Himalayan Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies Open Access

Review Article Kelao Cinnabar Myth and Development Path for Its Cultural Industry

Yi School of Humanities, Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, Abstract: The Kelao nationality is one of the 55 ethnic minorities in China. As one of the *Corresponding Author earliest explorers of the Plateau, the Kelao people has a long history. In the long process of the existence and procreation, the Kelao people has developed and enriched the history and Yi Yang culture of the Guizhou Plateau together with other peoples, which includes rich cinnabar myth.

Article History This paper firstly reviews the history of the birth of Kelao‟s cinnabar myth. Then I analyze the Received: 30.04.2021 evolution and inheritance of Kelao cinnabar myth in modern times. Finally, according to explore Accepted: 10.05.2021 the development path for cultural industry related to cinnabar myth, this paper tries to show how Published: 20.05.2021 the traditional cultural resources and intangible cultural heritage can be integrated into the complete industrial chain of cultural production and consumption. Citations: Keywords: Kelao, China, Cinnabar Myth, Intangible Cultural Heritage. Humphrey Moseti Omara and George Ogochi, (2021); Kelao Cinnabar Myth and Development Path for Its Cultural Industry; Hmlyn J Human Cul Stud, 2(3) 8-13

INTRODUCTION The Kelao nationality is one of the 55 ethnic minorities in China.There were around 550,746 Kelao people living in Mainland China in 2010. Wuchuan country in Guizhou Province is known as the cradle of Kelao. Currently, the Kelao population is mainly distributed in Wuchuan County and Daozhen County in Guizhou Province. The rest of them live in , , , , , , etc. Only a small number of them live in Province, Guangxi Province, and Vietnam. Those living in Guizhou take up more than 97% of the total.

As one of the earliest explorers of the Guizhou Plateau, the Kelao people has a long history. There is a saying going around the Guizhou people, “Kelao are barbarians, they opened up wasteland.” The Kelao people can trace their origin to the Pu people in ancient China. Even to this date, “Kelao” is referred to as “Pu” in the Yi language of northwest Guizhou. Moreover, places where Kelao‟s ancestors once lived are named after “Pu”. For example, the is known as “Pu Tu Zhu Yi”, meaning “a river dug by the Pu people”; Anshun is called “Pu Li”, meaning “a place resided by the Pu people”. The Pu people is an ethnic group with a vast distribution. In the pre- dynasty, they were active in today‟s Yunnan, Guizhou, , Guangxi, and Hubei. Because of the large number of Pu‟s branches, the Pu people were also known as “Bai Pu”, which means one hundred kinds of Pu people . In the late dynasty (1600 to 1046 B.C), the Pu people fought in the war against the King Zhou of Shang under the leadership of King of Zhou. After the founding of the (1045 BC to 256 BC), the Pu people became its subordinates. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the society of the Pu people already entered the stage of tribal alliance. During the (771 to 476 BCE), the Pu people fought with the Chu State, which resulted in the narrowing of their activity scope, leading to its union with other people. Part of them were forced to migrate to west and the Guizhou Plateau, whose residents became the main residents of today‟s Guizhou. In the long process of the existence and procreation, the Kelao people has developed and enriched the history and culture of the Guizhou Plateau together with other peoples, which includes rich cinnabar myth. This paper attempts to come to grips with a set of widely ranging but connected problems concerning cinnabar myths: their relation to the history ; their validity and scope; the range of possible mythical functions in contemporary times.

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Yi Yang; J Human Cul Stud; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 8-13 Kelao’s cinnabar myth food. This is an early legend about how cinnabar was Cinnabar constitutes the main mineral ingredient to discovered. extract mercury. According to research of Professor Fang Hui from Shandong University, the cinnabar Princess consort set up the memorial tablet for culture of the Chinese nation can be traced back to the cinnabar for cinnabar saved her life. Yiducheng Beixi Site in Hubei. Almost around the Xia Jie, the last king of Xia, was profligate and same time, residents of Yuyao Hemudu Site in Yuyao devoid of principles. Many vassal states and the Da already used cinnabar as pigments to make colorful Yuan State founded by the Pu people refused to pay paintings. During the Yangshao Cultural Period, respects to him. Therefore, Xia Jie raised an army to cinnabar found its applications in rituals. In tombs of attack Pu but suffered a serious defeat instead. Then, the Yin and Shang dynasties, cinnabar was found to Xia Jie turned to attack Shishi Clan, the latter of which cover the bodies. was no match of the former, and had to marry Meixi, the beauty of the clan, to Xia Jie. Xia Jia liked Meixi a The Classic of Mountains and Sea, also known as lot. He was indulged in having fun with Mei Xi all day Shan Hai Jing, is a Chinese classic text and a long. People blamed Meixi for the disaster of the compilation of mythic geography and beasts. It is country. A person named Guoqing had a plan to let largely a fabulous geographical and cultural account of Meixi leave the palace. The moment Meixi left the pre-Qin China as well as a collection of Chinese palace, she was chased after by killers. Meixi‟s guards mythology. In this book, records of cinnabar appear sacrificed their lives to protect her. At this moment, more than once. For example, “ mountain has Guoqing shouted loudly, “The female with a black mole Danli.” “South mountain has Danli.” “Niaowei on her forehead is Meixi. Whoever kills her can get mountain has Danli.” “Yuyang mountain has Danli.”As handsome rewards.” Hearing this, Meixi‟s maid explained by Pu, a geographer of the dynasty, changed the clothes with Meixi, the latter of whom “Danli” is a kind of cinnabar with finer particles. drew a black mole on her forehead, while Meixi covered her black mole using cinnabar with her. The Wen Jie Zi, the first Chinese dictionary that faked Meixi was hacked to death, but the real Meixi analyses the forms and origins of words, defines escaped and went back to the palace. The King of Xia “cinnabar” as “a kind of red stores in southwest was deeply attracted by the mole between Meixi‟s regions”. As rare resources in North China, cinnabar is eyebrows and named it “Beauty‟s Mole”. This marked distributed concentratedly in Southwest China. The the start of the tradition of creating the “Beauty‟s Mole” Kelao people were the earliest in the world to discover using cinnabar in China. Meixi thought that it was and use cinnabar. Ancestors of the Kelao people cinnabar that saved her life, so she set up a memorial collected cinnabar to make mercury. Back to the Taiwu tablet for cinnabar. Cinnabar was evolved into an King of Shang, Kelao could already extract mercury. In auspicious symbol and entered the life of the ruling the Zhou dynasty, cinnabar was made into a tribute to class. the King of Zhou. The Kelao people were experienced in mining cinnabar. They were capable of adjusting The Pu people from Wuchuan offered cinnabar to their digging and mining technology by the generation the King Wu of Zhou as a tribute status of veins. The mining tools include caps, Back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the Pu hammers, drills, oil lamps, pack baskets, etc. Wuchuan people, ancestors of the Kelao people, became the was the earliest origin of cinnabar in the world, which dominant people of the Ye Lang State, and created the started mass production even from the Shang and Xia earliest King Bao myth of Kelao. It was said that King dynasties. Many Taoists of the Qin dynasty came here Bao was the head of the Kelao tribe, who was made a to make elixirs. Hnece, Kelao left behind a wealth of king for giving cinnabar to King of Zhou as a myths about cinnabar. tribute. “The Pu people, ancestors of Kelao, happened to discover sand grains (cinnabar) flickering with a How did Kelao ancestors find cinnabar in the bloody luster. They gave these as a tribute to King Wu Neolithic and Paleolithic era of Zhou. King Wu of Zhou regarded it as the most Around the Neolithic and Paleolithic era, a youth valuable treasure, and conferred the head of the Pu named “Wu Xin” in Daping Town, Wuchuan County people as „King Bao‟. After the death of “King Bao”, went out hunting together with several companions. the “King Bao Temple” was set up in Sankeng, They attempted to hunt down a beast, but the beast Banchang, Jinqianshan, Jinjishan and other places of fought back. Wu Xin dropped into a red puddle while Wuchuan that were abundant in cinnabar and mercury. running away. After standing on his feet, Wu Xin‟s face Inside the temple, there was the statue of “King Bao”. was red, which scared the beast away. The beast The local Kelao people placed their hope on “King Bao dropped down from the rocks in a panic. This inspired Buddha” for their successful mining and avoidance of Wu Xin and his companions to frighten beasts by disasters. To worship the “King Bao Buddha” has been smearing their face red using the water. Each time, a custom in the aforesaid places carried forward to this when beasts saw the red face, they would stop there, not date. daring to make any movements and becoming humans‟

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Yi Yang; J Human Cul Stud; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 8-13 The Pu people invented the “Elixir of Life” City, Guizhou Province. It has been celebrated as the King Zhou, the last king of the , cinnabar temple, the only one of its kind in the world. believed what his beloved concubine, Da , said – the Because of the close connection between cinnabar and Pu people had the “Elixir of Life”. So he sent men to the Taoist tradition of alchemy, King Bao has been long ask for the “Elixir of Life” from the King of Pu. King of known as one of the Taoist gods. In the , Pu could not provide the so-called “Elixir of Life” for the King Bao Temple was built to enshrine and worship King Zhou, the latter of whom captured the Pu people the King Bao, God of Zhu. Upon two reconstruction of as hostage to force the King of Pu to give him the the King Bao Temple under the reign of Qian Long “Elixir of Life” as an exchange. It is said that one Emperor and Xian Feng Emperor, respectively, the hostage was named Qiu Kai. In order to save his people, Yin Temple and the Guan Gong Temple were set he told Da Ji, “I am the son of the witcher. I can make up as well. Guan Yin and Guan are two household the „Elixir of Life‟. I can teach you how to make it, but names, one in Buddhism and the other in Confucianism. you should set all Pu hostages free.” Hearing what Qiu Therefore, the King Bao Temple is actually a temple Kai said, Da Ji did what was required by Qiu Kai. that worships Bao King, Guan Yin and Guan Gong all Immediately, Qiu Kai taught Da Ji how to make the together, which is a historical testimony of the “Elixir of Life”, which was actually the technique about integration of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. how to make the mercury. In terms of religious belief, Kelao worshiped the After that, emperors of successive dynasties King Bao who led the Kelao people to mine cinnabar as regarded cinnabar as a fetish, attempting to refine the a national leader and god to bring safety, longevity and elixir of life from cinnabar. Records of the kind can be happiness to the Kelao people. Upon funerals, the Kelao found voluminously in traditional Chinese classics and people had the tradition of such as drawing the eight Taoist classics. diagrams using cinnabar. At the same time, the cinnabar culture was more comprehensively deeply integrated Evolution and inheritance of Kelao cinnabar myth into the production, life, clothing, dining, transport and in modern times accommodation of the local people to get internalized In the of Guizhou Province, there is as part of the folk culture. Even to this date, in some a cinnabar temple named “King Bao Temple” with a Guizhou villages where the Kelao gather, remains of history of more than 400 years. There is also a “King the cinnabar culture can still be found. There is no Bao Temple” in Jinjishan, Kelao Sankeng Village, doubt that the cinnabar myth has been evolved into an Wuchuan, where a ballad for the sacrifice is prevailing, intangible cultural heritage that has been passed down “If blessed by the King Bao Buddha, you will live each from generation to generation, and closely connected day as New Year.” with people‟s life.

The myth about the Pu people from Wuchuan According to the Compilation of Ancient Books and offered cinnabar to King Wu of Zhou can find its bases Literatures about the History of Wuchuan published in from historical records. It can be seen that cinnabar 2007, “In the face of some natural disasters, the mining and trading could be traced back to the West Wuchuan Kelao ancestors always attributed them to the Zhou dynasty and that it promoted the economic troubles caused by evil spirits. So Kelao ancestors tried development of the Kelao region and strengthened the to keep away from ghosts and believed in witches. economic and cultural exchange between Kelao and the Consequently, Wuchuan developed the tradition of central dynasty. Following the Pu people‟s offering of grinding cinnabar, blending it with oil or glue into a red cinnabar as a tribute, appointed the pigment, and applying it to living utensils such as head of the Pu people as “King Bao” to manage the musical instruments in a Buddhist or Taoist mass, Kelao region, which created the earliest cinnabar god of hunting equipment, and gate post as weapons to drive Kelao. Mining of cinnabar in the Kaiyang belt started away evils and also to increase their courage. from the . The King Bao Palace that Particularly, the front side of a house was usually enshrines and worships the Cinnabar God has witnessed decorated red. This is also the same in today‟s China. In the thousand-year long history of cinnabar mining in some regions where the Hongdu River flows across, Kaiyang. such as Daping, Hongsi, Baicun, Jiaoba, and Maotian, people are still accustomed to addressing the food The Kaiyang King Bao Temple is also known as the during weddings and funerals as „red ‟. In the past, King Bao Palace. Erected in the Ming dynasty, it was when a person died, some cinnabar was put in the tomb. rebuilt in 1782 under the reign of the Qianlong Later, cinnabar was in short supply. Then, a red cloth Emperor. From 1848 to 1857 under the reign of the was paved under the coffin to follow the custom. In Xianfeng Emperor, Kaiyang embraced another rural areas, when the Spring Festival came, villagers flourishing period of cinnabar mining, which also led to would add a little „red rice‟ on the top of the cone- the reconstruction of the King Bao Temple. The King shaped rice cake. At the center of the rice cake are Bao Temple is located at Xiniudong, Liangshuijing several small red spots. The same decoration can be Village, Shuangliu Town, Kaiyang County, Guiyang found with the other pastry that is made up of sticky

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Yi Yang; J Human Cul Stud; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 8-13 rice. The sesame cakes and the handmade rice noodles Xiao Qin (1976 - ), a Kelao female writer born in always dye part of them red, and mix the red inside.” [14] the 1970s, is also an outstanding representative that depicts the inheritance of the traditional culture. Development path for cultural industry related to Through literary means, she presents the cinnabar cinnabar myth culture to readers by digging the time-honored legends The acceleration of modernization and urbanization, in history based on her real experience in the the contradiction between the traditional culture and countryside and her rich art imagination. modern civilization has dealt a heavy blow to the traditional myth system, and posed a threat to the Back to 2009 years, Xiao Qin published an essay traditional culture on whether it can be passed down. It entitled Memories of Cinnabar on the magazine, which has been a thought-provoking issue on how to carry writes about the origin of her nation with deep forward the cultural traditions of Kelao ancestors, and emotions. She writes, “This is a nation that worships seek reasonable and effective development of the cinnabar. Cinnabar has created the tragedy, happiness related cultural industries. In 2018, the Kelao female and myth for this nation. Around 2,000 years ago, the writer, Xiao Zhuan, wrote one proposal entitled, Kelao people who made a living by collecting cinnabar Strengthening protection and promotion of the Kelao excavated sand to make mercury on the land where they cinnabar culture and driving comprehensive economic lived, which was in the depth of the Yungui Plateau. and social development of national regions. Xiao This marked the start of the nation‟s long history. At thought that efforts should be made to immediately that time, cinnabar constituted their spiritual faith and a protect cinnabar, a symbol of kelao spiritual culture. panacea to relieve their pains, and had nothing to do Otherwise, Kelao‟s cinnabar culture will be gradually with fortune. However, the myth of reincarnation and diffused. Combining the status research, Xiao suggested immortality based on the mercury that comes out from that Guizhou, a place where Kelao ancestors lived, cinnabar and can be reduced into cinnabar was pursued should pay more attention to the future development for more than 2,000 years. The crystal clear mercury directions of the Kelao culture and cinnabar culture, and became the elixir of life for emperors of different focus on national and cultural protection and creation of dynasties. Since then, people had been seeking mercury. Kelao culture, particularly Kelao‟s cinnabar culture. As The tranquility of the mountainous area where the a symbol of Kelao‟s spiritual culture, cinnabar should Kelao people lived was broken by the hustle and bustle be displayed more from the perspective of culture and of the merchants.” art. Cinnabar is also the cultural symbol that can best distinguish Kelao from the other 55 ethnic minorities in Later, Xiao wrote a middle-length novel entitled China. So Kelao‟s cinnabar culture should by no means Taste of Cinnabar. This novel is written from a child‟s fall into oblivion. Driven by the call of Xiao Qing, perspective and narrated from the end using the first Guizhou has gathered forces at the official and folk person. It focuses on telling the story of “my grandma”, level to advertise Guizhou‟s cinnabar myth and create a the daughter of a mine owner, a Kelao woman who has batch of creative boutiques via the local cultural received new education, and has the courage to seek industries. Achievements of these efforts include not true love and fight against the feudal ethics, but she dies only textual descriptions, but also stage performances, with regret for not being buried with cinnabar by her festive celebrations, tourism development, etc. national tradition. With deep love for her hometown, Xiaoqin writes about the vicissitudes of the Kelao Rewriting of cinnabar myth via modern literature people‟s life as well as their pleasure, anger, sorrow, In February 2016, the ethnic writer, Tian Yonghong, and joy via deep description of culture and the cinnabar from Sinan County, Tongren City, Guizhou Province myth as the main line. The Taste of Cinnabar, right had her full-length novel entitled King of Cinnabar after its publication, gained considerable attention. published by the Unity Press. Made up of 24 chapters More than one famous Chinese scholar spoke highly of and containing around 350,000 words, King of it. This work also won the “National Ethnic Minority Cinnabar is set against the background that two Literature Junma Award for Medium-and Short-Length national minority hereditary headmen, Sizhou and Novels”, and was listed in the Collection of Selected Sinan, in the late Ming dynasty fought for the Literary Works for the 21st Century in 2011. Dawanshan Cinnabar Mine Field, thus intensifying the national contradiction and the Ming dynasty‟s reform of Display of the cinnabar myth on the stage and “bureaucratization of native officers”. Based on the real screen historical figures, this book presents a fantastic story At the night of April 14, 2016, the large-scale with complex plots, which brings readers back to the and dance drama, Cinnabar Love, was put on in the central area of Guizhou in the lower and middle reaches International Conference Center of Guizhou, as one of of the Wu River around 600 years ago, witnessing how performances for the First Colorful Guizhou Culture the specialty, cinnabar, waged a thrilling turbulence and Art Festival. The whole show consists of five parts, lasting for around half a century. The book also depicts including the preface, Part 1 (Mining Cinnabar), Part 2 the colorful social scenarios and the living status of the (Offering Cinnabar), Part 3 (Loving Cinnabar), and local masses under the cinnabar cultural content. ending. With the sad and beautiful love story as its main

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Yi Yang; J Human Cul Stud; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 8-13 low, the show integrates the charming national song and some new discoveries, including the Cinnabar Martyr dance with the cinnabar myth to present an aesthetic Tomb, Army Mercury Smelting Site, etc. and touching feast to eyes. After years of adaption, Cinnabar Love has been developed into a national In June 2018, the First China Cinnabar Cultural cultural tourism brand. Industry Creativity Competition Launch Ceremony with “turning cinnabar into a cultural springboard for On August 23, 2019, the first film themed on the Guizhou to get integrated into the „One Belt & One Kelao people, Blood and Cinnabar, starred by the Road‟” as the slogan was held in the Cinnabar Ancient famous performers – Liu Zi, Liu Changde and so on, Town Scenic Area Tourists‟ Center in Wanshan and with Xiao Qin as the art director and scriptwriter , Tongren City, Guizhou Province. This was put on screen formally. This film tells the story competition was jointly sponsored by Jiyang Tourism about how the First Emperor of Qin collected cinnabar Development Co., Ltd. in Tongren, Guizhou and from the Mayang Tribe of the Pu people in State Yangtze Normal University in . Around 200 so as to remain immortal. Unexpectedly, however, representatives of the governments, academic circles cinnabar was robbed during transport. The First and enterprises from Chongqing, Hunan, Guizhou and Emperor of Qin believed in the slanderous talk of the so on attended it. Via the “Online + Offline” Prime Minister Zhao Gao, the latter of whom said that, comprehensive advertising channel, this competition as long as cinnabar could be found, one could maintain collected and selected excellent cultural and creative immortal. So the First Emperor of Qin sent his capable designs from designers either at home and abroad, and man, Qin Tian, and the widow, Ba Qing, to find provide comprehensive services, including exhibitions, cinnabar. On the way of looking for cinnabar, the two industrialization and entrepreneurship of the award- developed a deep friendship with Bai and Hong winning works. Meanwhile, this competition was Sha, detergents of Bao King, and a touching legendary committed to gathering excellent designers from China story related to cinnabar happens among them. and abroad, digging new original design forces, Combining the cinnabar culture with the real historical shortening the distance between cultural and creative background and imaginary love story, a fantastic film design and the public life, dinning cinnabar cultural about the cinnabar culture is presented on the screen resources for creative design, combining the traditional from a unique perspective. culture with the modern technology, art value and practical functions so as to provide cultural products, Combination with the tourism industry which are both practical and artistic for the masses, and The Wanshan Mercury Mine Site is located at construct a cultural and creative industrial chain with Tuping Village, Wanshan Town, Wanshan Special the competition at its core. This competition Zone, Tongren City, Guizhou Province. Wanshan is significantly promoted the creative transformation and long celebrated as the “Capital of Mercury” in China, innovative development of the cinnabar cultural and which has a history of more than 1,300 years. The creative products. “Guangming Cinnabar” produced thereby was celebrated as a tribute to the royal family. Wanshan‟s CONCLUSION cinnabar smelting started from the Tang dynasty, which had already shaped a large scale by the , To sum up, inheritance of the Kelao cinnabar myth and became the largest base for cinnabar mining and in modern times has benefited from the diverse means mercury collecting and gathering in China and even the for the cultural industrial development. Not only have world at large. From the founding of the New China to these diverse development means created the early 1990s, Wanshan was once the largest mercury multidimensional inheritance channels for the cinnabar industrial production base in China. The mercury myth, but they have also enriched the leisure and produced thereby took up 80% of the total output in cultural life of people. Moreover, these development China and more than 50% of the total export. It is apt to means have got rid of the regional barriers to attract a say that Wanshan was an important historical witness of large number of tourists in China and abroad to visit the cinnabar culture in its late development period in cinnabar sites, learn the cinnabar myth, and write about China and even the world, particularly the cinnabar the cinnabar. These literary writings of the cinnabar mercury refining culture. have been converted into actual economic benefits of the cinnabar. In the Cinnabar Ancient Town (Wanshan Affiliated to Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, National Mine Park) and the Wanshan Mercury Mine Kaiyang County is located at the hinterland of central Industrial Site Museum in Tongren, tourists from Guizhou. According to the research work of He different places are attracted here to feel the charm of Xianlong, Curator of the Kaiyang County Culture the Cinnabar Kingdom, profound cinnabar cultural Museum, the Kaiyang Cinnabar Mercury Site has more atmosphere and beautiful natural landscape. So far, the than 403 cinnabar caves, the cinnabar temple, King Bao Wanshan Mercury Mine Site has been included into the Temple, mercury smelting site, and ancient tombs reserved list of China‟s world cultural heritage and related to cinnabar. [10] In addition to the cinnabar approved as a key cultural relic protection unit of the temple, King Bao Temple and so on, there have been national level. Besides, the Site is under further development and protection, the anthropological 12

Yi Yang; J Human Cul Stud; Vol-2, Iss- 3 (May-Jun, 2021): 8-13 communication school thinks that communication is a 会科学院神话研究院 2020 年度立项资助一般科研项 main factor of cultural development. One of the most 目，2020SHYB11. important and urgent tasks for the traditional cultural inheritance in different countries is to endeavor to REFERENCES construct a professional market system. Based on the 1. Birrell, A. (Ed.). (1999). The Classic of Mountains basic role of the professional market system, the and Seas. Penguin. traditional cultural resources and intangible cultural 2. Hong-ru, W. A. N. G. (2005). Historical heritage can be integrated into the complete industrial Anthropology and the Yelang Kingdom chain of cultural production and consumption. Only in [J]. Journal of For this way can enduring driving force be provided for the Nationalities, 1. cultural inheritance. 3. Kirk, Geoffrey S. Myth. (1970). University of California Press, 1970. Funding 4. Lihui, Y. (2013). Analysis of the Cultural This work was supported by the general scientific Connotation of the Kelao Memorial in research project 2020 of The Mythology Research Wuchuan. Journal of Anshun University, 03. Institute of Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences 5. Oakes, T. S. (1997). 2. Ethnic Tourism in Rural (Project No. 2020SHYB11), “Study on the Cinnabar Guizhou: Sense of Place and the Commerce of Myth and the Kelao Nationality's Belief in the King of Authenticity. In Tourism, ethnicity, and the state in Bao”. “仡佬族丹砂神话与宝王信仰研究” 四川省社 Asian and Pacific societies (pp. 35-70). University of Hawaii Press.

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