such as The Scarlet L etter. This gap in the literary

background of middle school readers can be narrowed through in teract­

ing with Paterson's books which are literary and capture the attention

of middle school readers. Readers who concentrate on this author's

works begin to discern the patterns within them and to make connections

which apply to other literature. They can also gain insight into the

creative process and begin to link the person behind the book to her

novels. Katherine Paterson's works are especially appropriate for

study for this age group; the books meet young readers' needs and

interests and an exploration of her works helps readers build a frame­ work for looking at literature critically.

This exploration of Paterson's novels began with a focus on plot.

Plot is what the story is about and Paterson aims to tell stories her young readers will want to become involved with. The author structures

plots carefully and each story features slowly rising action which

builds to an intense peak and is followed by a swift conclusion. Her comments on the impetus for plot ideas offered insight into her w rit­

ing process. The story ideas for Bridge to Terabithia and The Great

Gilly Hopkins were extracted from her life experiences. Jacob Have I

Loved was an expression of her inner turmoil. The Master Puppeteer had its genesis in her visit to a performance of the Bunraku theater which performed in Washington, D.C. and a disturbing dream. In the historical novels, actual dates and events provided a framework for 205

planning story events. Conflicts functioned as agents in>each work to move the stories forward as characters struggle with them. For

instance, Muna (The Master Puppeteer) is consumed by his search for a

father and a name and Louise (Jacob Have I Loved) wrestles with guilt and hatred. The conflicts lead to unexpected resolutions which often jolt readers. Young audiences may have difficulty understanding why

Leslie (Bridge to Terabithia) had to die and might not want to accept that Gilly (The Great Gilly Hopkins)wil1 stay with her grandmother.

But Paterson foreshadows each ending to soften the impact of these unanticipated turns of events. Young readers who discover the subtle hints she offers will accept Leslie's death and Gilly's decision as inevitable given the context of these specific story worlds. The conflict resolutions of each of her novels do not signal endings for the characters but rather an acceptance of events and a determination to move forward.

The characters who people Paterson's novels appear human and are shaped by th eir strengths and foibles. Paterson was determined to fashion characters readers can care about. They can identify with

Louise's (Jacob Have I Loved) feelings of antipathy for her sister which warps her perspective on life and they can appreciate Gilly's

(The Great Gilly Hopkins) spunk. Each character is unique because the author listened to the special demands which shaped their personalities.

Louise (Jacob Have I Loved) insisted on tellin g her own story and

Paterson ju st "knew" that Maime Trotter (The Great Gilly Hopkins) had to be fat and semi-illiterate. Names also determine the characters' natures. Muna's joke name,

"no name," makes him an object of ridicule and compounds his feelings

of inferiority (The Sign of the Chrysanthemum). G illy's given name,

Galadriel, an allusion to Tolkein's fairy queen signals her potential

for greatness (The Great Gilly Hopkins). These character's personali­

ties and actions are true to their story worlds. For instance, it

would be unrealistic for the vain and prideful Takiko (Of Nightingales

That Weep) to respond to Goro's plea that she return home to help her

family and leave her lover. There is a basic pattern to Paterson's

methods of character development. Each protagonist is alienated and

must make his or her own way in the world. Two of the characters,

Muna (The Sign of the Chrysanthemum) and Gilly (The Great Gilly Hopkins)

have no families. Muna is an orphan and Gilly a foster child. The

other protagonists are emotionally separated from their families.

Paterson has stated that she isolated these characters to give them

freedom to act and make th e ir own ways in the world. These actions are

realized in choices which confront the protagonists with unexpected

consequences. For instance, Gilly never expected that her impulsive

le tte r to her mother would precipitate the arrival of her grandmother.

The protagonists grow as they recognize the consequences of their

actions and accept the unexpected. This transformation confirms

Paterson's theory about fictio n : "Somethings got to happen, someone's

got to change."2 It is a strength of Paterson's writing that she draws

believable characters who overcome adversity to change and discover themselves. Paterson places her characters in worlds which help to determine their lives. Historical settings and events shape the characters, events and themes in the novels set in Japan as do the contemporary contexts of the realistic novels. The author looks to each setting as the source of story. Rass Island is as powerful a force in the character's lives in Jacob Have I Loved as the world of the puppet theater is in The Master Puppeteer. Story patterns emerge from her settings and she complies with the story demands which fictional time and place seem to dictate. Setting is integral to these worlds in all of the novels except The Great Gilly Hopkins. The shabby but loved-filled setting in this novel functions to reinforce the foster child's alienation. The author carefully researches her settings and strives to capture their distinctive natures. In her historical novels,

Paterson refers to memories of her life in China and Japan to recapture the nuances of life in the Orient. The details of Jiro 's life in the puppet theater are gathered from her v isit to the Bunraku Theater in

Japan (The Master Puppeteer). She also investigated the lives of

Chesapeake Bay watermen to recreate th eir life sty le in Jacob Have I

Loved. While setting functions as a source of story in the novel, it also works to establish mood in Bridge to Terabithia, to operate as a symbol of Louise's isolation in Jacob Have I Loved and to provide factual details of life in feudal Japan making this world more-access­ ible to readers of the historical novels. Paterson's ability to place her characters in well-defined and authentic story worlds lends versimilitude to her novels. 208

The literary element which is woven throughout plot, characteriza­ tion and setting is theme. Theme signifies the author's purpose and is the key to the story's meaning. A theme is not just anchored to a specific novel but can apply to various works. Theme can be as overtly stated as that of the unpredictability of life in The Great

Gilly Hopkins or as subtly developed as the concept of bridges in

Bridge to Terabithia. Powerful themes in Paterson's novels reflect the life and death matters of humanity while offering a promise of hope. The themes which characterize all her individual novels are connected by an overarching one - that of overcoming family background to achieve self actualization. The repetition of this theme confirms

Paterson's respect for the individual and reinforces her belief in self-determination. v The way in which an author combines literary elements is referred to as style. An author's style is individualistic and recognizable.

Paterson's s ty listic choices present a picture of the world as she perceives it. The author believes that style in her books for children is characterized by simplicity. Paterson recognized that each book demanded a different style: the smoothly flowing language of Bridge to Terabithia meets the demands of this particular book as does the comparatively fast paced style of The Great Gilly Hopkins. She adopts a style for each book which is compatib-le with its story, setting and characters. Her characters' conversations also reveal their natures as well as th eir environment. The style of the historical novels 209 captures the Oriental setting while the style of the contemporary novels is a realistic mirror of modern life.

The author draws from a rich storehouse of figurative language to express her intentions. Her extensive use of metaphor and simile adds layers of meaning to the novels. The settings evoke figurative language which capture the nuances of each particular time and place.

The figurative language of Jacob Have I Loved reflects the influence of the Bible and the sea. Paterson's use of metaphor and simile in the historical novels refers to Oriental customs and details of every­ day life . This expert use of figurative language draws readers into the book and requires their active involvement. She depends on the inclusion of numerous allusions to fantasy works and fairy-tales in

Bridge to Terabithia and The Great Gilly Hopkins to trigger associa­ tions which reveal deeper story meanings to readers. Paterson also exploits the potential of symbolization to invest her story with subtle meanings. Objects such as the picture of Courtney (The Great

Gilly Hopkins) or Takiko's musical instrument, a koto (Of Nightingales

That Weep) portend significant meaning. The seasons and holidays also assume symbolic impact. Turning points in the characters lives are marked by holidays in The Great Gilly Hopkins and Bridge to Terabithia.

The New Year signifies new beginnings for the protagonists in her

Oriental novels.

Full appreciation of Jacob Have I Loved depends on understanding the connection of the Bible references to the story. The tie between 210

the Bible and this novel is so strong that it is written in the style

of a Biblical tale. The language patterns, the use of imagery and

motifs as well as the singular emphasis on sibling rivalry mold the

novel into a contemporary Bible tale. Paterson's critics recognize

her as a superior stylist who can exploit language to build distinctive

story worlds.

Young readers' literary perceptions of Paterson's novels can be

nurtured in a middle school classroom. The teacher who understands

how literature works and who can see patterns in the novels of this

author can use this knowledge to develop critical readers. Teachers who plan lite ra ry encounters for middle school age children must be

guided by this group's developmental needs and interests. Young

adolescents are continually changing and are pre-occupied in the

search for self. Immersion in social activities is characteristic

of this age group and th e ir involvement with family and school recedes

into the background. These youths are evolving from the stage of

concrete operational thinking to the stage of formal operational think­

ing and can begin to reason hypothetically and critically. The work

of two researchers confirms the connection between young readers and

the books they choose. They are also looking to books to confirm

their perception of the world. Schlager contends that the young

adolescents' reading choices reflect their developmental status.3

Protherough charts young reader's transformations from those whose

first response to books is emotional to one which shifts to evaluating t' books critically during this period of early adolescence.4 211

This readiness to become a critic implies that young readers are concerned with how a story means. They begin to use literary terms to clarify their perceptions and share them with others. The critic's aim is to clarify for self and restate perceptions. This literary exploration enhances reading enjoyment and criticism becomes a new way of thinking about books. Paterson's works are especially appro­ priate for a middle school audience because they reflect a young adult's outlook and nurture their growth as critics. Her novels can become a bridge between sim plistic surface reading and more complex books. This audience is capable of recognizing the trademarks of her style and can recognize connections within these books. These insights can lead to increasing knowledge of how literatu re works. Readers of her novels are involved in aesthetic reading experiences which are enjoyable and challenging.

The educator's role in helping children become discerning readers begins with knowing more about books than children will ever be expected to know. He or she understands how young adolescents learn and will plan literary encounters which begin with acknowledging and dignifying personal responses. The teacher should help students to clarify their insights by encouraging them to connect their responses to the work and by guiding them to differentiate a subjective reaction from an objective one which centers on the text. Discussion is the primary means for helping readers explore books. The teacher should promote exploratory talk which makes it possible for readers to discuss their 212 perceptions, to explain them to self and then to restate them for others. Carefully planned extension activities also involve students in thinking thoughtfully about books. Students' involvement in drama, writing and art activities provide opportunities for practicing numerous means of expression and lead them back to the book. A study of Paterson's books might culminate in the author's visit or a phone interview. Students will be interested in the person behind the books and her comments will add to th eir enjoyment of her novels.

This study has concentrated on identifying the unique charac­ teristics of Paterson's writing and on discovering patterns which connect them. She writes two types of stories - historical fiction and realistic fiction but they are united by commonalities. Each protagonist becomes alienated from family and can be thought of as a lost child. Threaded throughout the books is a prevailing statement of hope despite the fact that "you don't always get what you expect."

These concepts affirm Paterson's intent to write about "the stuff of life" so that young readers can view it realistically and make the proper choices. Her novels reflect the truth as she knows it and are notable because of her perceptive vision of it. Readers respond to her truths as they enter into her story worlds which in turn help them to see their own more clearly.

Cone!usions

The conclusions of this study which identified the distinguishing characteristics of Paterson's works are: 213

1. Paterson writes two types of novels - historical fiction and contemporary realistic fiction.

2. The plot structures of Paterson's novels are characterized by slowly rising action whicli. accelerates to a peak and is followed by a swift conclusion.

3. The plots are propelled by conflicts which are resolved through unexpected endings to the novels.

4. Paterson foreshadows these unexpected endings to give readers a sense that they were the only plausible resolutions.

5. Paterson's characters have distinctive personalities and their thoughts and actions are consistent with their unique story worlds.

6. Each of Paterson's protagonists is an outsider who must determine his or her own way in the world.

7. The protagonists make choices which force them to confront odds and grow from the changes th eir choices dictate.

8. Paterson frequently looks to the settings of her novels as the source of story.

9. Paterson carefully researches the settings of her books and places her characters in authenticated worlds.

10. Paterson believes in writing about "the stuff of life" and the themes in her novels reflect life's realities while also offering hope.

11. One unifying theme connects the novels. Each protagonist rises above family background to achieve personal identity.

12. The style Paterson adopts for each novel is determined by its plot, setting, and characters.

13. Paterson makes extensive use of figurative language and symbolism to add texture to the stories and imbue them with deeper meanings.

The conclusions of this study which focused on the use of the novels in a middle school classroom are: 214

1. Literature for children and young adults needs to be evaluated by the same criteria as literature for adults.

2. Middle school age children are developmentally ready to study literature from the viewpoint of a critic. They are entering the developmental stage which Piaget identifies as formal operational. They can reason hypothetically and can discern patterns in a phenomenon. These capabilities indicate a readiness to study the works of one author.

3. Young adolescents need experience with literature which meets their developmental needs and interests and they choose books which reflect th e ir viewpoint of the world.

4. Paterson's novels are suitable for the middle school age child because they mirror the young adolescent's perception of the world and are models of good literatu re.

5. Well written contemporary novels are most appropriate for study in a middle school classroom.

6. The middle school teacher should know how literature works and should provide opportunities for students to read books and to share their responses to them.

7. Young adolescents prefer group activities and are willing to discuss their ideas about books in groups and become involved in collaborative projects. 215

Footnotes

1 Paterson, Katherine, The Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson Books, New York, 1981.

^Personal interview with the author, Norfolk, Va., June 10, 1983.

3Schlager, Norma, "Predicting Children's Choices in Literature: A Developmental Approach," Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1978, Vol. 9, No. 3, Wiole no. 30, APS Publications Inc., New York.

4-Protherough, Robert, "How Children Judge Stories," Children's Literature in Education," Spring 1983, APS Publications In c ., New York. APPENDIX A

Works by Katherine Paterson

"The Aim of the Writer Who Writes for Children," Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn, 1982, pp. 325-331.

Angels and Other Strangers. T.Y. Crowell, New York, 1979, Avon, New York, 1980.

Bridge to Terabithia. T.Y. Crowell, New York, 1977. (Also available as paperback from Avon) (Also available as cassette or film strip from Random House/ Miller-Brody).

"Creativity Limited," W riter, December, 1980, pp. 11-14.

Gates of Excellence: On Reading and Writing Books for Children, Elsevier/Nelson, New York, 1981.

The Great Gilly Hopkins. T.Y. Crowell, New York, 1978, Avon, New York, 1979. (Also available as a cassette or filmstrip from Random House/Miller-Brody).

"How Do You Write a Book?" Wisconsin Library B ulletin, 75: 15-16, January, 1979.

"How McGee Kept Christmas," Reader's Digest, December, 1980, pp. 108- 1 1 1 .

"In Search of a Story: The Setting as Source," W riter, April, 1978, pp. 16-19.

Jacob Have I Loved. Harper and Row, New York, 1980, Avon, New York, 1981.

The Master Puppeteer. Harper and Row, New York, 1975, Avon, New York, 1981.

"National Book Award Acceptance," Horn Book, August, 1979, pp. 402-403.

"Newbery Award Acceptance," Horn Book, August, 1978, pp. 361-367.

"Newbery Award Acceptance," Horn Book, Aubust, 1981, pp. 385-393.

216 217

Of Nightingales That Weep. T.Y. Crowell, New York, 1974, Avon, New York, 1980.

Rebels of the Heavenly Kingdom. E.P. Dutton, New York, 1983.

The Sign of the Chrysanthemum. Lippincott and Crowell, New York, 1973, Avon, New York, 1980.

"Sounds in the Heart," Horn Book, December, 1981, pp. 694-702.

Works About Katherine Paterson

Buckley, Virginia, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August, 1978, pp. 368-371.

Jones, Linda T., "Profile: Katherine Paterson," Language Arts, February, 1971, pp. 189-196.

Namovicz, Gene Inyart, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August, 1981, pp. 394-399.

"Talk with a Winner," New York Times Book Review, April 26, 1981, p. 52. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Applebee, Arthur, The Child's Concept of Story, Ages Two to Seventeen, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1978.

Babbitt, Natalie in Children and Literature Views and Reviews edited by Virginia Haviland, Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Co., New York, 1973.

Barnes, Douglas, From Communication to Curriculum, Penquin Books, Ltd., London, 1975.

Biography Index, 1949-1979, Vol. 11, H.W. Wilson Co., New York.

Boston, Lucy in The Cool Web The Patterns of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Atheneum, New York, 1978. -

Burnett, Francis H., The Secret Garden, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1910.

Byars, Betsy, The P inballs, Harper and Row, 1977.

Cameron, Eleanor, The Green and Burning Tree on the Writing and Enjoyment of Children's Books, L ittle , Brown, and Co., Boston and Toronto, 1969.

Childress, Alice, Rainbow Jordan, Coward, New York, 1981.

Cleary, Beverly, Ramona and Her Father, Morrow, 1977.

Commire, Anne, Something About the Author, Vol. 13, Gale Research Book Tower, Detroit.

Contemporary Authors, Vol. 21R, Gale Research Co., Detroit, 1977.

Donnelson, Kenneth L ., Nilsen, Ailen Pace, Literature for Today's Young Adults, Scott, Foresman, and Co., Glenview, Illin o is, 1980.

Egoff, Sheila, Stubbs, G.T., Ashley, L.F., Only Connect Readings On Children's Literature, Toronto, New York, Oxford University Press, T961F!

El kind, David, A Sympathetic Understanding of the Child: Birth to Sixteen, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1974.

218 219

Frye, Northrup, Anatomy of Criticism Four Essays. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1957.

Frye, Northrup, The Educated Imagination, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1964.

Frye, Northrup, The Great Code the Bible and Literature, New York and London, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1982.

Gold, N. and Donovan, E., Adolescent Development Reading in Research and Theory, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1969.

Gordon, John, in The Thorny Paradise Writers on Writing for Children, edited by E. Blishen, Kestrel Books, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1975.

Greene, Constance C., Beat the Turtle Drum, U lu s ., Donna Diamond, Viking, 1976.

Hiqhwater, Jamake, Anpao: An American Indian Odyssey, Lippincott, 1977.

Huck, Charlotte S., Children's Literature in the Elementary School, Third Edition Updated, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

Hunter, Mollie, Talent Is Not Enough, Harper and Row, 1975.

The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible an Illustrated Encyclopedia, Abingdon Press, New York, 1962.

Langton, Jane, The Fledgling, ill us., Erik Blegvad, Harper and Row, New York, 1980.

L'Engle, Madeleine, A Ring of Endless Light, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, New York, 1980.

LeFrancois, Guy, Of Children an Introduction to Child Development, 3rd edition, University of Alberta, Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, Ca., 1980, p. 435.

Lowry, Lois, A Summer to Die, ill us., Jenni Oliver, Houghton, 1977.

Magorian, Michelle, Good Night, Mr. Tom, Harper and Row, New York, 1982.

Michener, James, Chesapeake, Random House, New York, 1978. 220

Moffett, James, Wagner, Betty Jane, Student-Centered Language Arts and Reading, K-13 A Handbook for Teachers, Second Edition, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976.

Moffett, James, Teaching the Universe of Discourse, Houghton M ifflin, 1968.

O'Dell, Scott, Island of the Blue Dolphins, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1960.

Paterson, Katherine, Angels and Other Strangers Family Christmas S tories, Avon Books, New York, 1979.

Paterson, Katherine, Bridge to Terabithia, Avon Books, New York, 1977.

Paterson, Katherine, Gates of Excellence on Reading and Writing Books For Children, Elsevier/Nelson, New York, 1981.

Paterson, Katherine, The Great Gilly Hopkins, Avon Books, New York, 1978.

Paterson, Katherine, Jacob Have I Loved, Avon Books, New York, 1981.

Paterson, Katherine, The Master Puppeteer, Avon Books, New York, 1975.

Paterson, Katherine, Of Nightingales That Weep, Avon Books, New York, 1974.

Paterson, Katherine, The Sign of the Chrysanthemum, Avon Books, New York, 1973.

Peterson, Kauffman, Linda and Solt, Leathers, Marilyn, Newbery and Caldecott Medal and Honor Books An Annotated Bibliography, G.K. Hall & Co., 70 Lincoln Street, Boston, 1982.

Piaget, J . , Intellectual Development From Adolescence to Adulthood, Human Development, 1972.

Purves, Alan C., Beach, Richard, Literature and the Reader Research in Response to Literature, Reading Interests and the Teaching of Literature, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Illinois, 1972.

Raskin, Ellen, The Westing Game, E.P. Dutton, New York, 1978.

Rosenblatt, Louise M., Literature As Exploration, Third Edition, Noble and Noble Publishers, Inc., New York, 1976. 221

Shannon, Monica, Dobry, New York, Viking, 1934.

Sloan, Glenna Davis, The Child as Critic Teaching Literature in the Elementary School. Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York and London, 1978.

Smith, Lillian, The Unreluctant Years, American Library Association, Chicago, 1953.

Vandergrift, Kay E., Child and Story: The Literary Connection, Neal- Shuman Publishers, Inc., 1980.

Voight, Cynthia, Dicey1s Song, Antheneum, New York, 1983.

Ward, Martha, E. and Marquardt, Authors of Books for Young People, Meutchen, New Jeioey, Scare Press Inc., 1979.

Warner, William, Beautiful Swimmers: Waterman, Crabs and The Chesapeake Bay, L ittle Brown and Co., 1976.

Walsh, Jill Patton in The Cool Web The Pattern of Children's Reading, Meek, Margaret, Warlow, Aidan, Barton, Griselda, Antheneum, New York, 1978.

Yep, Laurence, Child of the Owl, Harper and Row, 1977.

Unpublished

Bowen, B. , "The Teacher's Role in Teaching Literature in the Elementary School," Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1964.

Brett, Betty Marion, "A Study of the Criticism of Children's Literature," Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1981.

Hostetler, Elizabeth Ann Rumer, "Jean Fritz: A Critical Biography," Dissertation, The University of Toledo, December, 1981.

Jacobs, Jim Swenson, "Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography," Dissertation, University of Georgia, 1978.

Jones, Kellie Frances Corlew, Ph.D., "A Perceptual Analysis of Social and Philosophical Commentary in A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L'Engle," Dissertation, The University of Missouri, 1977. 222

McGovern, John, "Lloyd Alexander - Bard of Pyrdain A Study of the Pyrdain Cycle," Dissertation, Temple University, 1979.

Wilson, R.R., "In-Depth Book Discussions of Selected 6th Grades Response to Literature," Dissertation, The Ohio State University 1975.

Articles

Alexander, William, "What Has Happened to the Middle School?" NASSP Bulletin, May 1971, pp. 132-141 and Gatewood, Thomas E ., "What Research Says About the Middle School," Educational Leadership, December 1973, pp. 221-224.

Arnold, J ., "Rhetoric and Reform in Middle Schools," Phi Delta Kappan, March 1982, pp. 454-458.

Bachelder, Linda, Kelly, P atricia, Kenney, Donald, Small, Robert, "Looking Backward: Trying to Find the Classic Young Adult Novel," The English Journal , September, 1980, pp. 87-90.

Buckley, Virginia, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August 1978, pp. 368-371.

Early, Margaret, "The Stages of Growth In Literary Appreciation," The English Journal, Vol. 49, March 1960, pp. 161-165.

Egoff, Sheila, "Which One's the Mockingbird? Children's Literature From the 1920's to the Present," in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, pp. 239-246.

Epstein, Herman T ., Toepfer, Conrad, E ., J r ., "A Neuroscience Basis for Reorganizing Middle School Education," Educational Leadership, May 1978, pp. 656-660.

Grindstaff, Faye, Muller, Louis, "The National Literary Assessment of Literature: Two Views," Research in the Teaching of English, 1975, Vol. 9, pp. 85-97.

Heins, Ethel, "Go, and Catch A Falling Star": What Is A Good Children's Book?", in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, pp. 247-253.

Hepler, Susan, Hickman, Janet, "The Book was Okay. I Love You - Social Aspects of Response to Literature," Theory Into Practice, Vol. XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, pp. 278-283. 223

Jones, Linda T., "Profile Katherine Paterson," Language Arts, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Illinois, Vol. 58, No. 2, February 1981, pp. 189-196.

Matthews, Dorothy, "Writing About Adolescent Literature: Current Approaches arid Future Directions," Arizona English Bulletin, April 1976, pp. 218-221.

Meek, Margaret, "What Counts As Evidence In Theories of Children's Literature," Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, pp. 284-292.

Miles, Betty, Editor, "When Writers Visit Schools: A Symposium," Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1980, Vol. 11, No. 3, Whole no. 38, pp. 133-145.

Namovicz, Gene Inyart, "Katherine Paterson," Horn Book, August 1981, pp. 394-399.

Paterson, Katherine, "Sounds in the Heart," Horn Book, December 1981 , pp. 695-699.

Protherough, Robert, "How Children Judge Stories," Children's Literature in Education, APS Publications Inc., New York, pp. 3-13.

Rosenblatt, Louise M., "The Literary Transaction: Evocation and Response," in Theory Into Practice, Volume XXI, Number 4, Autumn 1982, pp. 268-277.

Schlager, Norma, "Predicting Children's Choices in Literature: A Developmental Approach," Children's Literature in Education, Autumn 1978, Vol. 9, No. 3, Whole no. 30, APS Publications Inc., New York, pp. 133-144.

Small, Robert, "Teaching the Junior Novel," The English Journal, Vol. 61, February 1972, pp. 224-227.

Webb, Agnes, J. "Transactions with Literary Texts: Conversations in the Classroom," The English Journal, Vol. 71, No. 3, March 1982, pp. 59-63. ^