Quartz-Pebble-Conglomerate Gold Deposits
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Quartz-Pebble-Conglomerate Gold Deposits Chapter P of Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–P U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Cover. Sheared pyrite in a mylonitic contact between the Ventersdorp Contact Reef (main part of photograph) and the Ventersdorp lavas (uppermost part of photograph) at the Vaal Reefs mine in the Klerksdorp Gold Field, Witwatersrand, South Africa. Hammer for scale. Photograph by Cliff D. Taylor. Quartz-Pebble-Conglomerate Gold Deposits By Ryan D. Taylor and Eric D. Anderson Chapter P of Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–P U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior RYAN K. ZINKE, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey James F. Reilly II, Director U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2018 For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS. For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit https://store.usgs.gov. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner. Suggested citation: Taylor, R.D., and Anderson, E.D., 2018, Quartz-pebble-conglomerate gold deposits: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–P, 34 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070P. ISSN 2328-0328 (online) iii Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................................1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1 Deposit Type and Associated Commodities ..............................................................................................2 Name .......................................................................................................................................................2 Synonyms ...............................................................................................................................................2 Associated Deposit Types ...................................................................................................................2 Primary Commodities ...........................................................................................................................2 Byproduct Commodities and Trace Constituents ............................................................................2 Example Deposits..................................................................................................................................2 Historical Evolution of Descriptive and Genetic Knowledge and Concepts ........................................2 Regional Environment ...................................................................................................................................6 Geotectonic Environment ....................................................................................................................6 Temporal (Secular) Relations ..............................................................................................................7 Relations to Structures ........................................................................................................................7 Relations to Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks ................................................................................7 Relations to Sedimentary Rocks ........................................................................................................7 Physical Description of Deposit ..................................................................................................................7 Dimensions in Plan View .....................................................................................................................7 Vertical Extent .......................................................................................................................................7 Form and Shape ..................................................................................................................................10 Host Rocks ...........................................................................................................................................10 Structural Setting(s) and Controls ...................................................................................................10 Geophysical Characteristics ......................................................................................................................10 Optical Remote Sensing Signature ..................................................................................................10 Magnetic and Gravity Signature ......................................................................................................10 Radiometric Signature .......................................................................................................................11 Electrical and Electromagnetic Signature ......................................................................................15 Seismic Signature ...............................................................................................................................16 Ore Characteristics......................................................................................................................................17 Mineralogy ...........................................................................................................................................17 Mineral Assemblages ........................................................................................................................17 Textures and Structures ....................................................................................................................17 Grain Size .............................................................................................................................................20 Hydrothermal Alteration .............................................................................................................................20 Weathering and Supergene Processes ...................................................................................................20 Geochemical Characteristics ....................................................................................................................22 Trace Elements and Element Associations ....................................................................................22 Zoning Patterns ...................................................................................................................................22 Stable Isotope Geochemistry ...........................................................................................................22 Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry and Geochronology ..............................................................22 Petrology of Associated Sedimentary Rocks ..........................................................................................24 Importance of Sedimentary Rocks to Deposit Genesis ................................................................24 Mineralogy ...........................................................................................................................................24 iv Textures ................................................................................................................................................24 Grain Size .............................................................................................................................................25 Environment of Deposition ................................................................................................................25 Theory of Deposit Formation ......................................................................................................................26 Exploration and Resource Assessment Guides ......................................................................................26 Geoenvironmental Features and Anthropogenic Mining Effects ........................................................27 Soil and Sediment Signatures Prior to Mining ...............................................................................27 Drainage Signatures...........................................................................................................................27 Climate Effects on Geoenvironmental Signatures ........................................................................28 Volume and Footprint of Mine Waste and Tailings ........................................................................28 Mining Methods ..................................................................................................................................28 Ore Processing Methods 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