The Impact of the Black Death on Iranian Trade (1340S-1450S A.D.)

Home , 1340s, 1450s, 15th century, Black Death, Jordanus, Regions of Iran

Iran and the Caucasus 23 (2019) 221-232

The Impact of the Black Death on Iranian Trade (1340s-1450s A.D.)

Ahmad Fazlinejad Shiraz University Farajollah Ahmadi University of Tehran

Abstract The Great Plague, generally known as the Black Death, swept many parts of the three continents of Asia, Africa and Europe in the mid-14th century repeatedly for decades and in- flicted widespread demographical, social and economic consequences. Contrary to the common attitude of researchers in neglecting the spread of the Black Death in Iran during the 14th century and its relapse periods, findings of this study indicate that the Great Plague, which had numerous victims in Iran, mostly disrupted the country’s commercial relationships with the plague-stricken trade routes and centers. Moreover, due to the tragic consequences caused by the Black Death, Iran lost its position as one of the main routes in the international trade. In this study, based predominantly on historiographical sources in Persian and Arabic, Iran’s position in international trade in the era of Black Death is analyzed.

Keywords Black Death in Iran, Iranian Trade, Persian Gulf, Ocean Trade

The Great Plague, generally known as the Black Death,1 swept many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe in the mid-14th century. Some cities be-

1 Historians have considered this plague to be bubonic, which is transmitted by a small bacterium called Yersinia Pestis or bacillus transmitted to humans by the fleas attached to the body of rats (Borsch 2005: 2). Symptoms include fever, headache, cough, shortness of breath, vomiting and dark spots on the skin. The most obvious symptom of bubonic plague is the swelling of the lymph nodes in the groin, armpits and neck, which is called “bubo” (Magner 2005: 157-158). The term “Black death” comes from these swollen black spots then. It was first used in the 16th century in the Scandinavian literature, and widely

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 04:05:22PM via free access 222 A. Fazlinejad; F. Ahmadi / Iran and the Caucasus 23 (2019) 221-232 came unprecedentedly deserted or experienced a sharp decline in the population. The successive waves of the disease continued in the second half of the 15th century.2 After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, during the rule of Ilkhans on Iran and Mesopotamia in the 13th century, the commercial route of Bagh- dad slackened, and trade between this city and Europe stopped. However, Ilkhans connected the important trade route between the continents of Asia and Europe through the Persian Gulf and Iran’s domestic routes to the Caucasus and the Black Sea and from there to Constantinople and the Mediterranean. Concurrent with the establishment of Ilkhanid dynasty in Iran and their domination over the local rulers, two political factors con- tributed to the commercial boom of the Persian Gulf and its communica- tion role with a wide network of international trade. First, China’s land routes to Iran, i.e. the ancient Silk Road, became unsecure because of the perennial wars of Kublai and his brother Ariq Böke (Hulagu’s brothers) to take the Qaan position. As a result, maritime trade routes between China and Iran became much more important (Xeyrandīš 2016: 98). Secondly, at the time of Ābish Xātūn from the Ata- bakan family, the daughter of Saʻd ibn Abū Bakr (1263-1283), in Fars, and during the rule of Rukn al-Dīn Maḥmūd Qalhatī in Hurmuz (1249-1286), the region enjoyed the security and prosperity (Ibid.: 112). In the 13th century, the Hormuz Island was the center of Persian Gulf’s trade with world’s free waters. About the events of the year 1214, Ibn al- Athīr writes that Hormuz was a great harbour where traders from the far- thest corners of India and China, Yemen and other regions gather to- gether (Ibn al-Athīr 1976, vol. 25: 285-286). At that time, the pearl of the Persian Gulf was famous in the world and, according to Armenian Hetum, it was traded in every country (Hetʻum the Armenian, Book 1, part 8, apud

in the English literature of the 19th century (Byrne 2004: 1). Medieval Muslim historians have referred to it as the global plague and the “Great Annihilation” (Al-Maqrīzī 2001: 224). 2 A lot of studies have been conducted on the causes and consequences of the spread of the Black Death by Medieval historians and experts in the history of medicine in the West. According to some researchers, the periodical spread of the Black Death continued even until the 19th century. Several publications examine how the plague was spread through the countries and cities across Europe (see, e.g., Mc Neil 1976; Norris 1977; Bene- dictow 2006; Sussman 2011: 347-348).

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Bedrosian 2004). Kauz (2006: 51-67) has shown that despite the importance of Hormuz in the Mongol period, Kish Island still continued to boom. Chinese sources mention the export of pearls, beautiful horses, rosewater, mercury, zinc, silver and precious fabrics to other countries when it comes to speak about the Kish Island trades (Chu-fan-chi 1911: 134). The reports of travelers and historians indicate to the prosperous Persian Gulf trade with the ports in China and India before the Black Death. In addition to Marco Polo who has noted this extensive trade (Polo 1871, vol. 1: 79), a local author also has noted: “The prosperity of Persian Gulf islands, in particular, and other regions of Iran, from Iraq and Khura- san to Rum [Asia Minor] and the West, in general, is because of trade with India and exchange of ambassadors between the countries, etc.” (Vaṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrah 1852: 301). Ibn Baṭṭuṭa in his travelogue also talks about the importance of the city of Zeitun in China as one of the largest commercial centers and mentions the presence of Iranians and other Muslims, especially from the business class, in this port (Ibn-i Baṭṭuṭa 1997, vol. 2: 295- 296). Historians have also mentioned the Chinese ports, especially Quan- zhou, as the home of businesspersons, especially Iranians and the people of Transoxiana (Liu 2010: 124). One of the important points about the role of the Persian Gulf in international trade of the 13th century is that the major commodities sent from this area to Europe were among international trade items, including silk, spices, pearls and precious stones(Di Cosmo 2005: 397). Therefore, Iran and especially the Persian Gulf became a connecting point between the Indian Ocean, the China Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The main cities located on these important commercial centers included Hormuz, Yazd, Soltaniyeh, Trabzon, and especially Tabriz, which was likened by one of the historians of the time to a goose that laid golden eggs (Ciociltan 2012: 49). Marco Polo mentioned that Tabriz was the city of traders and industrialists where a variety of goods from India, Baghdad, Persian Gulf and other areas were found, and it attracted many European traders, particularly Genoese (Polo 1871, vol. 1: 70-71). Odoric of Pordenone has also pointed out the importance of the commercial status of Tabriz in relation with the Persian Gulf linking it to the European commercial centers (Odo- ric of Pordenone 1937: 215). Venetian documents show the freedom of Ira- nian businesspersons in comparison with the Christian traders who had

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 04:05:22PM via free access 224 A. Fazlinejad; F. Ahmadi / Iran and the Caucasus 23 (2019) 221-232 restricted freedom of action in the territories under Mamluk domination (Anvar/Roušanī-Zaʻfarānlū 1973: 12-13). Thus, due to the boom in globe trade in the 13th century and the for- mation of centers of maritime trade in East and West, as well as the establishment of the vast empire of the Mongols and their desire to make contact with the Europeans, a large number of European travelers turned to the East from that time onward. They traveled eastern territories by mainstream silk and spice trade roads to India and China until the mid- 15th century, i.e. before the conquest of Constantinople. What can be learnt from the important itineraries of this period is the impact of the Black Death on decreased number of religious and business trips in term of travel dates of individuals and different types of delegations to the eastern territories. In other words, review of the date of travelogues written during the 13th-15th centuries show that there is the relationship between the outbreak of the Black Death and the prosperity of East-West trade routes, including the Persian Gulf area. Table 1 below shows the names, dates, and the travel routes of the most famous travelers who vis- ited during the 13th-15th centuries the Eastern countries, including Iran and the Caucasus. The table demonstrates that in the mentioned period, i.e. before the Black Death, a great number of business and religious trips were taken place from different parts of the Mediterranean and Europe to the East, including Iran, which were unrivaled in terms of the volume of medieval trips. To investigate the relationship between the spread of the Black Death with business trips of Europeans, the outbreak years in the 14th century at important centers of international trade must be considered. Table 1

Names Travel dates Travel routes and destinations

Lyon—Bohemia—Poland—Ukraine— John of Pian de 1245-1247 Lower Volga —Karakorum(1246) (Komroff Carpini 1937: 2) Sent by Louis IX of France—Black Sea 1253-55 (1253)— Southern Russia and the Ural William of Rubruck River— Karakorum—in return via Iran, the Caucasus and Anatolia (ibid.: 52)

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Palestine—Iran—Turkestan—China— Sumatra—Java—Ceylon—shores (coasts) of 1270-92 Marco polo India—Iran—shores of the Black Sea—

Constantinople, etc. (Polo 1871: 1/ Introduction) Levant—Syria—Galilee—Acre— Jerusalem—Jordan River—Tripoli— Ricoldo da Monte di Cilicia—Tabriz (resident)—Sivas— 1288 Croce Cappadocia—Erzurum—Mosul and Tikrit— Baghdad (resident). (Seyed-Gohrab et al., 2011: 12-14) After the fall of Baghdad in 1289, a priest sent from Europe by the Pope Nicolaus IV—he Jean de Monte had a short stop in Iran, went to India— 1289 Corvino Madras by sea—moved to China by sea— returned to Rome with letters of Arγūn (Grousset 2008: 517) Constantinople—Trabzon—Tabriz— Soltanieh, Yazd—Hormuz and Persian Odoric of Pordenone 1318-30 Gulf—India—Java—Sumatra—Japan—

Ceylon—China (Beijing, etc.) (Komroff 1937: 212) Armenia—Tabriz—Soltanieh—India— Friar Jordanus About 1330 Great Tatar (Mongol)—Aran—Caucasus— Asia Minor (Jordanus 1863) Egypt—Levant—Palestine—Hijaz—Iraq— the area of the Black Sea—Anatolia—Iran— Ibn Baṭṭuṭa 1325-52 Yemen—Bahrain—Turkestan—India and China—Java—East Europe—East Africa, etc. (Ibn-i Baṭṭuṭa 1997) Armenia (Major and Minor)—Tatar—Iran— Sir John Mandeville 1357-71 Syria—Egypt, Libya, Ethiopia—India, etc. (Mandeville 1900) Baghdad—Basra—Persian Gulf—Iran— Gujarat—Deccan—Sumatra—Malay Nicolo de Conti 1419-44 Peninsula—Ganges—Western Bengal— Burmese, etc. (Orsatti 2011) Shores (coasts) of Morocco—south of France—the Holy land—Egypt—Rhodes— Pero Tafur 1435-39 Cyprus—Trabzon—Constantinople— Sinai—Central Europe—Italy (Tafur 1926)

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The most tragic period of the outbreak of the Black Death in the major centers of international trade, particularly throughout Europe, North Af- rica and the Black Sea area, was between 1347 and 1352. Then, over the years and decades that followed, large areas of the world witnessed the return of the plague. Table 2 shows the courses and regions of the outbreak of plague until the eve of the conquest of Constantinople. Table 2

Years of the plague Region Source outbreak Area of Black Sea—Constantinople— Al-Maqrīzī 1997, vol. 1347-52 South-East Caucasus—Egypt, the 4:81

Mediterranean and across Europe Byrne 2012 : 232 Byrne 2004: xxix 1360-63 Mediterranean—North Africa— Ḥafiż-i Abrū 2001, vol. Baltic—Black Sea—Caucasus 1: 323 1370-74 France—Spain—north of Italy—some Byrne 2004: xxix regions of England and Germany France—Spain—Portugal—north of 1382-84 Italy—England—Central Europe— ibid.

Baltic 1399-400 Italy—Northern Europe ibid.

Caucasus—Baghdad—Damascus— Ibn Ḥaǰar al-ʻAsqalānī 1406-12 Palestine and, generally, the 1994, vol. 2: 463, Mediterranean—Western Europe— 466, 482 Egypt 1422-24 Italy—Flanders—Portugal Byrne 2004: xxix Ibn Ḥaǰar al-ʻAsqalānī Eastern Mediterranean and the entire 1429-31 1994, vol. 3: 481; Byrne Middle East—Italy 2004: xxix Large areas of the Middle East, Asia and Al-Maqrīzī 1997, vol. 1433-35 Europe 7: 352 Italy—France—Portugal—north of England—Germany—Switzerland— 1438-9 Byrne 2004: xxix The Netherlands—Poland—Cairo— Syria North of Italy—France—Germany— 1448-50 ibid.: xxx The Netherlands—Egypt

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Comparison of the Tables 1 and 2 results in a few points of consideration: 1. Most of famous trips of Europeans to the East go back to the time before the outbreak of the Great Plague. Even the travel of Ibn Baṭṭuṭa, a Muslim traveler, began 20 years before the spread of the Black Death. He mentions the outbreak of the Great Plague in Aleppo and Damascus upon re- turning from his 27-year trip in 1348 (Ibn-i Baṭṭuṭa 1997, vol. 2: 320-321). 2. Since the outbreak of the Black Death in 1347, until the eve of the conquest of Constantinople (1453) a significant reduction was observed in the number of travels to the trade centers of the East, including the Persian Gulf. 3. None of the journeys of the 14th and 15th centuries “started” during the outbreak of the plague; all of them were done between the two outbreaks of the disease. 4. Except for the inner regions of Europe that were swept by the plague because of their land connections with major commercial cities, the most important centers of commerce in the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Medi- terranean and North Europe were the main foci of various plague outbreaks. Table 2 also shows that the Mediterranean, especially Italy, was ex- posed to many courses of the plague outbreak, which considerably influenced the Italian city-states’ trade. Specifically, after the fall of Ilkhanid dynasty (1335) and political chaos in Iran, republics of Venice and Genoa became more concern about this issue. Therefore, the last instruction recorded in the Venetian Senate about sending a ship to Trabzon in order to make trade with Iran dates back to 1346 (Ciociltan 2012: 200-201) and, in fact, coincides with an outbreak of plague in the East, shortly before its spread to Europe. Moreover, evidence show that some Italian city-states took measures, such as legislation of “the official travel permit” during the courses of the plague, to prevent its spread or to protect their people (Scott/Duncan 2004: 60). This may have influenced the business trips of Europeans to the East. The outbreaks of the Black Death and its spread to the trade routes had a direct impact on reducing the number of travels carried out by the Europeans to the East, including the routes with connections to Iran. The situation prompted the Europeans to think about finding new routes, other than caravan roads of silk and spice, before the conquest of Con-

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 04:05:22PM via free access 228 A. Fazlinejad; F. Ahmadi / Iran and the Caucasus 23 (2019) 221-232 stantinople and the domination of the Turks in Asia Minor (Hudson 2014: 51). The waves of the Black Death outbreaks in Iran had a direct impact on the trend of commercial exchanges and the routes related to the Persian Gulf. On the other hand, the first stage of the Black Death outbreak (in the mid-14th century) coincided with the collapse of the Ilkhanid dynasty and the beginning of a period of turbulence and rivalries of local governments in different parts of Iran. After that, with the onset of Tamerlane attacks and his perennial raids, the important urban centers became insecure, and their population declined. From 1347, that is the beginning of a massive Black Death outbreak in Asia, North Africa and throughout Europe, until the years leading up to the conquest of Constantinople, at least 15 courses of vast plague outbreak is recorded in different parts of Iran (Ḥafiż-i Abrū 2001, vol. 1: 323, 344 and vol. 3: 165, 217, 221; Samarqandī 2004, vol. 2: 36 and vol.3 : 12, 452; Zamčī- Asfizārī 1959, vol. 1: 19 and vol. 2: 92, 264; Mīr ʻAlī-Šēr Navāʼi 1984: 10-11; Mostoufī-Qazvīnī 1993: 41, 86; Isfahānī-Qazvīnī 2000: 481). In this period, the biggest plague outbreaks were observed in various parts of the country, in Azerbaijan, Kurdish-speaking areas, Samarqand, Herat, Isfahan and the Caspian Sea coastline. Most of these regions were among Iran's major business centers connecting it to the Persian Gulf and the Black Sea. Azerbaijan and its capital, Tabriz, suffered from the plague more than any other region of Iran. Aharī (2004: 81-83) has mentioned 1346 as the year of famine, oppression and disease in Azerbaijan. Another historian has written about the insecurity of Azerbaijan and migration of people due to the plague (Mustoufī-Qazvīnī, 1993: 41). Even it is reported that 300,000 people died in Tabriz during one single year, in 1369-1370 (ibid.: 86). Although this figure seems exaggerated but given the importance of Tabriz in connecting the Persian Gulf trade route to the Black Sea, the impact of the Black Death and related casualties on trade decline in the North-South route was striking. During 1406-1407, the Great Plague swept Iran’s urban centers and domestic trade routes. Reports by Arab historians indicate that in this period, the plague outbreak spread not only in Iran but also in the large areas of the today’s Middle East. For example, Al- Maqrīzī has narrated the spread of plague in Egypt (Al-Maqrīzī 1997, vol. 3: 160-61, 181-83). The Iranian historian, Ḥafiż-i Abrū (2001, vol. 3: 165, 217,

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221) has reported the outbreak of plague from Azerbaijan to Isfahan during those years. According to him, the plague swept Azarbaijan, especially Tabriz in 1406, reached Isfahan in 1407 and killed many residents of that city. Isfahan became empty of population so that there were no one to harvest crops, and the name of Isfahan was uttered with grief and suffer- ing. Incidentally, Tabriz—Isfahan route was of utmost importance, and the outbreak of plague brought about a lot of disruptions in Iran’s internal trade as well (Ibn Ḥaǰar al-ʻAsqalānī 1994, vol. 2: 463, 466, 482). What has been narrated by historians about the plague of the 1462 in Khorasan, especially in Herat, indicating that people left their properties and took refuge in the mountains and deserts, when “the shops were abandoned, and the aspire for gain and loss was vanished” (Zamčī-Asfizārī 1959, vol. 2: 262), shows the profound impact of the plague on domestic trading and market downturn in Iran. The Iranian historian, Faḍlullāh ibn Rūzbihān Xunǰī, has addressed the impact of the plague on the status of the rich merchants and showed their condition during the years of plague outbreak in Azerbaijan in 1487-1488 by this statement: “every trader who had red gold on his arms, now has a congested matter under his armpits” (Xunǰī 2003: 232). Because the commercial relations were one of the main causes of the plague spread in the East and West, it is clear that many of the victims were traders and businessmen. What is remarkable about the Black Death outbreaks in Iran is that since the beginning of the spread of the disease until the middle of the 15th century, no report has been found in the historical sources about the plague in the Persian Gulf coasts and ports. The only available infor- mation is about the outbreak of plague in Sistan in 1347, which has been reported by the 16th century Persian historian Malik Šāh Ḥusayn Sīstānī. He says that the inhabitants of Sistan suffered much from the plague (Sīstānī 2004: 94), but there is no evidence indicating the spread of the disease to the Persian Gulf coasts. In other words, one of the reasons for the decline in Iran’s global trading was the massive outbreak of the plague in other offshore centers; and it was not directly related to the area of the Persian Gulf. For this reason, exchanges between the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean continued. This can be found in Samarqandī’s explanation about Hormuz trade with India in his travelogue to India during the Ti- murid era (Samarqandī 1960: 6-10).

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CONCLUSION The results of this study showed that from the 13th century until the mid- 15th century, foreign trade with Iran, as a part of the East-West international trade route, experienced a period of boom and boost, as well as a period of recession in trading with the most important commercial centers of the world, especially with the areas of the Black and the Mediter- ranean Seas. Although the students of Mongolian history and the history of world’s economic developments believe that the main cause of this recession was the fall of Mongol Empire and the collapse of Genghis Khan’s states in Iran and China, nevertheless the widespread and global outbreak of the Great Plague, known as the Black Death, can be considered as one of the main factors contributing to the closure of the East-West trade routes and, consequently, the reduction in Iran's trade with the world's major trading centers. The Black Death seems to have been the basic reason in the sharp decline in the population of the ports and commercial cities of the world, as well as for the deterioration of security of ancient trade routes, including those connected to Iran. In fact, the impact of the plague on Iran’s foreign trade was due to the heavy human losses and social unrest in other maritime commercial centers, i.e. the commercial areas and cities of China, the Black Sea, Constantinople, the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks and the closure of the old routes to the Europeans Iran was left out of the circle of maritime and ocean trade more than ever.

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