TRANSFER OF CULTURE IN THE PRODUCTION OF ENGLISH UTTERANCES AND ITS POSSIBLE IMPACT ON INTER-CULTURAL INTERACTION

F.X. Nadar'

1 . Introduction culture influences the habits, customs, way This brief paper dis- to dress and eat, beliefs and values, ideas cusses the ways - and feelings, notions of politeness and beau- ty vanese speaking . As a consequence of cultural variability, English produce utte- people from different cultures often fail to rances in English understand, or misinterpret each other's which show transfer signal (Finegan, 1992 :328). Hofstede (1984; and influence from 307-308) proposes four dimensions of cultu- ral difference Javanese culture . It : individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity argues that cultural transfer from first . Indi- vidualism opposed to language has possible negative impact in is collectivism in that as individualist culture it is assumed that any intercultural interaction . First, some impor- tant characteristics of Javanese culture will person looks primarily after her/ his own in- be discussed, then examples of utterances terests and the interests of her/his imme- commonly produced by Javanese speaking diate family such as husband, wife and chil- English will be given . The writer collected dren, while in a collectivist culture it is ar- gued that any person through birth and pos- the data from his classroom activities, his sible later events belongs to one or more personal experience and also from limited tight in-groups, from which she/ he cannot studies on the ways Javanese speaking detach her/himself. Thus, the extended fa- English produce certain acts by using ques- mily, clan or organization protects the inte- tionnaires. Finally this paper argues that as rests of members, but in turn expects their cultural transfer may influence the smooth- permanent loyalty . The power distance di- ness of interaction between Javanese spe- mension defines the extent to which less aking English with speakers English of other powerful persons in a society accept in- cultures and particularly with native speakers equality in authority and consider it normal, of English, it is essential that teachers as while uncertainty relates to the well as learners of English in Indonesia avoidance extent to which people within a culture are should be aware of such cultural transfer made nervous by situations which they and include the discussion of cultural diffe- perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpre- rences in their teaming process. dictable, and which they therefore try to avoid by maintaining strict codes of beha- 2. Some Important Characteristics of Ja- viour. Masculinity is opposed to femininity, vanese Culture and the dimension of masculinity relates to Culture and language seems insepara- the degree of distinction made between ble. Harding and Riley (1986:42) claim that what men are expected to do and what wo-

Doktorandus, Master of Arts, Staf pengajar Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, UGM .

Humanbra No. 11 Mai - Agustus 1999 1 men are expected to do in a culture . In a togetherness. These are relevant to an un- masculine culture the rules of men and wo- derstanding of the way Javanese realize men are maximally distinct, while in a femini- speech acts including refusals in English dif- ne culture the social rules for the sexes are ferently from the way native speakers of relatively overlapping . English do . Hofstede (1986 :309-310) describes In- Wierzbicka (1991 :100) argues that in Ja- donesia ( including Java) culturally into a vanese culture . it is considered appropriate large power-distance low individualism, and to conceal one's wishes and one's inten- weak uncertainty-avoidance feminine cate- tions, particularly if they are in conflict with gory, where status plays a very important other people's wishes or desires . Wierzbicka role on how communication should be held . (1991 :128) describes this as not saying In Javanese society, status is connected pri- what one feels and the need to protect marily to social structures, and it is these one's own equanimity and peace of mind, structures which create and maintain ine- which could be threatened by an overt ex- quality in society. Members of the lower pression of feeling, and proposes that this classes realize their position within the social element of concealment, is typically Java- structure and consider it normal to use Ja- nese . vanese high language level to people of Related to this cultural predilection to the higher status, and to let higher status people concealment of feeling is the tendency to- use lower language level in interactions with wards indirectness or indirection in Javane- them in order to maintain harmony and se culture because people often do not say togetherness . In most collectivist cultures, di- directly what they mean (Geertz, 1976 : rect confrontation of another person is con- 244). It is therefore crucial in Javanese to sidered rude and undesirable. The word no get the rasa 'feeling' of what people are is seldom used, because saying no is a con- saying. frontation : You may be right or We will think Another aspect of Javanese culture, the about it are examples of polite ways of avoidance of responsibility and attention, is turning down a request. In the same vein, perhaps the most distinct of all . For cultural the word yes should not necessarily be seen reasons, Javanese speakers whose first - as an approval, but as maintenance of the nguage is Javanese still often consider communication line (Hofstede, 1991 :58). themselves different from members of other In Javanese society, status is closely re- ethnic groups in Indonesia, and frequently lated to language use (Koentjaraningrat, prefer to converse with other Javanese 1985:15), and status difference normally de- people using Javanese, though they are ac- notes authority difference . Javanese eti- tually able to speak Indonesian (Berman, quette makes it imperative for a person first 1992: 5) because they can express their ide- to determine accurately the exact status of as more comfortably in Javanese . In Java- the other person before engaging in an inter- nese, unlike in Indonesian, the interactants action. Javanese government officials, for can frequently and comfortably use the example staff of the agriculture ministry, pronoun we instead of/ (Berman, 1992 : 5), may use ngoko (low level language) and as the appropriate form to refer to the madya (middle level language) when con- speaker who is first person singular . This is versing with farmers in a village . Farmers, perhaps a manifestation of how Javanese however, have to use krama (high level la- "do not like to signal their individuality and nguage) to government officials. Attitudes avoid being pushy or forcing oneself upon towards status difference are reflected in the another, thus become the centre of atten- system of naming and addressing in Java- tion" (Berman, 1992 : 8) and therefore as- nese culture (Emngton, 1988 :112; Soeseno sume responsibility . Kana (1982 : 31-32) ob- Kartomihardjo,1981 :118) . serves that avoiding responsibility in con- Some prominent characteristics of Java- nection with the production of refusals is nese culture include concealing one's feeling done by using excessive apologies and de- towards others, indirectness, avoiding res- tailed reasons or justifications as to why re- ponsibility and attention, and preference for fusals have to be made .

2 Humsniws No. 11 Msi-Agusda 1999 Further, Javanese people find it more di- telling us what time our class starts next fficult to refuse interlocutors of higher status . week? In Java interaction is normally based on the The learners might feel happy because principle of "who you are to me, who I am to they can use the requests politely, and it is you" (Errington, 1988: 106) and to put el- not wrong, but to a visiting lecturer the for- ders, superiors, and unfamiliar equals and mality creates a distance which he actually unequals before oneself is highly valued wants to avoid because he wants to interact (Errington, 1988 : 39) . The word old normally closer to them. refers not only to age but also to seniority in various relations (p.69). Speakers and hear- 3.2 Expressing disagreement ers are expected to know their respective status and position before involving them- The expression of disagreement is nor- mally preceded by an expression of apology selves in an interaction. This may also occur in Western culture to a lesser extent . Thus, or by lowering down or blaming oneself. Direct disagreement especially to the tea- in Javanese culture, wives also usually find it chers in the classroom is considered extra- difficult to refuse their husbands' requests, as wives are supposed to respect their ordinary, unusual and certainly will withdraw husbands, who are assumed to be older other students' attention . Consequently in than their wives (Koentjaraningrat, 1985 : many occasions the learners say "I am sorry ", or "I could be wrong but I think 140), and students normally do not refuse their teachers' requests . Therefore, when " e.g. I am sorry but the president did somebody who is older or has higher status not say that . ( A student expressing dis- requests something of those of lower status, agreement with a visiting teacher) , I could or who are younger, the younger or the be wrong but I think it is president Kennedy lower status will find it difficult to refuse . If who is the youngest president of the United they do have to refuse, the refusals have to Sates. ( A student disagrees with a state- be worded very carefully so as not to offend ment that President Clinton is the youngest president in America .) the requester . Another way of expressing disagreement is the use of questions: "Did the president 3. Some Examples of Utterances and really say that?" To western listeners the Cultural Differences expressions of disagreement may not sound The characteristics of Javanese culture strong and lack confidence . However, when are frequently transferred by Javanese they disagree with the Indonesian people, speaking English. Below are some frequent- and this disagreement is expressed boldly, ly found English utterances typically made there will surely be a misunderstanding on by students whose first language is Ja- the part of the Indonesian speakers . vanese and five in Javanese culture, which may not be fully compatible with the 3.3 Making and accepting complaints . utterances in the culture of native speakers An Australian mature student would say I . of English am sorry but this is supposed to be a silent reading area to a group of undergraduate 3.1 Related to making requests . students who make a noise in the library . Perhaps, influenced by the local culture The Indonesian learners, in a similar situa- and the use of language levels (Richards tion, may say: I am sorry I find it difficult to and Sukwiwat, 1983 :136), the learners in concentrate on my reading. Would you Java tend to use the formal requests to the please reduce the noise? When complain- people around them to show that they are ing they refer to their affected condition first, polite . The common form is Would you then follow this with a polite request. mind followed by verbs in the "ing" form, It seems that complaining is not fre- e.g. : Would you mind explaining that part quently made by Indonesian, unless it is again? Would you mind giving us the refe- urgent. For the native speakers of English, rence book next week? Would you mind complaining over improper services or situa-

Humaniore No . 11 Mei - Ayustus 1999 lions does not seem to affect them deeply because they have inquisitive elements . An or make use of great psychological efforts . Indonesian trying to be friendly to a foreigner The traditional concept of There will be in a bus stop in the city of Wellington, N.Z., punishment from the Almighty for those who and said Are you going downtown? was are unfair to others still exists at the moment surprised when the response was beyond among the Indonesian people, and so there his expectation: What's that got to do with is no urgent need to complaint. The Indo- you? The interaction did not continue . How nesian learners' reaction upon receiving a are you? may be used to open a con- complaint would be more than making an versation in English (Richards, 1986) but in apology. They would feel like being accused Indonesia how are you is normally used of having done a serious wrongdoing . They when one is really interested in the health of will really feel guilty and may withdraw from the interlocutor . A native speaker frequently further interaction. Interaction would then no greets with How are you to an Indonesian longer be natural and warm . but continues walking or moving leaving him standing even' before he completes the 3.4 Making and acknowledging compli- response about his condition. ments . Some of the reasons for giving compli- 3.6 On expressing refusals ments in Indonesia are very different from Javanese speakers find it very difficult to those in the West. Compliments are for say NO or to express refusals to commands example given because a child is plump, fat, or requests particularly when the .requesters obedient or quiet . It is very common to say are of higher or equal status . The underlying What a beautiful fat boy you have to a reluctance is Javanese do not want to hurt couple. Or He is really a nice quiet student . their interlocutors by turning down their The response is not Thank you but expres- requests. Their culture is to maintain solidari- sions such as Oh, no he often gets flu, ac- ty and friendship and would do anything in tually, and Well, sometimes he is making order for them not to lose friendship . While noise, too . A native speaker would get puz- this phenomenon is common in any culture, zled when his compliment to an Indonesian it is particularly distinct in Javanese culture . student What a nice jacket you have got is In his study on Javanese refusals in Eng- responded with Not actually, / bought it lish, Hofstede (1991) found that Javanese cheaply at a sale the other day. Indonesian culture was transferred in the production of learners might be unaware that they may refusals by the excessive use of terms of offend their overweight overseas friend address , expression of apologies such as when they happily and cheerfully say You forgive, regret and apologize particularly to really have big, fresh body. It's wonderful. higher status requesters. The use of these Interaction would surely be negatively affect- words, which Native speakers of English do ed. not normally use, seemed to illustrate the perceptions of JSE that common expres- 3.5 Related to Greetings . sions of apologies, such as sorry, were not adequately strong to show their feelings of Greetings in Javanese are mostly related regret particularly to higher status reques- to the activities the persons are doing , e.g.: ters. This is a reflection of Javanese culture Just returned from the library? (Greeting which acknowledges the use of carefully someone outside the library); Want to see worded expressions normally using high the dean? (Greeting someone in the lounge language level to higher status interlocutors . near the dean's office); Are you having a Further it was found that family related walk? (Greeting someone around campus) ; reasons e .g. I have to stay at home with my What do you bring with you? (Greeting wife and I have to look after the children someone carrying stuff in the bag) ; Where were used and considered more acceptable are you going? (A very common greeting ). in a collectivist society, where family values The greetings above may be considered are very strong . These reasons were ac- intrusive by the native speakers of English knowledged by the requesters and maumiz-

4 Humeniora No. 11 Mei-Agushrs 1999 2X. X"ikr ed the harm caused by refusal . In doing so, terns of acts in Javanese as well as in the refusers felt absolved from any respon- English produced by Javanese native speak- sibility because the imperative of the family ers and compare these with the patterns of was so great . Most importantly by success- refusals in English by native speakers of fully minimizing the threat to face, the friend- English . The insights gained from such a ship and togetherness would not be lost . study will be useful from the viewpoint of Native speakers of English do not normally English language education and awareness use family related reasons to express of cultural differences between Javanese refusals speakers and native speakers of English .

4. The Need to Pay Attention to Cultural 5. Conclusion . Differences The cultural differences between Java- Awareness of cultural differences bet- nese and English in conjunction with the ween home culture and the culture of the language functions may affect and cause target language is important for both teach- some difficulties in spoken interactions . The ers and learners. If communicating in Eng- English teachers teaching Javanese stu- lish means having the ability to express what dents should help learners by : explaining the one wants and intends to say in English, link between certain types of language then Indonesian speakers need to under- functions and culture ; deepening the learn- stand how to express their ideas in English ers' understanding of how the two cultures in a way which can be understood and differ ; increasing learners' proficiency discerned as appropriate by other speakers through well prepared teaching techniques ; of English. In other words, Indonesian Increasing the learners' awareness of the speakers have to know how to actually per- cultural differences in spoken interaction by form acts in English (Richards and Schmidt, using audio-visual aids through a program- 1983:37), and cannot be expected to med private study . By increasing the aware- achieve such communicative competence ness of cultural differences, problems in by studying English grammar only . Gram- interaction due to the wide cultural gaps matical knowledge is only one of the com- between English and Javanese speakers ponents of language knowledge (Canale may be reduced . and Swain, 1980 : 3; Bachman and Palmer, 1996: 67), while culture is important as a REFERENCES component of sociolinguistic knowledge Bachman, Lyle F . and Adrian S . Palmer . which enables learners to create or interpret language appropriate to a particular langua- 1996. Language Testing in Practice : ge use setting (Bachman and Palmer, 1996 : Designing and Developing Useful La- nguage Tests. Oxford: Oxford 7; Trosborg, 1995 : 11). Such an ability to University Press . use English appropriately is crucial since failure to express ideas appropriately and understand what the interlocutors are trying Berman, L.A. 1992. "First Person Identities to express may cause misunderstandings in Indonesian Conversational Narra- and communication breakdown . tives" Journal of Asian Pacific Com- Such communication breakdown may munication, 3, 1, pp . 3-14 . occur when learners of second language in- appropriately transfer aspects of their culture Canale, M . and M . Swain . 1980. "Theore- when they perform acts in a second tical Bases of Communicative Ap- language through incomplete mastery of the proaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing" . Applied Li- rules of the target language. This type of co- nguistics, 1, 1, pp. 1-47 . mmunication failure which Thomas (1983 : 99) refers to as pragmatic failure can be Errington, J.J. 1988. Structure and Style in characteristic of even fairly advanced Javanese . A Semiotic view of Li- learners (Trosborg, 1995:55). It should the- refore be rewarding to investigate the pat-

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Hofstede, Geert. 1991 . Cultures and Orga- Richards, Jack C . and Mayuri Sukiwat . nisation: Software of the Mind. Lon- 1983 . Cross-cultural aspects of con- don: Mc-Graw Hill Book Company. versational competence. In Richards, J.C. (Ed.) Context of Language Hofstede, Geert . 1984 . Culture's Conse- Teaching . Cambridge : Cambridge quences . International Differences in University Press . Work-Related Values. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications . Thomas, Jenny. 1983. "Cross-Cultural Prag- matics Failure". Applied Linguistics, Hofstede, Geert . 1986. "Cultural differences 4, 2, pp . 91-112 . in teaching and learning" . Internatio- nal Journal of Intercultural Relations, Trosborg, Anna . 1995. lnterlanguage Prag- 10, pp 301-320 . matics: Requests, Complaints and Apologies . Berlin : Mouton de Guyter . Kana, Marit. 1982. "Saying NO in English : A Sociolinguistic Lesson on Refusals". Wierzbicka, A. 1991 . Cross Cultural Prag- RELC Journal, 13, 2, pp. 29-50 . matics: The Semantics of Human Interaction. Berlin : Mouton de Gruy- Kartomihardjo, Soeseno . 1981 . Ethnogra- ter. phy of Communicative Codes in East Java. Canberra:The Australian Natio- nal University, Department of Li- nguistics.

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