Ingleby Guidelines

INGLEBY GUIDELINES

SUSTAINABLE FARMING Harvesting table grapes, Peru. Photographer: Robin Begg INGLEBY GUIDELINES

INGLEBY FARMS & FORESTS

INGLEBY GUIDELINES

7. edition, February 2019

Photographers: Andrea Sanz, Andrei Govoreanu, Armandas Naudžius, Douglas Sibbald, Hans Henrik Koefoed, Jeppe Støchkel Jeppesen, Martin Jackson, Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen, Mette Duedahl Høyer, Rafael Leguísamo, Rasmus Juul Christoffersen, Robin Begg, Sean Cameron, Sebastian Neag, Stephen Creese, Tom McPherson, Øjvind E. Krabbe In case of loss, please return to:

Drawings: Julia E. Williams

Ingleby Publications are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non- Commercial-Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) License. This means you are free to copy, distribute, display, and make derivative works, but you are not allowed to use our materials for commercial purpose and all derivative works must be licensed under the same terms. For further information, please visit the Creative Commons webpage: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/

Editors: Mette Duedahl Høyer, Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen

Layout: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen www.inglebyfarms.com CONTENTS

9 PREFACE 11 OUR VISION & VALUES 12 INGLEBY GOALS 16 SUSTAINABILITY MEMORANDUM 22 ETHICAL POLICY 24 WHISTLEBLOWING POLICY 28 GUIDELINES FOR FENCING 32 GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING GAME 34 GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 46 GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING BIRDS 52 GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 66 GUIDELINES FOR SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION 68 GUIDELINES FOR USING BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS FOR PLANT PROTECTION 72 GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & WOODLAND 80 POLICY FOR HYDROPOWER & WIND TURBINES 82 POLICY FOR MANAGING INVASIVE SPECIES 86 POLICY FOR USING AGROCHEMICALS 94 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 128 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF SHEEP 138 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 154 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF DOGS 164 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF POULTRY 166 PROTOCOL FOR REFERENCE SOIL SAMPLING 172 EARTHWORM ASSESSMENT 174 MY NOTES PREFACE

Since Ingleby was founded in 1998, our long-standing vision of being world-leading sustainable farmers has continuously driven the positive development of our farms. Our goal is to produce sound, healthy food on thriving and living farms.

With a 150-year perspective, our first 20 years are just the beginning of Ingleby’s story.

To us, working with nature is the greatest benefit of being farmers. We aim to balance conservation and production, to increase the quality and health of the local ecosystem without affecting - or even while supporting - productivity. We want to farm with nature, but our ambitions do not stop there. To challenge ourselves even further, we have decided to become synthetic-pesticide free by 2030. Our way towards this goal includes elements from conservation farming and regenerative agriculture.

To support this, we have created the Ingleby Guidelines, sometimes referred to as the Ingleby Green Bible. Now in its 7th edition, this book contains Ingleby’s DNA; our vision, values and our Sustainability Memorandum.

These policies and guidelines help all Ingleby teams ensure continuous protection of our farms’ environmental qualities, soils, biodiversity, animal welfare and people.

We set high standards for both our work and our teams. This will support us in reaching our ever-evolving goal of sustainable farming.

Mette Duedahl Høyer Hans Henrik Koefoed Chief Production & Chief Executive Officer Sustainability Officer

Beech seedling, Romania Forests. Photographer: Sebastian Neag PREFACE 9 OUR VISION & VALUES

Our vision is to be world-leading sustainable farmers, where we farm to produce sound, healthy food, but also to protect and enhance the environment for future generations.

We want to combine the best practical, ethical and scientific know-how with good leadership and organisation.

We want to be better farmers.

OUR VALUES

Hands-on

Sustainable We are hands-on farmers. We spend most We believe in of our time in the fields sustainable farming. caring for our crops and This means protecting livestock. people, nature and profits in the long term. ble Ha a nd in s ta -o s n u

S e

F v i Family a t m a v i l o Innovative We are a family y n of farmers. Family In values are an We aim to T constantly be one integral part rust rthy of our farming wo step ahead. We operations and work with leading daily life. advisers to be on the forefront of the Trustworthy farming technology and practices. We respect rules and regulations. We deliver what we promise and on time. An Ingleby product is always of the highest quality.

Blueberries, Romania. Photographer: Andrei Govoreanu OUR VISION & VALUES 11 ESTABLISH 10 METRE BUFFER STRIPS ALONG ALL MAJOR STREAMS, 5 RIVERS AND LAKES We create non-cultivated and unsprayed buffer zones of 10 metres around waterbodies. These help diminish nutrient leaching and pesticide run-off into the water. Buffer strips are best planted in locally- sourced, native meadow seeds. They can be cut late in the season in a varied mosaic, every 1, 2, 3 or 4 years. INGLEBY GOALS

PLANT NATURAL, NATIVE GRASS WATERWAYS IN EROSION-PRONE 6 AREAS We plant belts of permanent grass in low parts of the fields where IMPROVE ANNUAL KEY PRODUCTION AND EFFICIENCY METRICS BY water runs during wet conditions. The grass waterways channel excess 1 1 - 2% water to larger waterways, and help reduce water velocity and the risk In a 10-year-spectrum, we want to increase our key crop production of erosion. Grass waterways are best planted and cut in a similar way as metrics by 1% per year, i.e. improving yields, as well as nutrient and described under goal 5. water use efficiency. Furthermore, we want to increase energy use efficiency by 2% per year. While supporting financial results, this will also benefit the environment and climate. NO MECHANICAL SOIL TREATMENT ON EROSION-PRONE SLOPES 7 We keep erosion prone slopes under permanent grass/plantings to avoid erosion. These areas can be left for natural regeneration, or BUILD TOPSOIL BY 2 MM PER YEAR planted in native species. 2 It is our constant goal to grow the topsoil layer by 2 mm per year. Crops respond positively to soil with good structure, high water holding and cation exchange capacity. The better and deeper the topsoil, the larger CONTOUR CULTIVATION IN STEEP AREAS an area for the plant roots to find water and nutrients, and the stronger 8 To avoid erosion, we never cultivate fields straight up and down the the crop. hills. Instead we cultivate along the contours.

KEEP AND PLANT SOLITARY TREES IN THE LANDSCAPE PROMOTE A “SCRUFFY” LOOK IN THE OPEN LANDSCAPE 3 We keep and plant solitary trees in the landscape to let them become 9 We avoid designing landscapes with manicured lawns and plantings in a general characteristic of our farms. If possible, we plant them where neat patterns. Instead we leave areas for natural regeneration. Also, we they historically stood. leave standing and lying dead wood, as they are important habitats.

SPEND 2% OF YEARLY WORKING HOURS ON TRAINING GROW A MIX OF INSECT/BEE PLANTS ON THE FARM 4 Training is important to keep our farm teams updated and motivated. We grow a mixture of plants that blossom at different times of the Our goal is that 2% of yearly working hours is spent on training. This 10 season to provide pollen and nectar forage for bees and other insects. approximately equals one week of training per full-time team member We recommend permanent plants. This way we ensure feed for our per year. The goal of 2% training is an average for the whole farm team, pollinators throughout the season. and not an individual goal.

12 INGLEBY GUIDELINES INGLEBY GOALS 13 14 INGLEBY GOALS

DEVELOP WELCOMING AVENUES ALONG FARM MAIN DRIVEWAYS 11 We want to provide a welcoming atmosphere when you enter our farms. Over time an avenue develops into a characteristic landscape element. Avenues are always two rows of trees and must be planted with high quality, hard wood species.

SURROUND LARGER BUILDINGS WITH APPROPRIATE PLANTING 12 Planting greenery around buildings contribute to aesthetic value and create a “green touch” to our farms.

CONVERT 1% OF EACH FARM’S AREA TO WATER HABITATS 13 Because waterbodies enhance biodiversity, we want water habitats on 1% of our farmland. These water habitats should have summer holding water, surrounding vegetation, trees for nesting, and natural borders, etc. Several small ponds are encouraged rather than a few large. Please find inspiration in the Ingleby guidelines for establishing ponds.

CONVERT 10% OF EACH FARM’S AREA TO NATURAL HABITATS 14 We avoid cultivating small field triangles, convert obsolete or low yielding areas into habitats, or use several of the initiatives specified above.

BALANCED GENDER DIVERSITY 15 In many countries, farming is a male dominated profession. However, we are equal opportunity employers, and we want to create equal and fair working environments welcome to all. Our goal is for the underrepresented gender to reach at least 40%.

SYNTHETIC-PESTICIDE FREE BY 2030 16 We aim to farm with nature and promote healthy ecosystems and safe work environments. Therefore, we have decided to phase out the use of synthetic pesticides and become synthetic-pesticide free by 2030.

14 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Farm avenue, Argentina. Photographer: Mette Duedahl Høyer We believe in: Each farm must: >>Continual improvement >>Consult independent advisors >>Exceeding local standards >>Devise integrated strategies >>Sensitivity to the local environ- >>Develop indicators of success ment and larger ecosystems of the >>Conduct regular environmental region surveys SUSTAINABILITY MEMORANDUM SUSTAINABILITY REPORTS INTEGRATED STRATEGIES We adapt our social and environ- We produce sustainability reports mental strategies to the needs and for all our farms. These help us retain conditions of each farm. Priorities This memorandum outlines Ingleby’s a farm-wide perspective, remain vary, depending on each farm’s principles for planning and imple- CONTENTS systematic, coordinate our actions opportunities, the goals in the region menting a whole-farm sustainability and predict outcomes and problems. and country, and the type of farm. policy.

16 OUR OBJECTIVE We monitor and record our water and We aim to: These are general principles to be soil quality, our biodiversity, animal 16 SUSTAINABLE FARMING applied sensibly. Ingleby farms will >>Choose environmental and social PRACTICES health and welfare, as well as safety use them to create their own strate- and training. We record our inputs strategies that also increase yields, 17 SUSTAINABILITY REPORTS gies. Our managers and teams will such as fertilisers, pesticides, energy soil productivity, animal production 17 SUSTAINABILITY PROCESS devise locally relevant plans. and veterinary medicines as well as and animal health 17 Environmental analysis how efficiently we use these inputs. 17 Integrated strategies >>Follow an ethic of cautious And, of course, we measure our 17 Indicators of success OUR OBJECTIVE consumption (energy, fertilisers, 18 Efficient implementation harvests and yields. water, etc.) We want to establish a strong Ingleby 18 SOIL, WATER, BIODIVERSITY identity. This is central to our long- >Increase product quality and AND BEAUTY We quantify all these indicators so we > 18 Fertile, well-structured soils term business success. Consumers can produce traceable, wholesome market image 18 Clean, plentiful water demand ethically-produced products. food. But more profoundly, we do it >>Use all available environmental 18 Healthy, species-rich to create evidence-based feedback subsidies (provided they align with ecosystems Traceability is vital, and we keep 18 Beautiful farms loops between how we farm, and our environmental objectives) records of how we farm to show how how our farms fare. 18 CROPS AND LIVESTOCK we care for people and nature. >>Protect Ingleby’s reputation 18 Natural varied crops 19 Animal welfare and husbandry We have adopted a holistic approach SUSTAINABILITY PROCESS INDICATORS OF SUCCESS 19 ENERGY, WASTE AND to sustainability. This means we TRANSPORT ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS For all actions, we identify quick, address the environmental and social 19 Less consumption and greener How do our farms interact with easy and reliable ways to quantify sources of energy impacts of all our activities. people and the environment? What our success. Often, this means simply 19 Less waste with responsible walking the farm. disposal are our opportunities? 19 Responsible supply chains SUSTAINABLE FARMING A farm in good heart is easily 19 PEOPLE PRACTICES When we know this, we can prioritise recognised. 19 Skilled, motivated teams our sustainability actions. We have 20 A good name locally The aims of sustainable farming are developed our own guidelines for 20 Consumers clear. But there is debate about how these reviews, adapting the best local to achieve them. frameworks.

16 INGLEBY GUIDELINES SUSTAINABILITY MEMORANDUM 17 EFFICIENT IMPLEMENTATION We protect the farm waters from We use genetically modified organ- When we can, we cooperate with Each farm coordinates, delegates, fertilisers, chemicals, sediment and ism (GMO), where this is beneficial neighbouring farms or communities and records its actions, and ensures animal waste. Where necessary, we and locally acknowledged. to produce alternative energy. that contractors comply with our fence off waterways to prevent stock policies. access. We seek to be increasingly efficient LESS WASTE WITH RESPONSIBLE in our fertiliser use, and we seek to DISPOSAL All our farms produce yearly progress HEALTHY, SPECIES-RICH minimise our use of insecticides, We follow the mantra ‘avoid, reduce, ECOSYSTEMS reports. herbicides and fungicides. re-use and recycle’. A living farm landscape is crucial to every aspect of agriculture, including We practice responsible and inte- We focus on re-using waste onsite, SOIL, WATER, BIODIVERSITY soil and water quality, and crop and grated chemical management on profiting from waste with value to AND BEAUTY animal health. As stewards of vast our farms, and investigate comple- others, and exploring green methods mentary methods of natural crop FERTILE, WELL-STRUCTURED SOILS tracts of land, we protect our regional of disposal. flora and fauna. enhancement and protection. Good soil, together with our human We adopt the safest methods capabilities, is our most important We encourage native, diverse, threat- ANIMAL WELFARE AND of waste storage, handling and asset. We maintain fertile and ened, and ecologically important HUSBANDRY transport. well-structured soils with optimum species to thrive on our farms, as well We care for our animals’ health and amounts of air, water, nutrients and as protect their habitats and ecosys- comfort in how they are fed, housed, RESPONSIBLE SUPPLY CHAINS biological activity. tems. We actively promote native kept occupied, medicated, handled Sustainable practices onsite can be biodiversity on non-agricultural land. and transported. undermined by off-site stages of the We limit erosion, compaction, con- food industry. We strive to work with tamination, run-off, nutrient imbal- BEAUTIFUL FARMS We minimise the use of antibiot- companies with good environmental ances and salinisation, and we use Our farms must be beautiful, clean ics and we have banned growth and social policies. natural soil enhancement measures. and tidy. We always keep our farms’ hormones. We enhance soil fertility with nutrient aesthetic appeal firmly in mind. We strive, where possible, to buy and monitoring, use the best nutrient We work to prevent livestock-related sell locally. management and increase organic We protect natural, historical and soil damage, water pollution and matter by natural means. architectural features, create cultures habitat loss, and also the spread of of order and tidiness on farms, and animal diseases to humans. PEOPLE We minimise soil disturbance from encourage thriving, naturally regener- SKILLED, MOTIVATED TEAMS cultivation techniques, animals and ating vegetation. machinery. We strive for minimum ENERGY, WASTE AND We encourage our farm teams to tillage when locally relevant. TRANSPORT acquire skills and motivation. We We cooperate with surrounding com- provide the best sustainability munities, industries and farmers to LESS CONSUMPTION AND GREENER We do not clear any forest for training to win hearts and minds and protect our soils, water, biodiversity, SOURCES OF ENERGY farming purposes. optimise performance. and the beauty of our local areas. We seek to minimise our energy use CLEAN, PLENTIFUL WATER by using the most energy efficient We help develop careers and treat technologies. Agriculture depends on water. We CROPS AND LIVESTOCK people fairly. use water efficiently and cleanly. To NATURAL VARIED CROPS We pursue alternative energies produce ‘more crop per drop’, we We fulfil our legal obligations, paying according to their regional suitability use the best irrigation systems, avoid When choosing crops, we select special attention to health and safety, and their aesthetic qualities. unnecessary water-use, and recycle from a wide genetic pool, improve and create safe work environments. water where possible. the crop mosaic and employ crop rotations.

18 INGLEBY GUIDELINES SUSTAINABILITY MEMORANDUM 19 We offer reasonable terms on pay, pension, parental leave, sick leave, holidays and notice periods.

We do not use prison or forced labour.

We show consideration to people’s families, and try to enhance their work/life balance. We also try to minimise stress.

We are equal opportunity employers and oppose all forms of discrimina- tion. We recruit employees regardless of colour, race, gender, nationality, religion, sexual orientation or other personal diversity indicators. We create equal and fair working atmos- pheres welcome to all.

A GOOD NAME LOCALLY We want to be good neighbours. We are newcomers to different cultures, and we recognise our obligations.

We engage with local communities, charities and politicians, and, where we can, we contribute to community projects and charitable organisations. By encouraging public access and organising on-site community or cultural events, we help our neighbours enjoy the land.

CONSUMERS Consumers are our key stakeholders.

We produce high quality, safe and nutritious food for the markets.

20 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Planting trees at the local school, Peru. Photographer: Martin Jackson • Being in the position of supervis- ing, reviewing or having any influence on the job evaluation, pay or benefit of any close relative.

• Selling or buying anything to/ from Ingleby, except on the same ETHICAL POLICY terms and conditions as compa- rable team members are permitted to purchase or sell.

• Owning and managing private Ingleby employees, workers, contrac- corruption, kickbacks and the land, and concurrently managing tors, officers, partners, advisors and provision or acceptance of inappro- Ingleby land. There should be associates (herein after named team priate gifts, favours or services. strict focus on managing these members) should be open and trans- >>Report on any activities that they lands separately and keeping the parent within Ingleby and correct and are aware of which contravene this two businesses apart. discrete outside of Ingleby. policy.

Service to Ingleby should never be >>Avoid conflicts of interest wherever compromised by personal gain and possible. Anything that would be advantage. a conflict for a team member will also be a conflict if it is related Specifically, each team member must: to a member of their family or a close relative. Examples of conflict >>Act with integrity, including being of interest situations, if material, honest and candid while still include: maintaining the confidentiality of Ingleby information where required • Significant ownership interest in or in Ingleby’s interests. any supplier or customer.

>>Observe fully any applicable • Consulting or employment governmental laws, rules and relationship with any customer, regulations. supplier or competitor.

>>Comply with legal accounting and • Outside business activity that auditing standards and Ingleby detracts from an individual’s policies to maintain a high standard ability to devote appropriate of accuracy and completeness in time and attention to his or her Ingleby’s financial records. responsibilities with Ingleby.

>>Adhere to a high standard of • The receipt of money, non- business ethics, never engaging nominal gifts or excessive in unlawful or unethical business entertainment from any company practices. with which Ingleby has current or prospective business dealings. >>Not indulge in any form of dishon- est practices, such as bribery,

22 INGLEBY GUIDELINES ETHICAL POLICY 23 WHAT IS WHISTLEBLOWING?

Whistleblowing is the disclosure of information, which is related to suspected wrongdoing or dangers at work, this may include: WHISTLEBLOWING POLICY a) Criminal activity

b) Miscarriages of justice

We are committed to conducting genuine concerns in good faith c) Danger to health and safety our business with honesty and without fear of reprisals, even if integrity, and we expect all staff to they turn out to be mistaken. d) Personal harassment or bullying maintain high standards. However, all organisations face the risk of things e) Damage to the environment going wrong from time to time, or WHO DOES THIS COVER? f) Cruelty to animals of unknowingly harbouring illegal or This policy applies to all individuals unethical conduct. working at all levels of the organisa- g) Failure to comply with any legal (or professional) obligation or regulatory tion, including senior managers, requirements A culture of openness and account- officers, directors, employees, con- ability is essential in order to prevent sultants, contractors, trainees, interns, h) Bribery such situations occurring, or to part-time and fixed-term workers, address them when they do occur. casual and agency staff, as well as i) Financial fraud or mismanagement volunteers (collectively referred to as j) Negligence AIM OF THE POLICY team members in this policy). k) Breach of Ingleby's internal policies and procedures The aim of this policy is to provide RAISING A an internal mechanism for reporting, l) Conduct likely to damage Ingleby's reputation investigating and remedying any WHISTLEBLOWING wrongdoing in the workplace, by: CONCERN m) Unauthorised disclosure of confidential information

>>Encouraging team members to We hope that in most cases you will n) Pollution or harm to the environment report suspected wrongdoing as be able to raise any concerns with soon as possible, in the knowledge the country manager or the CEO of o) Deliberate concealment of any of the above matters that their concerns will be taken Ingleby. They may be able to agree seriously and appropriately investi- upon a way of resolving your concern A whistleblower is a person who raises a genuine concern in good faith relating gated as appropriate, and that their quickly and effectively. to any of the above. confidentiality will be respected. However, where the matter is If you have any genuine concerns related to suspected wrongdoing or danger >Providing team members with > more serious e.g. financial crimes, affecting any of our activities you should report it here: guidance as to how to raise those significant work safety violations, https://inglebyfarms.whistleblowernetwork.net concerns. significant violations of environmen- >>Reassuring team members that tal regulations, and on environmental they should be able to raise pollution, physical violence, sexual

24 INGLEBY GUIDELINES WHISTLEBLOWING POLICY 25 assaults, etc. you can use our secure from a computer which is not on the should be reported to the Country IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED online whistleblowing system. The Ingleby network. Manager or the CEO of Ingleby. system can be found here: We cannot always guarantee the If you upload documents, please outcome you are seeking, but we will https://inglebyfarms.whistleblower- INVESTIGATION AND try to deal with your concern fairly network.net be advised that the documents can contain metadata which can com- OUTCOME and in an appropriate way. By using this policy you can help us to achieve We also have a link to the whistle- promise your identity. Therefore, you Once you have raised a concern, this. blowing system on the Contact us should ensure that any identifying an initial assessment will be carried page of our website. metadata is removed from the docu- out to determine the scope of any If you are not happy with the way ment before it is uploaded. investigation. your concern has been handled, you If you wish to follow the progress of can raise it with one of the other key your case, or be available for further It is optional to make either an If you have created a secure post contacts. details, you can choose to open a anonymous report or a report box, we may ask you a few questions. secure post box. Please remember containing personal data. If you We therefore recommend that you to store the case number and your choose not to remain anonymous, regularly log into the post box to see PROTECTION FOR chosen password. It is important that your identity will only be known to whether you receive any mail. WHISTLEBLOWERS you remember the login information the persons that handle the case and We aim to encourage openness and because, due to anonymity and secu- they will make every effort to keep In some cases we may appoint a will support team members who raise rity in the system, it’s not possible to your identity secret. team of investigators including genuine concerns in good faith under send this information to you. team members with relevant experi- We do not encourage you to make ences or specialist knowledge of the this policy, even if they turn out to be mistaken. If you realise that you have provided disclosures anonymously, as this subject matter. The investigators may incomplete or incorrect information, will make proper investigation more make recommendations to enable Team members will not suffer any just make a new report in the system difficult or impossible. It is also more us to minimise the risk of future detrimental treatment as a result in which you refer to the earlier difficult to establish whether any al- wrongdoing. of raising a concern in good faith. report and describe what should be legations are credible and have been Detrimental treatment includes corrected. made in good faith. Again, if you have created a secure post box, you will be kept informed dismissal, disciplinary action, threats or other unfavourable treatment con- EXTERNAL DISCLOSURE of the progress of the investigation ANONYMITY and its likely timescale. However, nected with raising a concern. Our online whistleblowing system In most cases it should not be neces- sometimes the need for confidential- allows full confidentiality and sary to alert externally. However, ity may prevent us from giving you anonymity. there may be circumstances where it specific details of the investigation. is appropriate for you to report your Any information about the investiga- The system does not log IP addresses concerns to an external body such as tion should be treated as confidential. and machine IDs, and does not use a mediator. We strongly encourage cookies. you to seek advice before reporting a If it is concluded that a whistleblower concern to anyone external. has made false allegations mali- If a report is made from a computer ciously, in bad faith or with a view to on Ingleby’s network, there is a risk Whistleblowing concerns usually personal gain, the whistleblower will that the visited webpages will be relate to the conduct of our team be subject to disciplinary action. logged in the browser’s history and/ members, but they may sometimes or company’s log. This risk can be relate to the actions of a third party, eliminated by making the report such as a customer, supplier, service provider or contractor. Such concerns

26 INGLEBY GUIDELINES WHISTLEBLOWING POLICY 27 reduces faecal contamination and LIVESTOCK FENCES eutrophication. Place livestock concentration points, Establish a buffer strip of at least 10 such as watering or feeding areas, at metres on either side of the water- a distance from fences to decrease course, with permanent grass cover potential impacts. Keep the type of and/or shrubs and bushes adjacent livestock in mind. GUIDELINES FOR FENCING to the watercourse. This increases the stability of the watercourse WILDLIFE-FRIENDLY FENCES considerably and reduces water contamination by excess nutrients While fences that limit access and and pesticides. movement of wildlife may be neces- As stewards of the land, Ingleby has fence be appropriate or is permanent sary to protect crops and livestock, an obligation to use the land with the fencing required? Establish water supply for the they can impede seasonal migration least adverse effects upon the soil, livestock elsewhere. of wildlife, as well as their daily water, and wildlife for our neighbours, FENCE PLACEMENT movements to food, cover, and water ourselves, and generations to come. Is there anything notable about needed for survival. the fencing area? Is it a habitat for FENCE DESIGN The following fencing guidelines are noteworthy flora and/or fauna? A The ideal fence is multifunctional and Wildlife-friendly fences must limit a means of ensuring sustainable, wildlife corridor? Does it encompass conscientious. It performs its primary the dangers of potential encounters environmentally conscious fencing, important water sources or aquatic duties (e.g. livestock containment), with wildlife and provide access to while remaining aware of domestic habitats? Discuss other considera- while limiting impacts on wildlife and important corridors and habitats. livestock, local wildlife, and the sur- tions with local authorities, previous the natural environment. The follow- rounding natural environment. landowners, and/or neighbours ing are a few things to consider when In order from most to least wildlife- before erecting a new fence. designing a fence. friendly fencing: BEFORE CONSTRUCTION >>Wire – all smooth (the fewer the Work with the land’s natural topog- MATERIALS wires, the more wildlife-friendly) While, environmentally speaking, the raphy. Will the fence act to inadvert- When building new fences, use best fence is no fence at all, fences ently trap wildlife? Fences of any >>Wire – top and bottom wires long-lasting, sturdy, and environ- are a necessity, whether for contain- height are more difficult to jump on smooth mentally friendly materials. As such, ing/excluding livestock, protecting steeper slopes. Try to keep gullies avoid using treated lumber whenever >Woven wire crops, or demarcating property. and stream corridors open by fencing > possible, as it increases the chance of When you do need to put up a fence, along streams. >>Barbed wire environmental leakage. consider fence placement, design, and construction that minimise Contact your local authorities about Keeping this in mind, consider using Limit the use of barbed wire and environmental impacts. Always follow any legislation regarding the place- only high-tensile wire to limit harm avoid its use on any fence around local fencing legislation. ment of your fence. to wildlife and damage to the fence, yards and handling facilities to avoid as well as placing wire on the side injuries when handling livestock. Try DETERMINE THE PURPOSE OF THE of fence posts away from crossing WATERCOURSES to avoid using woven wire as it poses FENCE wildlife. a large danger to wildlife, unless used Are you trying to keep livestock in? Where possible, exclude livestock as an exclusion fence. Wildlife out? Protect crops, protect from watercourses, as they can Use smooth wire on the top and water sources, etc.? destroy the grass and riparian bottom of the fences to limit the vegetation along the banks, leaving harm to crossing animals and limit Do you need the fence year-round or them susceptible to erosion. This also the use of woven and barbed wire. just seasonally? Would a temporary

28 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR FENCING 29 EXCLUSION FENCES cause unnecessary pain or distress. When first exposed to electric There are times when it is necessary fencing, livestock, especially cattle, to fence wildlife out. Focus exclusion must have adequate time and space fences on small areas for specific to become accustomed to it. A purposes, such as fencing around movable electric fence is great for gardens, beehives, calving and short-duration grazing or for other lambing areas, or young trees. Keep situations where livestock needs to exclusion fences close to the activ- be temporarily controlled. ity you need protected, and allow wildlife to pass through other parts of the property. GEO-FENCES

A geo-fence is a virtual perim- Avoid fencing a large area that eter that can be used instead of a includes all wildlife habitats and, if traditional fence to contain livestock possible, make the top of the fence within a predetermined area. Geo- clearly visible. fencing uses GPS coordinates and location-aware devices to prevent ELECTRIC FENCES entry to or exit from the geo-fenced area. The key to successfully containing or excluding any animal with electric An alert triggers via an ear tag or fences is the design. Design char- a collar to direct the animal in the acteristics such as number of wires, correct direction should it move wire spacing, post spacing, post outside the set boundary. type, the use of stays, and arrange- ment of hot and ground wires are all Geo-fencing is still a developing tech- important factors to consider when nology so it should only be used for designing and building an electric small scale tests until it proves itself fence to contain one species, but let as a viable alternative to traditional another species easily pass. fencing.

An electric fence is designed more to act as a mental barrier rather than a physical barrier. In general, animals will avoid contact with electric fence wires once they have received a shock. If the animal cannot traverse a fence without receiving a shock, the fence will contain all but the most determined individuals.

Ensure that any electric fences are designed, maintained and used so that contact with them does not

30 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Fence, Uruguay. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING GAME

The Ingleby guidelines on managing and it is solely to ensure sustainable game are based upon appropriate farm and forest management. land management and sustainable hunting practices. Country managers are responsible for the implementation, follow-up and The term game applies to wild animal reporting of all game control. Annual populations that we need to manage reporting is mandatory via the on farm to support sustainability and country production and sustainability biodiversity. reports.

We aim for strong, healthy and naturally balanced game populations in harmony with agriculture and silviculture.

We accept sensible game control of artificially high populations to protect stock and crops.

We manage and control game populations within our areas in accordance with country and local legislation.

Ingleby does not commercialise hunting.

Hunting rights belong only to Ingleby, without compromise (with the exception of farms and forests in Romania, Lithuania and Latvia, where the States control the hunting rights).

When we do hunt, it is with a high level of ethics and professionalism,

32 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Fox cub, Latvia. Photographer: Armandas Naudžius >>Recycle the appropriately labelled >>Insecticides waste >>Adjuvants >>Recover energy from or compost >>Fertilisers waste when applicable In addition to both the use and >>Dispose of waste properly to packaging of these chemicals, other minimise environmental impact waste streams can include washings, GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE unused concentrates, and collateral We do not bury or dump any waste. waste generated on our farms or in our forests into drains or any DISPOSAL OF AGROCHEMICALS waterbodies. Agriculture produces a wide variety Avoid spilling agrochemicals, and CONTENTS of wastes ranging from recyclable avoid point pollution to one given to hazardous. The majority of these GENERAL WASTE area by disposing of waste in distinct wastes are associated with the locations. Never dispose of unused A large proportion of waste generat- diverse scope of agricultural inputs chemicals near wells, watercourses, 35 GENERAL WASTE ed on Ingleby farms can be classified such as agrochemicals, packaging, ponds or other waterbodies. 35 Disposal of general waste as plastics, paper, cardboard, rubber, health and pharmaceutical products, wood, metal and glass. 35 AGROCHEMICALS AND and machinery. The purpose of these Packaging FERTILISERS guidelines is to create a framework Empty bags must be shaken clean of 35 Disposal of agrochemicals We prohibit storing hazardous waste for the proper identification and product debris. 36 HEALTH WASTE AND in locations where unauthorised management of all wastes associated PHARMACEUTICALS people have access. Make sure to 36 Disposal of health waste and with our farms and forests. The best management option to store it securely, and in locations and pharmaceuticals clean empty drums, bottles, cans, or facilities where the risk of leakage 37 MACHINERY WASTE We believe that we have a sig- other liquid containers is to triple- or is minimal. For detailed instructions 37 Disposal of machinery waste nificant degree of responsibility for pressure-rinse them, before they are regarding these products, please the environmental impacts of the recycled. Always punch holes in the 38 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS refer to more specific sectors. 39 Disposal of construction products used on our farms through- containers to prevent reuse after materials out the entire life-cycle. This includes DISPOSAL OF GENERAL WASTE rinsing. 39 ORGANIC WASTE impacts inherent in the selection of Most of these products provide for 39 Disposal of organic waste products to use on our farms, as well Excess products through composting easy management, as they can be as downstream impacts from the use Excess products are unused pesti- 41 CARCASS DISPOSAL reused, recycled, and/or scrapped and disposal of said products. cides or fertilisers that are no longer 41 Trench burial for parts. If a product requires more needed, no longer legal, or have 42 Burning techniques specific handling and disposal, please In order to minimise our environmen- exceeded their expiry dates. To avoid 42 Natural exposure refer to the following. tal impact; we follow a hierarchical the problem of excess product, buy 43 INCINERATION approach to waste management: 44 Recommendations only what you can use in one season. >>Avoid waste whenever possible AGROCHEMICALS AND The best way to dispose of excess FERTILISERS products is to check with the supplier >>Reduce the amount of waste or manufacturer to determine if they These include: produced will take it back. >>Reuse waste that can be used >>Pesticides You may be able to dispose of again >>Herbicides small quantities of excess products >>Fungicides

34 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 35 during hazardous waste collection to a site for which the contaminant PHARMACEUTICALS used sharps for new, sterile ones. If programmes. Check with your local pesticide is approved. General health waste none of these options are available, solid-waste management agency contact your local waste manage- The first step in proper health waste to determine if they sponsor such a Mildly contaminated soil ment authority for the appropriate disposal is to separate and deal with collection programme. If you cannot You can also collect and apply soil disposal guidelines. the non-drug, non-chemical, and use it or dispose of it through a contaminated in a spill to a site for non-sharps waste. local hazardous waste collection which that pesticide is approved. Pharmaceutical and drug waste programme, you must arrange for a Take steps to minimise wasting these Highly contaminated soil Recycle or reuse waste paper, cloth, licensed hazardous waste contractor products by careful measurements Classify soil that has been contami- packing materials, clothes, gauze and to dispose of it. and calibrations. Whenever practical, nated over a long period by pesticide wooden items, such as pallets. investigate the option of return- Excess mixture discharges as hazardous waste. You can recycle, reuse plastic, ing unused or expired drugs to the Excess mixture is a diluted pesticide Clothing metal and glass items, and/it can manufacturer for safe disposal. or fertiliser that is left over in your If clothes have been contaminated by be scrapped for reusable parts. spray tank after application. Avoid pesticides, dispose of it as hazardous Depending on the type of mate- Pharmaceuticals must not be the problem of excess mixture by waste. Do not take these home to rial and its proposed reuse, you destroyed by burning in open con- measuring and calibrating carefully. be normally washed as the pesticide may need to carry out appropriate tainers, as toxic pollutants may be re- If you do not, the way to dispose of may contaminate household waste treatment, such as cleaning or leased into the air. If unable to return excess mixture is to further dilute water. disinfection. these products to the manufacturer, it and apply it to the site where the contact the local waste management pesticide was previously applied. It A lot of health waste is unable to be authorities to obtain proper disposal cannot be stored. HEALTH WASTE AND reused or recycled, such as soiled guidelines. PHARMACEUTICALS dressings, swabs, and disposable Collateral waste A variety of waste arises from the use gloves. Separate these materials Rinse water MACHINERY WASTE of animal health products, including: from general waste, as many may After rinsing containers, you can be contaminated and/or hazardous. A variety of waste related to machin- apply the rinse water to a previous >>Syringes, needles, and other sharp Contact your local waste manage- ery arises on farms. The main wastes application site of the pesticide or objects ment authority regarding proper are: fertiliser or use it to dilute the next >>Disposable gloves disposal. batch of formulation. Improperly >>Lubricating and hydraulic oils >>Dressings and swabs disposed rinse water has potential Sharps waste >>Other fuels for ground- and surface water >>Plastic tubes used for administer- Sharps can be disposed of in several >>Antifreeze contamination. ing various treatments different ways: drop box, mail-back, >>Tires >>Discarded and damaged guns for or syringe exchange programmes. >>Batteries Spills and leaks administering products such as Use materials such as cat litter, soil, >>Scrap machinery and parts worm treatments For drop box programmes, take the sawdust, or other absorbent material >>Aerosols sharps waste to a supervised collec- to absorb liquid pesticides and water/ DISPOSAL OF MACHINERY WASTE tion site. detergent mixtures used to clean >>Unused pharmaceuticals Used oil pesticide stained surfaces. >>Vaccines Mail-back programmes require sharps Examples of used oil include engine >>Antibiotics, including penicillin users to mail an appropriate contain- oil, liquid and semi-solid gear, chain- Collect and place these materials in >Other medicines er full of used sharps to a collection and ball-bearing lubricants, and used a suitable container, such as a plastic > site for proper disposal. hydraulic fluids from brakes, trans- or metal bucket, and then apply it >>Mineral supplements Syringe exchange programmes allow mission, and power steering. DISPOSAL OF HEALTH WASTE AND users of sharps to safely exchange

36 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 37 Drain used oil from machinery into a how used tires can be reused or Besides normal, reusable and recy- For asbestos-containing products, clear container. recycled. clable materials, building waste can do not attempt to handle them include materials, like: yourself, as there is a large associated Do not combine antifreeze, waste Antifreeze health risk. Contact waste manage- >>Plastics containing PVC gasoline, diesel, and other fuel, as Build-up within a cooling system ment authorities for proper removal they are not classified as used oil. can cause severe damage to the >>Treated lumber instructions. machinery itself, so it is important to >>Synthetic foam Ensure that used oil is not in contact maintain proper system maintenance, >>Products containing Asbestos ORGANIC WASTE with the environment. This means such as changing antifreeze. >>Glue that it cannot be used for purposes This includes materials such as: such as weed control. Use only propylene glycol antifreeze, >>Caulking >>Crop residues as it is less toxic than ethylene glycol >>Paint You can either dispose the used oil antifreeze. >>Manure by taking it to an authorised collec- DISPOSAL OF CONSTRUCTION >>Food waste tion centre or by having the used oil MATERIALS Collect used antifreeze in a clearly >>Paper waste taken away by an authorised com- labelled container and set it aside for Construction and demolition waste >>Biodegradable plastics mercial hauler. recycling. Contact your local waste can trigger unforeseeable adverse management authority to find out effects on the environment, such as DISPOSAL OF ORGANIC WASTE Gasoline and diesel loss of useful property, wasted mate- how used antifreeze can be recycled. THROUGH COMPOSTING Gasoline and diesel are highly hazard- rials, greenhouse gas generation, and When disposing of organic waste, ous to the environment. Never dump Batteries other environmental stressors. composting is often the best pos- them into a drain, waterbody, or into Use fewer batteries by recharging sibility. You can make compost by the ground. Put excess or used fuel in them whenever possible, and save Before any construction or combining organic wastes in proper a separate, clearly labelled container used batteries in a clearly marked demolition takes place, consider the ratios, adding bulking agents (e.g. and use the fuel in the appropriate container to be recycled. Pay close following: wood chips) to accelerate the vehicles or machines. attention to the specific type of >>What actions can we take to breakdown of organic materials, and battery, as both nickel-cadmium and reduce waste generation? allowing the decomposed material to Contact your local waste manage- lead-acid batteries are highly hazard- fully stabilise and mature through a ment authority to inquire about fuel ous to the environment. Contact your >>What specific waste materials can curing process. recycling and/or disposal pro- local waste management authority to we salvage and recycle? grammes. If such programmes do not find out how used batteries can be >>What recycling or reuse facilities Mature compost is a stable material exist, dispose of fuel as hazardous re-used or recycled. can we use? with large humus content. Along with waste. the uses of regular compost, mature Scrap machinery and parts >>What materials cannot be recycled compost includes the production of Tires or reused? Scrap old or broken-down machinery high temperatures to destroy patho- Scrap tires present a large problem in for parts that are still usable. >>How can we protect materials gens and weed seeds that natural terms of waste management as they to be recycled or salvaged from decomposition does not destroy. are designed to last in very harsh If you cannot use them, sell or donate contamination? conditions. the machinery or parts to a scrap- On-farm waste disposal and com- yard to ensure that they are reused The best practice for non-recyclable posting should be at a safe distance Never burn or bury scrap tires. and not improperly discarded. waste is to contact your local waste from living areas and/or waterways. Instead, put old tires aside for reuse management authority for proper or recycling. Contact your local waste disposal instructions. management authority to find out CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

38 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 39 Composting materials Though carcasses can be composted, Creating compost For many purposes, the finished Having the right amount of greens, this process is highly labour intensive. Ensure that the bottom of the compost is easier to use if it is first browns, and water is important for Instructions on carcass disposal can compost bin is bed of brown mate- screened through a 2.5 cm wire mesh compost development. The brown be found below. Pet wastes can also rial, such as straw or hay. Add brown to eliminate coarse or incompletely materials provide carbon for your cause odour problems and might and green materials to the pile as you decomposed materials. Add the compost and the green materials contain parasites, bacteria, patho- collect them, making sure to chop or remaining material to the next pile. provide nitrogen, while the water gens, and/or viruses that are harmful shred larger pieces for higher rates to humans. provides moisture to help breakdown of decomposition. Continue this CARCASS DISPOSAL the organic matter. until the pile reaches 90 - 120 cm in Also exclude diseased or insect- height. No matter the cause, livestock death Ideally, your compost pile must have ridden plants and yard trimmings poses daunting carcass disposal an equal amount of browns to greens that have been treated with chemical Once the compost construction is issues. Effective methods are essen- and alternate layers of organic mate- pesticides from the compost, due to filled, mix and thoroughly moisten the tial, especially in the case of efforts to rials of different-sized particles. the potential persistence of harmful material to make the pile heterogene- eradicate diseases. substances. ous and allow for optimum moisture Things to include: content (do not soak). Top off the Strategies for carcass disposal, Compost structures pile with a lid or alternatively brown especially large-scale disposal, >>Greens Designate a composting area in a dry, material to provide appropriate insu- require preparation well in advance • Animal manure (excluding pet shady place, preferably with a water lation. Throughout the composting of an emergency to maximise the waste) source nearby. period, maintain about 60% moisture efficiency of the measures. If pos- • Green crop residue content. sible, contact your local waste Compost structures can be as simple management specialist to inquire • Fruit and vegetable waste, as a heap, where all of the ingredients about recommendations and possible including nut shells The frequency of turning depends are piled and nature takes its course. on the rate of decomposition, the disposal options. Keep your local • Fresh leaves, grass clippings, and This type of passive composting is moisture content and the porosity of regulations in mind. other yard trimmings less efficient and slower than active the materials. Because the decompo- • Coffee grounds, filters, and tea composting, in which you manage sition rate is greatest at the start of Please note, these guidelines for bags the compost process on a daily basis. the process, the frequency of turning carcass disposal are not compliant >>Browns decreases as the compost stack ages. with current EU legislation. We must You can construct compost bins out always comply with national regula- • Dead leaves and crop residue of chicken wire, wood or concrete Worms can reduce composting times tions. In Romania, please contact the • Hay and straw blocks. They can be simple, one- by as much as 50%. Earthworms or relevant local authority to arrange • Wood/coal/charcoal ash (only if compartment structures in which you special composting worms can be waste collection. they are additive-free) add new materials to the top, turn the added. • Sawdust and wood chips compost frequently, and collect the TRENCH BURIAL finished compost from the bottom. • Cardboard Continue the turning practice until This is the most preferable of the They can also be multi-compartment the pile does not reheat much options detailed in these guidelines. • Clean and shredded paper (three-bin) structures, where you after agitation. When the material Disposal by trench burial involves add new material to one bin, transfer is dark, rich in colour, and has an excavating a trough into the earth, Things to exclude and why partially-completed compost to earthy smell, the compost is ready. placing carcasses in the trench, and There are an abundance of items the middle bin, and move finished Depending on the climate, this should burying them with the excavated that, if composted, can create odour compost to the final bin. In addition, take one to four months, but let the material (backfill). problems and attract pests such many varieties of compost bins are pile sit for two weeks before using. as rodents and flies. These include available commercially. You can do this with relatively meats, fats, grease, lard, oils, dairy little expertise, and the required products, and animal carcasses.

40 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 41 equipment is commonly used for cubic metres, with 1 adult bovine As a disposal option, natural Incineration is applicable to a wide other purposes. The primary resourc- considered equivalent to five adult exposure is considered the ecologi- range of waste products associated es include excavation equipment and sheep. cally best method, but it can only be with farming, such as pesticides, a source of cover material. Cover recommended in sparsely populated medical waste, animal carcasses, material is often obtained from the Carcasses should only be piled 2 areas where huge tracts of land are and other forms of liquid, semi-solid, excavation process itself and reused metres deep so that 2 metres of soil available. and solid waste. Some incinerators as backfill. are buried back on top. If multiple produce wastewater. Though private trenches are required, place these If natural exposure is used as a wastewater treatment is expensive The amount of time required for more than 10 metres apart. method of disposal, make sure that and requires much more effort, buried animal carcasses to decom- all farm dogs in the vicinity undergo a explore this option in countries where pose depends most importantly on BURNING TECHNIQUES rigorous parasite control programme. municipal wastewater options are not temperature, moisture, and burial Only consider burning techniques as reliable. depth, but also on soil type and when other environmental factors This is due to outbreaks of cyst- drainage, species and size of carcass, (e.g. a high water table, soils of high icercosis caused by dogs or other Place the material in the incinerator humidity/aridity, rainfall, and other permeability, weather, etc.) rule out canines consuming a carcass contain- where it is heated. As the chemicals factors. burial. ing the larvae from a tapeworm. heat up, they change into gases, Water or feed for cattle becomes which pass through a flame to be Important characteristics in determin- Open-air burning includes burning contaminated with larvae present in heated further. The gases become ing the suitability of a site for burial carcasses in open fields and on canine faeces. Cattle ingest the larvae so hot they break down into smaller include: combustible heaps called pyres. and the larvae invade the skeletal components that combine with >>Soil type: clay soils are most suita- muscles and lead to condemnation oxygen to form less harmful gases ble for burial trenches. Try to avoid, Since animal carcasses consist of 70% of the carcass. Completion of the life- and steam. The gases produced in if possible, sandy or rocky soils to water, burning requires auxiliary fuel cycle of the tapeworm requires that the incinerator pass through air pollu- avoid leaching. There should be such as wood and straw to achieve canines consume a carcass contain- tion control equipment to remove any at least 2 metres separating the the combustion temperatures neces- ing the larvae. remaining metals, acids, and particles bottom of the trench from the sary for their complete destruction. of ash. water table. Only use diesel fuel as an accelerant INCINERATION under extraordinary circumstances. Acid gas scrubbers are often used to >>Proximity to waterbodies, wells, Incineration, as a waste disposal remove dangerous acids and heavy residential buildings and public If possible, place burn sites on method, is the process of burning metals. Wastewater from scrubbers areas: maintain a distance of at impermeable soil, such as clay, to waste products to destroy harmful must subsequently pass through least 250 metres. minimise hydrocarbon leakage into chemicals and to render hazardous a wastewater treatment plant. The >>Pipes, buried cables and roads: The the groundwater. Ensure that the waste inert. Incinerators reduce the other cleaner gases, like steam and site should be free of underground site is more than 3 km away from the solid mass of waste by 80 - 85% carbon dioxide, are released outside services and should not interfere public. To promote clean combus- and can reduce the sheer volume by through a stack. Dispose of the ash in with access to roads. tion, dig a shallow pit with shallow over 95%, making waste much more the incinerator separately. >>The subsequent intended use of trenches to provide a good supply of manageable. the site air for open-air burning. Although able to destroy chemicals Though incineration must only be such as PCBs, solvents, and pesti- Make sure to note down the loca- NATURAL EXPOSURE employed as a last resort, it can have cides, incineration cannot destroy tion of the trenches for any future Natural exposure involves taking many benefits, such as considerably heavy metals. changes in the use of those areas. dead stock to an isolated part of the minimising the mass and volume of farm to be consumed by scavengers. toxic waste. In terms of the waste hierarchy, The appropriate land area required No advance preparation is required incineration is in the category for disposal of mature cattle is 3 and work/skill involved is minimal. “recover”, as the heat produced

42 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING WASTE 43 during the combustion of waste can be recovered and converted into energy that can be used on farms. While heat generated by incineration can be used as a renewable resource to generate electric power, there are several environmental and health concerns regarding flue gas and ash.

RECOMMENDATIONS Incineration can have many benefits such as minimising the mass and volume of toxic waste, however, it should only be employed as a last resort. Always use incinerators that follow the highest environmental standards. The European Union (EU) has very strict standards for incineration, and we must strive to maintain these standards even in countries outside the EU.

The main drawback for incineration is that the highly toxic ash still needs to be disposed of in an appropriate manner. There is no foreseeable option for this problem that does not involve environmental leakage. However, if possible, contact a certified hazardous waste management company to have these materials removed. If this is not possible, investigate other solutions such as using the ash in concrete, road materials or the like.

44 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Pagiriai Farm, Lithuania. Photographer: Andrea Sanz MATERIALS Large or significant waterbodies on-farm are monitored separately The following materials are necessary from the line transects. If it is too for carrying out bird monitoring: time-consuming to survey all water- >>Field Recording Sheets bodies, instead include a representative sample. >>Pencils GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING BIRDS >>Binoculars (8 - 10x power) DESIGN OF THE LINE TRANSECTS The survey route ideally consists of >>Map of the farm two parallel lines each 1 km long. >>GPS with transect waypoints Transects should be roughly 500 metres apart and never closer than Birds are excellent indicators of biodi- >A field guide for bird identification > 200 metres. versity. Changes in bird populations CONTENTS >>Optional – a sound recording also provide a useful indication of min 200 M broader environmental change. device and reference material of aim at 500 M bird calls. 47 MATERIALS A network of monitoring sites 5 6 47 METHOD on-farm captures species richness These materials are available from 47 Habitat selection of the general area. Therefore, we the local farm office and the Ingleby 47 Design of the line transects monitor birds as a broad measure of Production & Sustainability team. 4 7 48 Number of transects 48 Use the same locations and on-farm biodiversity and environmen- transects tal change. METHOD 3 8

49 Randomisation 1 KM 49 Walking speed We want to track how the bird To ensure the reliability of data and 49 Time of year communities on our farms and in our validity of long-term trends, bird 2 9 49 Time of day monitoring must be conducted in the 49 Weather forests change over time through yearly observations. We want to same way every year. 49 COUNT METHOD FOR 1 200 M 10 WATERBODIES know which species are present, their numbers, and if they are breeding HABITAT SELECTION 50 CODES on-farm and in our forests. Our farms and forests are too large 25 M 100 M 50 Species 50 Landscape element, to be sampled in their entirety. Note: The line transect is split in two sections management and disturbance Ornithologists with knowledge Therefore, it is necessary to place of 1 km separated by a 200 - 500 m walk. Each codes transect is divided into sections of 200 m to ease of local species monitor the birds transects across a representative the recording and to have a more exact habitat 50 PRESENTATION OF DATA on our land. We encourage local sample of habitats and important recording. 51 APPENDIX: LANDSCAPE farm employees to get involved to bird areas. CODES foster environmental awareness and Each transect must be divided into involvement in local ecosystems. Conduct a rough preliminary field survey of the habitats on the site, five equal sections of 200 m, making placing transects across a repre- a total of ten (numbered 1 – 10). The sentative sample of habitats on-farm. beginning and end of each transect You should aim to cover important must be recorded with GPS. When habitats (for example waterbodies walking the transect, record birds and forests), even if they are only a within 0 - 25 m, 25 - 100 m and > 100 minor part of the total farm / forest m on either side of the transect line. area.

46 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING BIRDS 47 This is ideal in open country with Do not record birds that are behind transects with some on the new farm Write a brief description of the freedom to walk anywhere. In you as you start a transect, or beyond or forest area. habitat in the transect routes. practice, access is usually more the end of the transect as you finish. constrained. In this case, you should RANDOMISATION Consistency is important, so make try to find two transects each of 1 km Do not record the same bird twice, Random sampling ensures that every your visits at around the same date long, accepting that they will often e.g. a bird heard singing from several location has equal chance of being an each year. This will make it pos- not be perfectly straight. transect sections must be recorded included in the monitoring, removing sible to compare data over time and once, where it was first detected. bias. Random sampling is a good changes in bird population size and The same transect must be walked If a bird is at the boundary of two tool when deciding which habitats to diversity. each time the survey is repeated. For transect sections, record it in one or survey. This is useful on farms with this, you need a map and GPS unit. the other, but not both. large uniform areas that are easily TIME OF DAY accessible, such as the grasslands in The three survey visits must be done The distance from the transect to There is no need to record the activ- Uruguay. when bird activity is at its highest. the observed bird is an imaginary ity or gender of the birds. However, This is either in the morning or the perpendicular line. NOT from the for the particularly rare species, it In areas with a more varied land- late afternoon depending on farm observer to the bird. For example, if might be interesting information. scape, such as Romania, it is im- location. a bird ( ) is spotted 150 m in front practical to walk across randomly of the observer ( ) but only 50 m Note the start and finish times of selected locations. In this case, it is In the morning, you should conduct at a perpendicular angle from the each transect, and remember to best to find transects that best fit the the walks from sunrise for approxi- transect, the observer will write 50 make a note of the date. representative sample criteria. mately 5 - 6 hours. m instead of 150 m. This way, the observation indicates the location of NUMBER OF TRANSECTS WALKING SPEED In the afternoon, you should conduct the bird related to the transect, and The number of transects will depend Walk along transects at a slow, me- the walks approximately 4 - 5 hours not to the observer. of the number of habitat types thodical pace. You can pause to scan ahead of sunset. on-farm and how much time is avail- for birds, but you must not stop for able. A transect route takes about 2 long periods. As a rough guide, each WEATHER x 45 minutes to walk, and it can take 1 km transect should take around 45 Avoid surveying birds in rain, poor some time to get from one transect minutes. visibility or strong winds. to another. TIME OF YEAR When monitoring, note down the USE THE SAME LOCATIONS AND Birds are best monitored in the cloud cover on the Field Recording TRANSECTS breeding season, which is usually Sheet (0 - 33%, 33 - 66% or 66 The transect locations chosen for April to June in the Northern - 100%). the first year’s monitoring must be Hemisphere and around September the same for the surveys in following to December in the Southern COUNT METHOD FOR years. Please record the GPS coordi- Hemisphere. Conduct three visits WATERBODIES nates of the start and finish points for between the early spring and early each transect. summer; each must be at least three Important or significant waterbodies weeks apart. (ponds, reservoirs, streams etc.) must If more land is added to the farm be counted separately from the rest or forest over time, the existing Prior to the three survey visits, it of the farm area. They are often pre- survey sites may no longer be may be necessary to visit the various ferred habitats for birds and unusual/ representative. In this case, you can habitats to identify appropriate significant species. either include more transects, or survey routes. you can replace some of the existing

48 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING BIRDS 49 If it is too time-consuming to PRESENTATION OF DATA APPENDIX: LANDSCAPE CODES visit all the waterbodies on-farm, LANDSCAPE ELEMENT CODES choose a representative sample of To make best use of your recorded waterbodies. data, present and interpret it in a Category Sub-category Definition Code report. Include information on the Arable Orchard Perennial crops or trees (Pistachios, blueberries etc.) AR OR Walk around the waterbody counting number of species monitored, the Cropland Row crops, cover crops & other crops (Wheat, corn, grass seed etc.) AR CR all birds seen. Include all water birds areas with the highest density of Terrace Land benched for erosion control AR TR in the water, on the shore and flying species etc. Geological Dune/desert Natural sand hill or bare soil with little to no vegetation. GF DU formations Large area of exposed bedrock, prominent out-crop and cliff, bluff, above. Rock GF RO For birds of special interest, include escarpment etc. Quarry/mine Artificially modified area for mineral extraction GF QU Count only birds present at the start prioritised suggestions in the report Cave Openings of caves, tomos and under runners GF CA of the count. Do not count new birds on how to manage the habitats of Lava fossil Geological feature created by volcanic activity GF LF arriving. If a species was present but these species. Gully Area of high erosion with exposed subsoil and/or bedrock GF GU not counted you should write NC (No Grassland Pasture Improved permanent grassland seeded, fertilised and/or irrigated GR PA Count). Be careful not to count birds Please also provide the Ingleby Meadow Natural/semi-natural grassland unseeded, unfertilised, unimproved GR ME more than once. Denmark office with the raw data presented in an excel sheet. Water- Waterbody Natural or artificial waterbody: lake, pond etc. WA BO bodies and River Permanent or semi-permanent waterway: stream, creek etc. WA RI freshwater Artificial/modified waterway or drainage ditch that is periodically or CODES If you need a field recording sheet Channel WA CA template for bird monitoring, please permanently full SPECIES Wetland Permanent or seasonally waterlogged area can be riparian WA WE contact the Ingleby Denmark Before going out in the field, you Spring Natural spring, seasonal or permanent WE SP Production & Sustainability team. should enter the most common birds Woodland Timber Production forest or plantations WO TI into the recording sheet. Birds of Wildwoods Natural woodlands, non-production WO WI the same order and family should be Wood pasture Mix of trees and grass WO PA listed together. Shrub-land Grass, bushes, shrubs, perhaps a few trees WO SH Solitary tree/s A singletree or group of trees WO ST Species codes (called “alpha codes”) A single row or multiple rows of trees planted for shelter, also Shelterbelt WO SB are often used when monitoring birds includes avenues of trees by road edges as they speed up the note taking. MANAGEMENT CODES DISTURBANCE CODES

You can search the internet for alpha Description Code Disturbance level Code codes + country to find a set of codes Grazed/cut for hay + GR High-medium disturbance from people + H more suited for your area. Ploughed + PL Low disturbance from people + L Irrigated + IR Undisturbed + U LANDSCAPE ELEMENT, Burned + BU Industrial activity (only near waterbodies) + I MANAGEMENT AND DISTURBANCE CODES Banks cleared (waterbodies) + BC Near road (within 50 m) or active railway + N Banks vegetated (waterbodies) + BV Near buildings (within 50 m) + B When conducting the transect walks, Ponds (<50 m2 - waterbodies) + PO please note the dominant landscape Small waterbody (50 - 500 m2) + SM element, disturbance and manage- Lake (>500 m2 - waterbodies) + LA ment codes for each of the ten Isolated group of trees + IS transect sections. Choose the most dominant category from the lists in Dead wood present + DW the Appendix. Predominantly pine (Timber) + PI Predominantly hardwood (Timber) + HA Mixed stands (Timber) + MI Clear-cut (Timber) + CL

50 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING BIRDS 51 To eliminate or minimise the effect >>Buffer zones must be non-cultivat- that farming has on waterbodies and ed, non-fertilised and unsprayed. improve their overall health there are This will diminish nutrient leaching several key actions that farm teams and pesticide run-off into the can undertake. water.

>If stock are present. Fence the GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & RIPARIAN ZONES > waterbody to prevent them from Riparian zones are an excellent way WETLANDS gaining access. of protecting all waterbodies and enhancing the local ecosystem. At >>Plant in locally sourced, native Ingleby, we have a goal of 10 m buffer meadow species, trees or shrubs. zones along all major streams, rivers >>If sown with grass species. Mow CARING FOR PONDS, RIVERS and lakes. late in the season in an alternating CONTENTS AND WETLANDS pattern every year. Rivers, streams, ponds and wetlands Trees, grasses and scrub act as filters, are highly important features of trapping dissolved nutrient and STOCK ACCESS AND GRAZING 52 CARING FOR PONDS, RIVERS sediment in runoff from intensively farmland and within Ingleby. Within Wetlands, ponds and streams often AND WETLANDS farmed land, protecting waterbodies Ingleby, we aim to have 1% of our land provide water for stock, while 53 Riparian zones from excessive inputs. They also form 53 Stock access and grazing area in waterbodies. We aspire to surrounding vegetation can be physical barriers along water borders, 54 Cropping maintain and improve the conditions important for shade. Some farms which reduce pesticide spray drift. 54 Pesticides and other chemicals of all water channels flowing across have stock crossing points through 54 Deadwood our land. waterways. Riparian planting shades waterbod- 55 CREATING PONDS AND WETLANDS ies, reducing extremes of tempera- Waterbody ecosystems are fragile, Key issues: 55 Reporting on pond as they readily drain various compo- tures and light intensity, which can establishment nents from the surrounding land out be harmful to aquatic organisms. >>When cattle and sheep drink 56 SITE SELECTION to sea, including pollutants, chemicals Shade also adds heterogeneity to the from streams or ponds, they can 56 Ponds on the farm and affluent from farms. stream habitat. damage banks, cause pugging and 57 WATER compaction, stir up sediments and 57 Will the pond hold water? Poor farm management can Riparian planting also helps to stabi- destroy riparian and aquatic plants. 58 DESIGN negatively affect streams, ponds and lise riverbanks and thus reduce bank These reduce water quality. 58 Size of the pond wetlands. This includes: erosion and build-up of silt, which >>Stock defecate while standing in 58 Depths smothers aquatic habitats. 60 Pond complexes >>Clearing or burning vegetation, streams. The phosphorous from 60 Islands manure stimulates algae blooms >>Stock access to waterways and Finally, riparian plantings provide that choke waterbodies and can be 61 CONSTRUCTION margins, waterbodies with plant litter and toxic. 62 MANAGING PONDS AND >>Nutrient and pesticide contamina- woody debris, which is important WETLANDS tion from stock effluent or agro- for a diverse stream invertebrate >>Riparian zones are degraded from chemical use in close proximity to community. stock selectively or overgrazing waterways, the vegetation in and along water Recommendations for good >>Uncontrolled and extensive erosion, banks. management >>Uncontrolled weed infestation, >>Diverting water flow into dams, and >>Create 10-metre buffer strips along all major streams, rivers and ponds. >>Excessive groundwater extraction.

52 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 53 Recommendations for good Mow in autumn once ground Fallen and dead trees provide cover >>Create pond complexes or multiple management nesting birds have left to maintain and habitats for a variety of insects, pools to form wetlands rather than species composition. reptiles, birds and small mammals establish a single waterbody. >>Install water troughs and alterna- and play a vital role in creating >>Develop integrated pest manage- >>Within complexes, include both tive water sources, and locate diverse ecological niches within ment plans to reduce chemical use permanent and seasonal ponds. these as far as possible from streams and rivers. The surfaces of near waterways. The whole pond need not hold waterbodies. submerged trees serve as substrate water all year round: seasonal >>Reduce erosion by using no-till or for algae and bacteria. These, in turn, >>Place stock and vehicle access ponds are also important wildlife pasture and continuous crop cover provide food and shelter for insects points on higher areas. habitats. to minimise soil disturbance. and other invertebrates. Fallen logs >Construct fences to prevent stock > can provide cover for fish as well as >>Design according to your land- access to waterbodies. PESTICIDES AND OTHER creating pools and gravel deposits scape. Dig larger ponds of at least CHEMICALS >>Provide sources of shade that are for spawning. 20 m in diameter to avoid com- away from the water edges. Use extreme care when handling plete over-shading by trees. agrochemicals, as fertiliser and Debris dams gather leaf litter, provid- >>Make sure that almost all pond >>Where stock cannot be prevented pesticides cause severe damage to ing food for fish and invertebrates. slopes are shallow to enlarge the from accessing the water (for waterbodies. By slowing the velocity of a stream, drawdown zone. example crossings), reduce the dead wood also helps to reduce soil potential damage by ensuring that Recommendations for good erosion and regulate flooding. >>Aim for establishing ponds that access points have no shade and management look natural with an uneven shape are armoured with gravel or rock. instead of perfectly squared or >>Mix chemicals in designated con- CREATING PONDS AND circular ones. >>Control the stocking rates and crete areas to contain any spilled WETLANDS rotation to allow riparian areas to chemical, and well away from water >>Create underwater bars and shoals Ponds and wetlands support healthy recover. sources. to benefit aquatic plants. ecosystems and provide many CROPPING >>Securely store potential contami- benefits for our farms, including: >>Let the pond be naturally colonised Cropping on floodplains is common nants and chemicals away from by vegetation and wildlife. Do not >>Reducing and minimising water in agriculture, but we need to mini- waterways. put carps or other non-native fish problems during severe weather mise the effects on streams, ponds in the ponds. >>Never spray any closer than 10-20 events by capturing and slowing and wetlands. metres from natural waterbodies, storm water. >>Place stones on the shore for frogs 2-metres from drainage ditches, and other amphibians to take >Storing water and slowly releasing Recommendations for good and 60 metres from wells. Please > shelter in during winter. management check individual pesticide labels for it during droughts. REPORTING ON POND >>Leave a 10-metre uncultivated restrictions near water habitats. >>Helping to filter and clean rainfall ESTABLISHMENT and runoff water, and increase buffer between cultivated land and >>Maintain shelterbelts, riparian strips Once a pond is established, please natural waterbodies and a 2-metre and uncultivated buffers in areas ground water aquifer recharge. uncultivated buffer between drain- provide the Ingleby Denmark office regularly sprayed. >>Supporting a diverse range of age ditches and productive land. with the approximate surface size plants and animals. (m2), location, as well as photos DEADWOOD >>Uncultivated buffers filter contami- of the pond. The location may be Avoid removing fallen or dead trees nants before they reach waterbod- It is simple to construct a new pond reported using ArcGIS compatible from natural waterbodies unless ies and helps prevent weakening but there are some important princi- files (shape files), Google Earth files necessary. Consider partially remov- and erosion of the margin. ples to consider: (kmz files) or GPS coordinates. ing dead wood in streams if flooding >>Sown uncultivated buffers in a is an issue. meadow species/cover crop mix.

54 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 55 >>Create a non-cultivated buffer nitrate and phosphate, heavy metals Narrow drawdown zone zone of 10 metres to avoid nutrient like copper and zinc, suspended silt, leaching. and agrochemical residues.

>>Create an unsprayed buffer zone of Ponds are recharged in three ways: û 10 - 20 metres to avoid pesticides running off into the ponds. 1. Groundwater Spring high water level Autumn high water level 2. Surface water Ensure, where possible, that the pond has semi-natural surroundings; grass- 3. River/stream Rapid drop to land field edges, small woodlands or near top of Wide drawdown zone drawdown scrub. Of these three ways, groundwater is zone often the best way to ensure clean When you construct a pond, nutrients water. ü are released from the soil, which can Spring high water level cause a heavy algae growth during Surface water is a good option, as Autumn high water level the first 2 - 3 years. If the algae long as the area around the pond growth continues to be heavy, the is not polluted or is surrounded by water that goes into the pond might intensive agriculture.

Figure 1: An example of the difference between a narrow and wide drawdown zone contain too many nutrients. Stream-fed ponds can bring in pollu- On most farmland, it is possible to tion in intensively farmed areas. It is find a poorly drained or awkwardly better to have a seasonal pond that SITE SELECTION gas, oil, water, telephone lines or shaped area, where you can help sewage crosses the site. dries up than a polluted pond. Find a site preferably near other increase biodiversity and beautify the land by adding a pond. WILL THE POND HOLD WATER? wetlands to improve connectivity or When possible, choose sites that are to strengthen populations of uncom- located away from residential areas, Ponds do not have to hold water all Ideally, ponds must be located where mon species. Do not choose existing as waterbodies can become suitable year round: seasonal ponds are an they do not ‘get in the way’, also in wetland habitats as these are already habitats for mosquitoes. important for biodiversity. In general, valuable to wildlife. Do not establish the future management of the land. water quality is more important than For example, although it is great a pond where it might damage an Before establishing a pond, you must quantity. However, water must persist to locate ponds in the middle of a existing important habitat or species. consult the local planning author- into spring. field, you must consider whether Also, avoid sites that consist of peat ity to determine whether the pond this would be appropriate in loca- or where there is archaeological needs planning permission or if there So how do you get water in the tions where machinery is needed to heritage. are likely to be other concerns. pond? If you know that groundwater manoeuvre round it. lies near to the soil surface, simply You should be aware of dried up PONDS ON THE FARM dig a hole. If not, a series of steps will ponds. If the pond holds water in Ponds can be great additions to a WATER tell you what kind of pond is right for winter and spring, it is a seasonal farm, as long as they are filled from your site. pond. Many seasonal ponds have rare Water quality is important for the lon- clean water sources. plants and animals, so it is best to gevity of the new pond. If the pond In summary: leave them alone. has poor water quality it will have a It is important to make sure that 1. Identify the local geology. Are negative impact on biodiversity. polluted water running off arable land you in a clay area where ponds Be careful to check if underground or intensive grassland fields does not are likely to fill with surface cables and pipes, carrying electricity, Good water quality means that the drain into the pond. To avoid this: water? Or in sand/gravels, which pond has low levels of nutrients like may have an aquifer?

56 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 57 2. Look at the water levels in on management and can persist for nearby ponds, springs, ditches several decades – even centuries. or streams. How do water levels vary between these waterbodies SIZE OF THE POND and during the year? The main consideration, which will 1:3 (18°) Steep banks 3. Dig test holes across your site. determine whether it is worth creat- û Check first to ensure that service ing many small pools on a site, is the pipes, cables etc. do not run site’s subsequent management. Small 1:5 (12°) across the site. shallow pools usually fill in quickly, if not grazed by wildlife. If grazed, even 4. Ideally, dig test holes to at least the smallest shallow pools can be 0.5 m deeper than the maximum very long-lived. depth you expect for the final Extensive shallows pond. When digging the test 1:10 (5°) Another consideration is wildlife. holes, note the depths at which ü A rough estimate is that to double the geology changes, or at which the number of species, you need you meet water. 1:20 (3°) to increase the area by tenfold. So a) If you dig into waterlogged doubling the size of a pond can sand, gravel or peat (some- double the cost of excavation, but Figure 2: Overview of how shallow the bank of the pond should be to attract wildlife times clay), a groundwater makes little difference to the number pond will usually be possible. of species. b) If you dig into sediments with In wooded landscapes, it is important a very high proportion of clay that ponds do not get completely (and little sand, rock or gravel) over-shaded. surface water ponds will often be possible. DEPTHS c) Leave the test holes open and The ever-changing drawdown zone is monitor water level fluctua- one of the most important areas of a tions for as long as possible, pond due to species diversity found ideally through both wet and in shallow water. dry seasons. This will help provide an idea of water level Typically, pond water levels drop variation in the final pond. during the summer months. This 5. If the test holes do not hold exposes a seasonal ‘drawdown zone’ water for more than a few days – an area of mud and vegetation, after wet weather, find another which is flooded in winter and spring, location. and progressively dries as water levels fall in summer.

DESIGN Drawdown zone

When you are designing the pond, To design a good drawdown zone, Pond seen from above A cross-section of the pond the target is to create a pond with you need to know the approximate clean water that is not dependant height of the winter and summer Figure 3: Pond with asymmetrical depth water levels. At sites where space is

58 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 59 limited, it can be useful to cut down Be aware that in order to create steeply through the overburden, deeper ponds (with depth over 0.5 which will eventually form the pond’s m) and broad areas of shallow water, upper banks. The slope below the you need larger ponds. An option Single pond

top of the winter water level can be is to create an asymmetric pond a good design flattened off to create the drawdown with some very shallow water and a zone. steeper far bank to gain water depth (Figure 3). Shallow water Most pond and wetland animals live POND COMPLEXES in very shallow areas, right against Creating a series of ponds with differ- the bank, often in water that is only ent maximum depths is better than Wetland area 1 – 10 cm deep. To improve ponds for creating a single large pond (Figure wildlife, focus on the pond margins. 4). These will form a wider wetland area. The slope must be less than 1:5 (12°) and preferably less than 1:20 (3°). To maintain different communi- Typical pond margins of 20 - 30° are ties, keep shallow and deep water

usually too steep. With a 20° slope pools separate. The shallow areas Pond complex the critical wildlife-rich area (water will require maintenance grazing. a better design less than 10 cm deep) is only a band Livestock keeps the vegetation around 35 cm wide – slightly more short so that even tiny shallow pools than the length of your shoe (see persist for many years. The poaching Figure 2). and churning up of the wet ground Shallow pond by animal hooves usefully creates an Deeper water extra level of habitat complexity at Large deep pond A general rule in pond design is: the pond edge. Figure 4: Create complexes of ponds with different depths and surface areas the poorer the water quality, the shallower you make the pond. This Nutrient inputs are less of an issue in is because submerged deep water grazed areas, because the trampling and wading birds, islands can provide Where possible, locate islands at plants, which provide homes for and poaching knocks back fast-grow- safe areas for feeding, roosting and least 4 - 5 metres away from the bank many animals, do not grow well in ing dominant plants making space nesting. However, if large numbers of, and maintain at least 0.5 m depth polluted water. However, if clean for less competitive species, enabling for example, feral geese or gulls regu- of water in summer to provide birds water is available you might dig a bit good levels of plant diversity. larly congregate; this may damage with some protection from predators. deeper. If the pond site is not grazed, it is pond vegetation and degrade water The less the islands rise above the quality. surface, the better. Use deep water (more than 30 cm worthwhile to include large water- deep) to stop marginal emergent bodies and construct pond edges To minimise the need for man- plants from dominating all ponds. and slopes to ensure wetland plants agement, create islands that are CONSTRUCTION Deeper ponds will take longer can grow at the margins. In general, submerged in winter and early to fill in with sediment, thus the larger ponds should not be grazed. Before work starts on site, mark out spring, which will kill off tree and permanent-water phase of the pond important areas such as the pond shrub species, but become progres- is prolonged. ISLANDS outlines, where heavy machinery can sively exposed in summer to provide There are pros and cons to including move about, where topsoil is to be feeding and roosting areas. islands in a new pond. For waterfowl placed, or out-of-bounds areas.

60 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 61 Do not add topsoil to the pond >>Keep an eye on the pond in the margins or on slopes above the pond. early stages. A little effort may be Wetland area Nutrients draining from the topsoil needed 2 - 5 years after creation, into the pond will pollute the water. while plants colonise the pond, so Topsoil is, in any case, unnecessary invasive species do not dominate New ponds because native plants grow perfectly the new site. well in subsoil, clay or sand, and in a >>Temporary fencing. If wildfowl, couple of years the end result will be stock or people are likely to use better. the site in considerable numbers, it can be useful to protect vegetation Do not tidy up the excavation area with temporary fencing. This is only too much. The rough surfaces left necessary if considerable amounts After 20 - 40 Years by toothed excavation buckets, low of silt erode into the pond from the heaps of dumped or spilled soil, bare ground. scuffed turfs and wheel ruts all add to the micro-scale structural diversity >>Fish. Not all ponds must have fish, of a site for plants and invertebrate and too many fish cause problems. animals. Fish are a threat to tadpoles, thereby reducing the potential It is a good idea to keep a record number of frogs. Do not put carps of how the pond was constructed, or other non-native fish unless including photos. This can be useful using them for algae and aquatic Grazed grasslands Cut grassland No management for the future management of the plant control. Carp eat everything, Pools surrounded by wet Trees and scrub develop on pond Trees and scrub develop on site and help others learn from your keep muddying the water, and are grassland banks and in wet areas. Small pond banks and in grassland sur- pools completely over-shaded. rounds. Small pools completely experience. impossible to fish out. over-shaded.

Figure 5: An overview of how a pond can develop depending on the management Consider managing the pond if: MANAGING PONDS AND WETLANDS >>The site is a habitat for an uncom- mon, important species with depths and areas, it is likely decompose, they release sub- One of the benefits of a clean water particular requirements. that the site, as a whole, will stances that are potentially toxic to pond is that, once made, it only remain diverse and ecologically amphibians. >>The land use or management of the needs little management. The less valuable. done in terms of adding things to site has changed, for example loss • As a rule, the level of shading of grazing so that woody vegeta- around a pond should not exceed a pond, the better, although a few When the entire pond is shaded or tion develops (Figure 5). In such 50% Prune lower branches that adjustments in the first few years overgrown, consider: can sometimes be helpful. The main cases there are two main options: cast the most shade. issues are: >>Reducing tree shading and leaf 1. Periodically manage the site to • Coppice some trees in late litter. artificially maintain it close to winter, on a rotation of several >>Do not plant up. The new-pond Trees cast shadows that restrict the the original state (control trees, years (e.g. one-third every two stage is very short compared to growth of aquatic plants, influ- remove vegetation or create years for large ponds) to ensure the whole life of a pond. Many ence the water temperature and new pools), or there is always some shrub pond species use this early stage consequently affect amphibian of succession. It is important not to growth. Keep in mind the 50% 2. Leave the site to develop undis- populations. Leaves contribute to shorten it further by adding plants shaded area. turbed. As long as the site has the silting-up of ponds, also restrict or sludge from another site to help a variety of pools of different aquatic plants growth, and as they the pond ‘mature’ faster.

62 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR PONDS, RIVERS & WETLANDS 63 >>Reducing specific aquatic plants. Invasive plants can out-compete native species altering the habitats (e.g. thick mats covering whole ponds). Over time, aquatic plants accumulate nutrients (e.g. nitrates and phosphates).

• Periodic removal of invasive and native dominant species in the winter reduces future management efforts. Gently thin out excessive aquatic vegetation. Remove vegetation away from the pond to avoid the nutrients seeping back into the pond when it rots.

• Aim to leave 25% of the pond dense with plants.

>>Deepening, de-silting or re- profiling. Unmanaged ponds can collapse and require a restore. Moreover, the silt at the bottom of a pond tends to accumulate pollution or other naturally occurring substances, which may prevent aquatic vegetation from establishing and lower the water quality.

• A practical solution, if required, is to de-silt at one stage. Consider timing to minimise damage to any wildlife in the pond (e.g. winter).

• Carefully remove the silt, to avoid smothering species rich vegetation nearby – ideally move off-site to overwinter arable stubble.

64 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Environmental area, Latvia. Photographer: Tom McPherson 65 best management practices when applying fertilisers and agrochemicals in crop production.

Control soil erosion in irrigated fields (and of course in rain-fed fields as well) to avoid runoff, siltation and GUIDELINES FOR SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION pollution of waterways. Monitor soil quality parametres over time to ensure that use of irrigation maintains or improves soil quality. What defines a sustainable irrigated and adequate monitoring in time and Take measures to avoid salinisation, agricultural system differs depend- space. water logging, and any changes ing on scale; from field to farm, to physiochemical properties that watershed, river basin, and national Water used for irrigation must not would negatively affect future crop or continental levels (such as the exceed withdrawal amounts that production. European Union). Ingleby focuses on would have negative impacts on field, farm and watershed scales. aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems Examine the potential effects of (such as wetlands) and wildlife and irrigation on the water shed, as well biodiversity. Our basic assumption is that sustain- as salinity and down-stream effects able irrigation has three types of before setting up an irrigation In some cases, irrigated fields can criteria: scheme. have a positive impact on the wildlife through effects on availability of >>Environmental/biophysical Ingleby must work towards minimis- forage and feed, and ponds used for ing the amount of energy put into the >>Economic water storage with improved habitats irrigation systems. >>Social/cultural along the boundaries.

Water losses from irrigated systems ENVIRONMENTAL/ should not pollute ground or surface ECONOMIC BIOPHYSICAL waters with fertilisers, agrochemicals Investment in irrigation infrastructure or salts. Water quality should be Water use must not exceed the must have a positive risk-reward maintained or improved. annually renewable supply of water, profile. whether from surface water or Untreated sewage water should not groundwater sources. While there be used for irrigating fresh produce. can be year-to-year variation in water SOCIAL/CULTURAL Water for this purpose must be supply, the annual withdrawal rate tested at least annually. Water used for irrigation must not at the field, farm, or watershed level have negative impacts on community must not exceed long-term average Seal well-heads properly, and do not water resources, either in terms of annual recharge supply. handle or store fertilisers/agrochemi- quantity or quality. cals near well-heads or waterbodies. Meeting this criterion requires quan- This criterion is met if the environ- titative hydrological assessments To minimise losses to the environmental/biophysical criteria listed ment and avoid water pollution, use above are met.

66 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION 67 It is therefore vital to consider: greenhouses in cold climate coun- >>Species selection tries, where winter is assumed to kill escapees). >>Timing >>Proper application If no research is available on the >>Favourable environment effectiveness of the beneficial organ- GUIDELINES FOR USING BENEFICIAL ism, it should preferably be tested in ORGANISMS FOR PLANT PROTECTION Rearing and releasing beneficial or- a closed environment (glass house or ganisms for plant protection into the similar) before field release. environment comes with the responsibility to minimise the effect on the TIMING balance in the micro-environment, or Beneficial organisms for plant protec- the pest species, but to control it in a the wider food chain. When releasing beneficial organisms, tion, such as microorganisms and way that it becomes manageable. timing is crucial. The life cycle stages beneficial insects and nematodes, are A beneficial organism can therefore of both predator and target species an increasingly viable alternative to Beneficial organisms can be macro- only be released on the farm after in- have to be aligned. synthetic pesticides. or microbiologically. tensive research and vigorous safety >>Macro-biologically: testing to ensure it is specific to the Therefore, release the beneficial Beneficial insects prey on pest plant or pest that needs control. The organism during its correct life cycle insects, while microorganisms • Predators (e.g. coccinellidae, beneficial organism must also be a stage when the target pest species is contain bacteria, fungi and viruses mesostigmata, birds and bats) native species that can be found in at its most vulnerable. to enhance the defence responses of that kill the target pest animal or the close surroundings. plants. Beneficial organisms can also plant for their nourishment. Some beneficial organisms are able benefit pollination and soil health. to survive periods without a food • Parasitoids (e.g. ichneumonidaes SPECIES SELECTION and nematodes) which settle source, but most require a continuous Biological plant protection: in the body of another species, food supply. Most beneficial insects 1. Identify the main pest organism >>Protects against the introduction, live off their tissues and organs, prey on a specific type of pest, and and make sure it is not a second- establishment and spread of pests leading to the death of their due to their narrow dietary range ary pest and harmful microorganisms that hosts. will die out in absence of a prey can damage productive and natural 2. Identify the enemies of this pest population. >>Micro-biologically: ecosystems 3. Select the best biological plant • Viruses (e.g. insect virus from the If the beneficial organism is specific >>Enhances sustainable and environ- protection organism for the job Baculovirus-group) to a single pest species you must in- mentally friendly food production. (ideally occurring naturally in the troduce it during the right application • Bacteria (e.g. bacillus local area/country). >>Protects plant health in horticul- window when the pest is present, but thuringiensis) ture, agriculture, forestry and the before the pest population is too high If the beneficial organism is not natural environment. • Fungi (insect pathogens, antago- to achieve adequate control. native, Ingleby prohibits its release nists of plant diseases, etc.) >>Promotes the use of modern, safe, unless it has been authorised by a On the other hand, if the predator and effective pest control methods • Protozoa (microsporidia) certified body and vetted by Ingleby is not specific to any pest species, that minimise the use of synthetic Chief Production & Sustainability you may introduce it as long as other pesticides. A variety of microbial pathogens Officer. This is due to the risk of the food sources are available. has selective pathogenicity against beneficial organism establishing The aim of beneficial organisms for certain pest insects and are harmless at the expense of local insects and plant protection is not to eradicate to other forms of life. microbiology. This rule applies to all places (the only exception is closed

68 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR USING BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS FOR PLANT PROTECTION 69 PROPER APPLICATION reproduce more rapidly than natural enemies can control. Release a sufficient amount of healthy beneficial organisms as close Avoid using synthetic pesticides! as possible to the target area. It is Beneficial organisms can be widely best to release early, rather than disrupted by synthetic pesticides, waiting until the pest population is and secondary pests can establish. too high. Insects that are not usually a pest can take advantage of the situation, The rate of release is important. increase in numbers, and cause even There are guidelines available for greater damage. commercially beneficial organisms. If deemed necessary, spray when the Beneficial organisms are released in a beneficial organisms are least active variety of ways from manual ground (usually at night) and control spray release to aerial release over large drift to prevent poisoning in non- acreage, or via the irrigation system, target areas. depending on the type of organism (insect, fungi, virus, nematode, etc.). If using synthetic insecticides, spot- spray in affected areas and leave FAVOURABLE untreated areas to serve as reservoirs ENVIRONMENT for beneficial organisms. These survivors will recolonise treated areas Maintain a favourable environment following degradation of the insecti- that nurtures beneficial organisms. cide, accelerating the restoration of biological control and reducing the Create habitats encouraging plant need for subsequent treatments. and insect diversity in non-cultivated areas. Examples include waterbod- Ultimately, the goal is to establish ies, tunnel nests, beetle banks, brush a self-sustaining population of piles, buffers sown with cover crops beneficial organisms that maintain or meadow species, and perennial pest populations below economic plants and hedgerows. threshold levels.

Plant a variety of species that flower at different times to provide nectar, pollen, and shelter throughout the growing season.

Reduce dust, which can interfere with beneficial organisms and cause outbreaks of pests such as spider mites. Also, avoid excess fertilisation and irrigation, which can allow phloem- feeding pests, such as aphids, to

70 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Beneficial insects lab, Peru. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen 71 4. Natural habitats/regeneration source and microbiology already 5. Planting design present and it helps maintain a historical connection. 6. Maintenance and monitoring 7. Person/s responsible >>Seek to establish vegetation in areas that will join remnant patches of habitat. GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & PURPOSE WOODLAND >>Consider stock and machinery State your purpose. If it is shelter movement to avoid creating sharp for livestock, attracting pollinators, corners or big hollows where expanding habitat patches, improving machinery is unable to manoeuvre the aesthetic value of the property, or or stock become smothered and Trees, shrubs and woodlands provide a combination of multiple goals. break fences. CONTENTS multiple benefits; controlling erosion, increasing biodiversity, retaining Next, decide whether planting is water, providing shelter for livestock necessary. The preferred option is a SPECIES and improving the aesthetics of the 72 LANDSCAPE PLAN ‘hands off’ approach using natural Plant native species. Look at species rural landscape. regeneration due to the reduced 73 PURPOSE growing on the farm and locally, financial costs and increased eco- and at species that might have been 73 LOCATION LANDSCAPE PLAN logical value with the best adapted removed in the past due to agricul- 73 SPECIES species re-establishing from a nearby tural intensification. Sourcing plants First, think long-term. How would 74 NATURAL HABITATS/ seed source. locally is important in maintaining you like the farm to look in 150 years’ REGENERATION the best adapted genetic material. time? Look at existing natural areas 74 PLANTING DESIGN Planting is typically used for If possible, consider propagation of and native vegetation on the farm 74 Avenues structural and functional purposes: seed from the farm. 75 Solitary tress and how they may be enhanced, avenues, solitary trees, shelterbelts 75 Clusters expanded or connected. etc. However, planting can be used to Exotics are restricted to areas 75 Shelterbelts create woodlands and wildlife habi- near houses and buildings, where Trees take a long time to reach ma- 76 HOW TO PLANT A TREE tats if there is not a sufficient seed ornamental and fruit trees are ap- 76 When to plant turity and deliver their full range of source nearby or a barrier is present propriate. Planting exotics must be 76 Soil preparation benefits. They may seem ineffective, that prevents natural regeneration. done with care to avoid introducing 76 Tree selection slow or even unsightly during this 76 Transport and storage invasive species. process. Therefore, a landscape plan 77 Digging the hole is necessary to provide structure and LOCATION 77 Caring for the roots Take care not to plant species which certainty to the project throughout 77 Planting Map out where, and how, you intend host pests that affect the health of 77 Filling the hole its duration. to plant or allow natural regeneration: our crops. If unsure about a species' 78 Staking suitability, consult your local nursery, 78 Watering/irrigation Before starting, you should submit >>Ensure that you are not destroying 78 Mulching rural professional or Ingleby's a landscape plan for the ap- a more valuable habitat, such as Production & Sustainability team. 78 MAINTENANCE AND proval of Ingleby’s Chief Production & species-rich grassland. MONITORING Sustainability Officer. The landscape 78 Weed control >>Replant or naturally regenerate old Contact your local bee keeping asso- plan must include: 78 Fertiliser wildwoods if it makes sense from a ciation or local nursery to get advice 78 Insect control 1. Purpose farming perspective. Use old maps on species that provide multiple 79 Pruning as a reference to help identify these 79 Fencing 2. Location benefits. sites. They are likely to have a seed 79 Monitoring 3. Species 79 PERSON/S RESPONSIBLE 79 ON-FARM NURSERY 72 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & WOODLAND 73 79 BEYOND THE FARM GATE Characteristics of suitable species: Many habitats are underrepresented species, creating a green tunnel Create an uncultivated buffer around in the rural landscape due to agri- effect. the tree. It must extend beyond the >>Hardiness, good form and foliage, cultural intensification (grasslands, canopy drip-line to protect the root low maintenance and pest waterbodies, woodlands, wetlands Plant the trees with a sufficient system. resistance. etc.). Identifying which elements are in-row distance (8 - 15 m centres) >>Flowering, fruiting, nut and nectar missing on the farm provides a focus depending on species. As a general CLUSTERS rich species to attract birds, pol- for the creation of natural habitats. rule, the longer the avenue, the wider Planting in clusters or clumps at linators and other wildlife to further the spacing between the trees. random spaces creates a ‘natural’ increase biodiversity. Uncultivated buffer zones around look. Combinations of tall and small existing and new natural habitats Plant back far enough from the road trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants >>Plant species that flower at dif- protect these sites and further edge so when mature, trees do not creates complex vertical structuring ferent times throughout the year, increase their ecological value. obstruct traffic. which benefits wildlife and is aes- sustaining bees and other pollina- Create uncultivated buffers to make a thetically pleasing. tors throughout the entire season. distance between the productive land Choose high-stem trees from the >>Avoid conifers and waterbodies, woodlands and nursery and form prune to ensure a SHELTERBELTS solitary trees. Uncultivated buffers straight leader. Shelterbelts act as habitats and can be over sown with a cover crop/ support biodiversity. They also NATURAL HABITATS/ wildflower mix to enhance their SOLITARY TRESS REGENERATION provide shelter for fields, stock and ecological value and mown annually Solitary trees develop into distinctive infrastructure, altering the microcli- Exclude remnant natural habitats to maintain their composition. landscape elements, creating focal mate by reducing wind speeds and from production and leave them to points for the eye and provide habitat evapotranspiration losses. naturally regenerate. Place remnant natural habitats under for wildlife. an internal, or if possible formal legal The main consideration with shelter- Increasing the size, extent or con- protection – Privately Protected Planting locations of solitary trees is belts is their porosity – how much necting remnant habitats further Area (PPA) - to ensure they will be at the discretion of the farm manager. wind they allow to pass through increases their ecological value. permanently protected. them. The lower the porosity the Should a solitary tree become more shelter is provided on the Leave old mature trees, standing PLANTING DESIGN windblown or die, replant a tree in leeward side but for a shorter deadwood, and fallen logs and the same location. distance, past this the wind becomes branches. They form important If natural regeneration is not being habitats for species that live, feed or used or historic woodlands replanted nest in dead and dying timber. These then there are several other ways Cavity Zone Wake Zone Displacement Zone Increased Reduced turbulence Increased turbulence in turn provide food for other small to include trees into the productive turbulence and wind speed and wind speed animals and thereby contribute to the landscape. biodiversity. Wind direction AVENUES and flow In areas identified as unproductive All Ingleby farms must have avenues (use yield maps as a guide), create planted along the main entrance natural habitats. If there is a sufficient – enhancing the aesthetics and seed source nearby then the land can welcoming visitors. be left to naturally regenerate, otherwise it will need to be planted. Make Plant tree rows on both sides of sure to plant in a random pattern the driveway or road. If there is with a variety of native species to space, plant double rows with mixed mimic a ‘natural’ look. Windward Leeward Figure 1: Wind speed and turbulence in shelterbelt zones

74 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & WOODLAND 75 turbulent. Low porosity shelterbelts SOIL PREPARATION bare-rooted stock which must be out the root mass in several places are typically used for paddock shelter Most trees require well-drained kept moist to prevent the roots from and gently loosen the root ball. around yards and buildings. High soil. Poorly drained soil or soil that drying out. This will encourage growth of the porosity shelterbelts provide shelter contains a high percentage of clay new roots and the ability for the for a greater distance and have less is low in oxygen which roots need to Order trees so that they are delivered roots to get nutrition from the near turbulence associated with them. ensure growth. Remedy any drain- when needed. surrounding. Both types are used together to age problems before planting and >>Bare-rooted. Before planting a control wind and maximise shelter. Plant as soon as possible. Plant bare- incorporate additional organic matter large amount of bare root trees, rooted stock within 24 hours or store onto the soil when planting. make sure to protect the root from Shelterbelts are usually planted along them in a suitable cooling facility drying out. existing fence lines or field borders, TREE SELECTION until planting. perpendicular to the prevailing wind. In general, small trees establish faster PLANTING If plants are stored, protect the roots than larger trees and are more eco- Depending on their species and against drying out by covering them When planting, make sure all roots nomical. Minimise transplant shock by intended function, plant shelterbelts and ensure continuous moisture on turn downwards in the soil. If roots planting the smallest tree possible. in single or multiple rows. the roots. are very long and thin, it is an advantage to cut a small part of the Trees are sold in different forms: Shelterbelts can be planted with DIGGING THE HOLE root tip, just before planting. This will increase root growth and form a exotics but an effort should be made >>Burlapped. Larger trees are grown It is important to plant a new tree at good root structure from the start. to use natives. This increases their in the soil then dug up with their the right level in the soil. The hole environmental value and the overall root ball which is wrapped in a should be deep enough for the new For small bare-rooted stock habitat available for wildlife. Where burlap sack for protection. Make tree to be in the same soil level as it (< 40cm): cut a T-shape in the soil possible, shelterbelts should include sure the stem is centred in the root is in the pot/or to keep the trunk flare with a spade and leave it open. Slide flowering, fruiting and nut species ball and does not feel loose. free from soil. to further increase the services they the seedling down into the gap from >>Container. Container grown, more provide. If livestock are present, con- one end of the T, meeting in the expensive but available in a variety Measure the distance from the sider the need to fence shelterbelts junction. Give the seedling a gentle of sizes. Can be planted year round. bottom of the root mass to the trunk to prevent stock from browsing and positive pull to straighten the roots Make sure that the root system is flare, the hole should be no deeper camping under them. while treading down on the soil. well established in the pot, with no than this. Dig the hole 2-3 times in diameter of the root ball or the circling roots. FILLING THE HOLE HOW TO PLANT A TREE container to be able to loosen the >>Bare-rooted. The most economical soil around the tree. This is especially When filling the hole make sure that WHEN TO PLANT option. However, they are usually important in heavy clay soils. the soil level does not cover the trunk flare. It is best to plant trees when they are smaller and only planted while still dormant with tight unopened dormant. CARING FOR THE ROOTS Use your feet or hands to firm the soil buds. This entirely depends on the >>Burlapped. Cut the twine or burlap to eliminate any air pockets around local climate. As a rule of thumb, When receiving the tree, inspect after the tree has been placed in the tree. autumn is best but in some locations the form, vigour, stem, foliage and the soil. you must wait until the early spring buds for signs of physical and insect >>Container. Tip the container and In dry areas, construct a 5 cm high when the ground has thawed. In damage or disease. Numerous broken slide the plant from the container. ridge of soil around the tree. This areas with milder climate you can branches are a sign of mishandling. It might be necessary to cut the little berm will create a basin to hold essentially plant all year round. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE container to get the plant out. If the irrigation water and concentrate Store trees in a cool, shaded place. the root ball is very tight or has it right over the roots. This is particularly important for circling roots use a knife to score

76 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & WOODLAND 77 STAKING MAINTENANCE AND Other control methods include The seed is germinated, grown and Staking is mandatory to stabilise any MONITORING discing and spot spraying anthills, or ‘hardened off’ within an on-farm trees and to protect them from wind. spraying small trees with biocides. nursery. Seedlings grown this way Carefully watch your new tree. ensure the best adapted genetic Monitor for signs of poor health such You should use 3 stakes, no matter PRUNING make-up, enhancing the local as leaf yellowing or leaf drop and the size of the tree. Avenues and fruit trees may need ecosystem. Seedlings can be planted insect infestations. In most cases, the form pruning to remove lower on-farm or donated to neighbours tree will be strong enough to over- Place the stakes outside the root ball branches. and community groups. come small problems on its own, as to ensure stabilisation. The stakes long as it is provided sufficient water, must be firm enough to prevent a If you find dead or damaged branch- Key considerations for an on-farm especially during periods of drought. moving root ball. es cut at a 45 degree angle to the nursery are shade and water. Shade stem, leaving the stub untreated to protects the young seedlings from The first priority for a newly trans- Ensure the stakes are tied loosely to allow for natural healing. sunlight and frost. A shade cloth planted tree is to grow new roots. the trunk with a wide strap that does suspended on a wooden frame is You will not see much growth above not damage the bark or strangle the FENCING sufficient. Watering can be done ground for the first year or two. tree. A strap made of rubber or cloth Natural regenerating and planted manually with a bucket or hose, but is preferable. areas may need fencing to exclude for larger operations, a purpose built WEED CONTROL stock and wildlife. automated irrigation system is the Removing weeds around the tree, es- Remove the stakes after 4-5 years most efficient. pecially for smaller trees, will help the when the roots are established. MONITORING tree to establish roots and removes 'Harden off' seedlings before you Occasionally visit and photograph the competition for nutrients. plant them. This involves removing WATERING/IRRIGATION site to keep track of development. the shade cloth so that the seedlings The survival of a new tree depends FERTILISER are exposed to the elements. A on the moisture level around the Should be applied if necessary and slight physiological stress prepares roots. They should never dry out PERSON/S RESPONSIBLE depends in the soil conditions. them for transplanting. However, completely. Make a routine for Person or persons responsible are ‘hardening off’ is not necessary for watering the tree, use water bags or those in charge of the planning, INSECT CONTROL all species so make a quick species irrigation lines. planting and ongoing maintenance of In some regions (particularly Latin check before undertaking this. the site. This ensures the survival of America) insect control is necessary If possible, water the seedlings the trees and overall success of the to prevent ants from stripping young following planting to reduce planting project. BEYOND THE FARM GATE shock. trees of their foliage. There may be projects across the Keep in mind that some projects may A physical ant barrier on the trunk broader landscape that Ingleby can MULCHING take a decade or even longer before above the stake is the most effective take part in, such as creating wildlife Mulching keeps the soil around they can be largely left alone. For solution. Make sure the ant barrier corridors across a large region or the tree damp, controls weeds and this reason it is important to have a covers the entire trunk surface. through a few properties, plant- lowers the soil temperature, which succession plan in place with back up ing habitat trees for a particular further increases the chance of personnel who can take over mainte- Replace ant barriers each year as threatened species or saving the last survival for the newly planted tree. nance and monitoring. the tree grows and keep them in remnants of a rare wood-land type. place the first 3 to 5 years after When adding a layer of mulch, make planting. Spraying the ant barriers Engage with neighbouring farms, sure not to cover the trunk as this can ON-FARM NURSERY with a biocide can increase their landowners and regional NGO’s to cause rot and insect damage. Ideally, native seedlings and seeds effectiveness. discuss potential ways on how to are collected from the local area or enhance landscape connectivity. on-farm.

78 INGLEBY GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR TREES, SHRUBS & WOODLAND 79 POLICY FOR HYDROPOWER & WIND TURBINES

We believe that agriculture and forestry can contribute to sustainable energy production. Ingleby supports joint neighbour projects to reduce energy waste and to produce soil based energy.

HYDROPOWER

Where environmentally sustainable and economically viable, we will utilise small scale hydropower plants. In these cases, we will secure limno- logical habitats and fish populations.

Where dams generate hydroelectric power, we will ensure a constant water level in the reservoir behind the dam. This must be a run-of-the-river scheme to avoid drying out river stretches entirely.

WIND TURBINES AND WINDMILLS

From an aesthetic point of view, we will not allow wind turbines except for household-size wind turbines and water-pumping windmills.

The wind turbines must have a height of less than 30 metres.

80 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Water-pumping windmill, Argentina. Photographer: Sean Cameron MANAGEMENT The possibility of early eradication or at least effectively to contain a new There are five major options for coloniser makes investment in early dealing with invasive alien species: detection worthwhile. 1. Prevention 2. Early detection Whenever an invasive alien species of concern has been located in the 3. Eradication POLICY FOR MANAGING INVASIVE SPECIES surrounding area of an Ingleby farm, 4. Control farm managers must be aware and 5. Mitigating impact on key habitats make regular site-specific surveys, and species taking into consideration the ecology of the target species. The objective of this policy for Discuss with the Ingleby Chief PREVENTION managing invasive alien species is to Production & Sustainability Officer Preventing introductions is the first Site-specific surveys are performed protect and care for our ecosystems and local experts on which invasive and most cost-effective option. to detect invaders in the vicinity of and farming systems. alien species are likely to be harmful high-risk entry points or high-value in the current area and how these are Once a species is well established biodiversity areas. When an invasive Not all non-native/alien species best recognised and managed. in an area, eradication is costly and species has been spotted, you should are harmful. In fact, the majority of sometimes impossible. take measures to eradicate or control species we use in agriculture are alien it. species. The initial step must there- INDICATORS Therefore, it is important for all fore be to distinguish the harmful In the annual sustainability reports, Ingleby farms and forests to be ERADICATION from the harmless species and we report assessments of invasive aware of the invasive alien species Eradication can be a successful and identify the impacts of the former on alien species that pose a threat to that occur in the areas. Preventing cost-effective solution in response native biodiversity. production and biodiversity. establishment requires: to an early detection of an invasive species. Consider actions for each invasive We focus on: >>Intercepting species based on species separately depending on the awareness and knowledge. Successful eradication programmes costs of eradication over any impacts >>Invasive alien species that are >>Treating material suspected to be could be: they may have. Some species may be present on-farm. contaminated with invasive alien fairly harmless or not cost effective >>Mechanical control, e.g. hand- >>Their population size in numbers species. to remove. and/or area. picking weeds or snails. Also, avoid bringing soil, fresh plant >>Chemical control, e.g. using toxic Also accept that some species, which >>Logging the affected area by GPS. material, seeds and other objects baits against vertebrates. have long since been introduced, may >>Determine whether the species are which are potential carriers of be impossible or pointless to attempt >>Habitat management, e.g. grazing increasing, decreasing or stable in invasive or harmful organisms from to eradicate. and prescribed burning. population sizes and/or affected one farm/region/country to the other. areas. Clean your boots between farm visits. >>Culling invasive animals. We must comply with national regulations regarding occurrences >>Management operations taken or EARLY DETECTION Most eradication programmes need of invasive alien species and their planned to control the invasive to employ several different methods. control. Pay attention to invasive alien species. Early detection of a potential invasive species is often crucial to determine Always evaluate the situation to find alien species not yet described in >>The effectiveness of control whether eradicating them is feasible. the best methods in that area under national regulation, but which can be measures. the given circumstances. harmful to specific ecosystems within our properties.

82 INGLEBY GUIDELINES POLICY FOR MANAGING INVASIVE SPECIES 83 CONTROL have to accept that control is not When eradicating them is not feasi- feasible and the only recourse is to ble, the next step in the sequence of develop ways to mitigate its impact management options is to control an on key habitats and species. invasive species.

The aim of control is to reduce density and abundance of an invasive organism, to control the harm it makes and to ensure it does not spread further.

There are numerous specific methods for controlling invasive species and many of these can be used in eradication programmes, too:

>>Mechanical control is highly specific to the target, but always very labour-intensive.

>>Chemical control is often very effective as a short-term solution. The major drawbacks are the non- target effects, the high costs, and the possibility of the pest species evolving resistance.

>>Compared to other methods, clas- sical biological control, when it is successful, is highly cost-effective, permanent, self-sustaining and ecologically safe because of high specificity of the agents used.

>>Integrated pest management, combining several methods, will often provide the most effective and acceptable control.

MITIGATING IMPACT ON KEY HABITATS AND SPECIES Finally, there will be situations where current options to control or eliminate invasive alien species are simply inadequate, impractical or uneco- nomic. In these situations, we may

84 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Nodding thistle (Carduus nutans), New Zealand. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen health of people, the environments policies on prohibited pesticides as and non-target plants or creatures. well as national policies.

For this, we adhere to the World We regularly update our list of Health Organisation (WHO)’s defini- prohibited pesticides. The latest list tion of good agricultural practice in can be found on our intranet as well the use of pesticides: as on the Ingleby website: POLICY FOR USING AGROCHEMICALS www.inglebyfarms.com. “The officially recommended or There you will also find a list of authorised usage of pesticides under pesticides harmful to bees. practical conditions at any stage of production, storage, transport, For other pesticides, Ingleby follows A policy for using agrochemicals on distribution, and processing of food national regulations where we farm. Ingleby farms is essential to meet CONTENTS and other agricultural commodities, our goals for sustainable farming and bearing in mind the variations in Atrazine to protect the surroundings of our requirements within and between As a specific case, we have prohib- farms. Our approach is to use ben- regions and taking into account ited all plant protection products 86 PESTICIDES eficial organisms, disease and weed 87 Ingleby prohibited pesticides the minimum quantities necessary containing Atrazine and its use was management for reducing pesticide 88 ‘Non-chemical’ methods of pest to achieve adequate control, the phased out by 01 July 2011. use and resistance, while incorporat- management pesticide being applied in such a 88 Pesticides around houses ing sound crop rotations, cover crops, manner as to leave residues that are Dispensation for use can excep- and organic composts with balanced 88 APPROPRIATE USE OF the smallest amounts practicable and tionally be granted by the Ingleby AGROCHEMICALS fertiliser use. 89 Training that are toxicologically acceptable.” Chief Production & Sustainability 89 Storage, mixing, transport and Officer under specific and controlled The term agrochemicals includes all disposal INGLEBY PROHIBITED PESTICIDES conditions. synthetic pesticides and inorganic 90 Agrochemical use We will not use any pesticides pro- 90 Pollinators and beneficial fertilisers. insects hibited by international agreement. Pesticides under observation 90 Prevent agrochemicals from The policy: Neonicotinoids are a group of contaminating water and Thus, we have prohibited the use of insecticides that are suspected to groundwater >>Identifies and prohibits pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides; cause decline in bee populations, 91 Applying agrochemicals from that are prohibited by both the an aircraft persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and consequently limiting yields in United States and Denmark and pesticides that are toxic or 92 CHECKS TO CARRY OUT pollination-dependent crops. The WHEN USING PESTICIDES >>Promotes ‘non-chemical’ methods whose derivatives remain biologically neonicotinoid group includes aceta- of pest management active and accumulate in the food miprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, >>Ensures appropriate use and dis- chain beyond their intended use. nitenpyram, nithiazine, thiacloprid posal of any applied agrochemicals and thiamethoxam. Our list of prohibited pesticides also includes all substances that Ingleby bans the use of neonicoti- PESTICIDES are prohibited by both the United noids in our horticultural crops. Our policy is to keep synthetic pesti- States Environmental Protection cide (herbicides/fungicides/insecti- Agency (EPA) and Denmark. This Avoid the use of neonicotinoids when cides, etc.) use at the lowest possible decision was made on the basis that a more safe option exists. Never level while ensuring that insect pests, the US EPA is a primary authority in apply neonicotinoids on flowering diseases and weeds are effectively pesticide regulation, while Denmark crops. Avoid buying seeds coated controlled in a way that protects the represents the European Union with neonicotinoids.

86 INGLEBY GUIDELINES POLICY FOR USING AGROCHEMICALS 87 Inform the Chief Production & Ingleby products must not have TRAINING into sewers, drains, wells or ditches. Sustainability Officer if you plan on residues of pesticides that exceed All people handling fertilisers and A concrete-mounted space with using neonicotinoids. the standard Maximum Residue pesticides must receive adequate drains to a reservoir or other closed Levels (MRLs) set for each particular training and be skilled or certified container is suitable, so that waste ‘NON-CHEMICAL’ METHODS OF product category and/or destination when required, in the tasks they are and rinsing water can be collected. PEST MANAGEMENT market. performing. Always dilute the surplus application Ingleby promotes environmentally mix and spray it on the crop. Mixtures friendly, non-chemical methods of Apply fertilisers in accordance with This involves training in: of pesticides must be used directly pest management and strives regular soil and/or tissue testing and and not stored for long periods of >>The relevant laws to minimise the use of chemical nutrient balances to determine the time. pesticides through integrated pest nutrient requirements of the crops >>The environmental risks associated management. or pasture. Avoid under-fertilising >>The human risk to the user and the Filling of water must be done from so that the soil is not mined of its nearby communities associated a separate container from which PESTICIDES AROUND HOUSES natural nutrient content, and avoid >>Safe working practices it is not possible to return to the We do not allow the use of any over-fertilising, which may result in water supply. If filling directly from >>Emergency action pesticide around gardens and areas nutrient leaching. the water supply, there must be a around houses on our farms. >>Health monitoring non-return valve on the system so Provide proper equipment for appli- >>Record keeping that the water cannot flow back into cation of agrochemicals, and ensure the mains. APPROPRIATE USE OF >>Using personal protection equip- sufficient staff training to minimise ment for applying agrochemicals AGROCHEMICALS health and environmental risks. This Accident procedures and safety >>Ingleby Guidelines for Using includes proper use of equipment or warnings must be available at loca- Approved usage of pesticides and Agrochemicals fertilisers varies from country to machinery, maintenance/calibration tions in case of emergency. and cleaning. country and from product to product, STORAGE, MIXING, TRANSPORT especially in regions with great differ- AND DISPOSAL Comply with the national rules for Children (under 18 years old) and chemicals transportation. To safe- ences in climate. Ingleby will always Ensure that storage facilities for pregnant or nursing women must not guard the working environment, as a minimum follow national legal agrochemicals, fuels and lubricants handle or apply any agrochemicals. chemicals should never be transport- obligations. are secured/locked, suitably located ed in the cab, but instead in a locked away from sensitive areas, dry Keep all records of agrochemical use, box located in a place where there is Before applying agrochemicals, we and well-ventilated. Store all agro- including the name, quantities and a low risk of impact. recommend thoroughly assessing the chemicals in original containers with crop they were applied to. The opera- job at hand and evaluating the po- approved product labels. tential risks. Effective communication tor name is also recorded, for health Dispose of chemicals, containers, surveillance purposes. liquid and solid non-organic wastes, avoids potential conflicts between Do not store pesticides together with including fuel and oil in an envi- the users and neighbours. Contact fertilisers and fuel. the owners of nearby greenhouses Use of beneficial biological organisms ronmentally appropriate manner. must be well documented, monitored Suppliers should retrieve their before initiating a treatment, to stop Spills are to be collected immediately. and strictly controlled in accordance product waste, or if a national col- or close ventilation while spraying. Facilities dealing with agrochemicals with national laws and internationally lection/recovery system is available, must be prepared for spillage events. accepted scientific protocols. See the please make use of it. Apply pesticides in a manner which Equipped with plastic bags, a spade, guideline for use of beneficial organ- leaves no residues, or at least the a broom and sawdust or other isms for further information. Basic disposal consists in the use of smallest amount possible, and always absorbing material. comply with the required time pressurised water or triple rinsed, plus perforated containers. For spe- between application and harvest. Mixing and cleaning should be done cific disposal of pesticide containers on a dense surface without drainage

88 INGLEBY GUIDELINES POLICY FOR USING AGROCHEMICALS 89 and obsolete pesticides, please see Identify bee hive locations and notify Design areas where agrochemicals Avoid applying agrochemicals when the guidelines for managing waste. the beekeeper so that he can move are handled or where equipment they pose a high risk of reaching the Incineration of empty containers is or protect the hives. is washed in a way that confine groundwater. not allowed. spillages and stops the spillage from Do not apply insecticides toxic to reaching the environment or posing a Take particular care to protect AGROCHEMICAL USE bees to crops or weeds in bloom. risk to human health. surface and groundwater when: Agrochemicals must only be used on >>Preparing an agrochemical land, crop, structure, material or the Never spray products toxic to bees Consider other control methods >>Transporting agrochemicals area needing treatment. Avoid agro- during the bees’ peak flying period. before deciding to use a pesticide chemical drifting by applying them in Spray in the evening or at night when for controlling weeds near water. If >>Cleaning equipment and disposing appropriate weather conditions, with bees stop flying, as this allows several control with pesticides is needed, waste and containers correct equipment that is properly hours for the pesticide to dry before only use pesticides approved specifi- adjusted for the product. the bees become active again. cally for use near water. Carry out all mixing, filling or loading operations well away from water- Always ensure that agrochemical If you are unable to spray in the When applying pesticides near courses, ditches and drains. spray drifts will never reach nearby evening or at night, you must spray watercourses: Carry out all mixing, filling or loading villages and houses. We recommend on cool cloudy days, or early in the >>Take appropriate precautions to operations well away from water- ensuring a distance of 3 km from the morning. reduce spray drift. sprayed area to a house. courses, ditches and drains. >>Follow any buffer zone for pro- Use insecticides that are less toxic to tecting fish and other aquatic When using agrochemicals, take bees if the alternative complies with When using a dedicated mixing and life. Always use a minimum of 10 special care to avoid sensitive areas, pest control recommendations. loading area, this must be designed metres for buffer zones, but stricter such as: to prevent pollution of surface water regulations may occur for certain Choose the least hazardous formu- and groundwater. >>Hedges pesticides. lations when possible. Dusts and >>Ditches and ponds encapsulated insecticides are more In all situations, take care to prevent Watercourses can also be con- >>Wetlands and water margins toxic than sprays of the same mate- spills when filling equipment. If any taminated by agrochemicals reaching rial. Wettable powder sprays tend pesticide or fertiliser is spilled, the >>Rough grazing and grasslands rich field drainage systems through the to have a longer residual effect (and spillage must be contained to keep in different plants and creatures soil. Therefore, it is forbidden to are more toxic) than emulsifiable any contamination as low as possible. >>Scrub and woodlands apply agrochemicals when they pose concentrate sprays. Granular applica- a high risk of getting into drainage >>Water-logged, steep, cracked, tions are usually the safest method of APPLYING AGROCHEMICALS FROM systems. AN AIRCRAFT compacted or frozen grounds treatment around bees. Avoid applying pesticides and fertilis- Groundwater (all water which is Our protected habitats must not be PREVENT AGROCHEMICALS FROM ers from an aircraft unless the farm affected by the use of agrochemicals. CONTAMINATING WATER AND below the surface of the ground and has inaccessible areas of difficult Always use a minimum 10 metre GROUNDWATER in direct contact with the ground terrain, e.g. after long periods of rain. buffer zone to protected habitats and Water contamination can occur, or soil) can be contaminated by waterways. either directly or indirectly, with agrochemicals, even when using an Comply with national legal obliga- fertilisers and pesticides. This could approved product correctly. This tions before, during and after apply- POLLINATORS AND BENEFICIAL have serious consequences for the can occur if a water table is near ing agrochemicals from the air, and INSECTS environment. Leaching fertiliser can the surface, or the soil is thin, very always keep the risk to the environ- Bees and other pollinators must lead to eutrophication in the water- sandy or contains cracked limestone ment as low as possible. be protected from the effects of bodies, where nutrient contamination bedrock, allowing the agrochemicals pesticides. causes algae blooms. to move rapidly through the ground. Only certain pesticides are approved to be applied from the air.

90 INGLEBY GUIDELINES POLICY FOR USING AGROCHEMICALS 91 CHECKS TO CARRY OUT WHEN USING PESTICIDES

Before using any pesticide, it is important to carry out a series of checks. The Ingleby teams and contractors must have:

1. Had suitable training and, if necessary, 10. Given adequate notice to occupi- gained a certificate of competence to ers of neighbouring properties and apply the pesticide in the pro-posed members of the public. way. 11. Displayed warning notices. 2. Read and understood the product 12. Followed the specific responsibilities label and any extra information relat- for giving notice when spraying from ing to off-label uses. the air and when spraying sulphuric 3. Put in place any measures to control acid. exposure, and keep these measures 13. Given adequate notice to beekeepers. up to date. 14. Checked equipment for applying 4. Used full personal protection pesticides to make sure it is in good equipment. working order. 5. Checked whether the product is cur- 15. Put emergency procedures in place rently approved for the intended use and made sure operators have: and situation. a) Appropriate emergency equip- 6. Carried out an appropriate environment such as spill kit and mental risk assessment and made decontamination equipment for sure that any measures to take care of skin and eyes wildlife and the environment can be b) Emergency details for the prod- kept to protect: ucts being used c) Aquatic life c) A list of emergency contact details d) Bees and other insects and for the environment agencies and creatures medical services e) Surface water and groundwater 16. Made sure the pesticide can be 7. Taken account of the need to avoid transported safely and legally to the contaminating feed stores or areas areas being treated. livestock have access to. 17. Have a sufficient amount of the 8. Taken measures to meet any pesticide to complete the job, and conditions on the label for keeping checked the calculations of the livestock or people out of treated amount of pesticide needed for each areas for a certain period. tank, load or run, possibly allowing for an untreated or under-dosed area for 9. Received advice and, when neces- disposing of sprayer washings. sary, permission from the appropriate agencies, before using pesticides in 18. Made appropriate arrangements for areas of special environmental status cleaning equipment and disposing near water, from aircraft and, where of any waste pesticide and pesticide necessary, on public rights of way. packaging (such as containers, clo- sures and foil seals) safely and legally.

92 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Westerwolds ryegrass, Latvia. Photographer: Rasmus Juul Christoffersen 93 The Ingleby code of practice for associated industries (e.g. veal, beef, the welfare of cattle is based on the bull artificial insemination units). Australian Model Code of Practice for “Cattle” includes all domestic the Welfare of Animals and has been bovines e.g. cows, bulls, steers, adapted for use in Ingleby. heifers, and calves. “Calves” are under 6 months of age. CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF Sections relating specifically to the BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE welfare of dairy cattle are based on the Canadian National Farm Animal BASIC WELFARE NEEDS Care Council’s Code of Practice Animal welfare considerations are for the care and handling of Dairy becoming increasingly important for cattle, The Australian Animal Welfare keeping and raising animals. Practices Standards for Dairy Cattle, as well as which may once have been deemed CONTENTS The Reference guide for New Zealand acceptable are now being reassessed dairy farmers, and have been adapted and modified according to new for use in Ingleby. knowledge and changing attitudes. 95 BASIC WELFARE NEEDS 110 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 96 Food SPECIFIC FOR DAIRY CATTLE We have prepared this code to assist The basic requirements for the 97 Water 110 Milking all people handling beef and dairy welfare of cattle are: 110 Drying-off 98 Air cattle on Ingleby farms. 98 Precautions against drought 111 Hoof trimming >>A level of nutrition adequate to 98 Protection from climatic 111 Udder hair removal sustain good health and vigour. extremes and predation The aims of this code are: 112 INTENSIVE CATTLE SYSTEMS 98 Protection from disease >Access to sufficient water of suit- >>To promote humane and consider- > 99 Sick or weak animals 112 ARTIFICIAL REARING OF able quality to meet physiological 99 Fallen stock disposal CATTLE BORN OF BEEF ate treatment of cattle, and the use CALVES of good husbandry practices to needs. 100 WELFARE NEEDS - SPECIFIC FOR DAIRY CATTLE 112 TRANSPORT improve the welfare of cattle in all >>Social contact with other cattle; 100 Body Condition Scoring 113 SURGICAL PROCEDURES types of cattle farming enterprises. with sufficient space to stand, to lie 100 Nutrition and feed 113 Disbudding and dehorning down and stretch their limbs. >>To inform all people involved with management 114 Castration 101 Unweaned dairy calves 114 Spaying the care and management of cattle >>Protection from extreme weather 102 Dairy heifers 115 Identification about their responsibilities. which may be life threatening. 103 Dry cows 115 Tail docking 103 Transition cows 115 Extra teat removal >>To set an Ingleby standard by >>Adequate shade and shelter. 104 Milking cows defining acceptable cattle manage- 116 HEALTH >>Provision of reasonable precautions 104 HANDLING CATTLE ment practices. against the effects of natural dis- 104 Yards 116 FERAL CATTLE asters e.g. fire-breaks and fodder 105 Handling 117 HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF This code outlines sound livestock CATTLE storage. 106 HANDLING - SPECIFIC FOR husbandry practices, and should be DAIRY CATTLE 118 APPENDIX 1: BODY treated as guidelines, as good stock >>Protection from predation. 106 Young calves CONDITION SCORING IN handlers need to be flexible in their 106 Heifers, milking cows and dry DAIRY CATTLE >>Protection from pain, injury and cows approach to caring for their animals. 126 APPENDIX 2: WATER disease. 107 Feeding areas CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES 107 Milking systems This code applies to beef and dairy >>Selection and breeding of cattle 108 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES cattle (including bull calves and appropriate for the environment 108 Supervision bulls) on farms. It does not apply to and the level of planned herd 108 Mating management. 109 Calving and weaning practices

94 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 95 These basic needs must be met, of someone who is capable and poor pasture quality and growth rate. cows. Give the animals water within irrespective of the nature of the equipped to kill them humanely. Therefore, regularly monitor soil and 2 hours of arrival unless sent to the husbandry or farming system. pasture nutrient status and quality. slaughter immediately. FOOD Without good stockmanship, the Correct feed management is neces- Do not process handfed rations too Water requirements depend on age, welfare of animals can never be sary to ensure good health and finely. body weight, production level, air adequately protected. This code welfare. Cattle that are not fed temperature, humidity, dry matter is intended to encourage all those adequately are more likely to have Introduce any major changes in diet intake, and dry matter content of responsible for cattle, and espe- reduced immune function. over an appropriate length of time the feed eaten. For approximate cially the inexperienced, to adopt the and monitor it closely. If extra feed consumption rates of water for cattle, highest standards of husbandry. Ensure that cattle have access to is delivered in a form cattle are not see Appendix 2. food that will maintain their well- accustomed to, use appropriate Good stock persons are competent being. They must not be deprived measures such as “teacher” animals Water quality may have significant and flexible in their approach to of access to food for periods longer to encourage them to eat. If an impacts on an animal’s production cattle management. The skills for than 48 hours. Animals in poor animal does not commence eating and health, therefore you should managing and handling cattle include condition, in late pregnancy or early the new feed within 24 hours, provide make sure to periodically test water the ability to: lactation, must not be deprived of it with an alternative feed. for livestock. access to food for periods longer >>Work so that stress to animals is than 24 hours. To maximise eating quality, it is Inspect and maintain water infra- minimised recommended that cattle are on structure to allow effective flow of >>Allow the natural behaviour of Make sure that the available food an increasing plane of nutrition for water in reasonable time. animals meets the requirements for main- at least 30 days prior to dispatch, tenance, growth, pregnancy and to maximise energy levels of the Recommended best practices: >>Recognise the early signs of lactation, and provide for any extra muscles. distress or disease and to initiate >>Have an alternative watering demands, such as exercise or cold prompt and appropriate preventive system in the event of an interrup- stress. In areas subject to drought The use of any drug for growth or remedial action tion in water supply or seasonal feed shortages, make promotion is prohibited. >>Assess the quantity, quality and arrangements to ensure a continued >>Construct and locate watering continuity of feed and water supply supply of feed adequate for maintain- WATER systems so that they are protected ing good health. Supply all cattle with cool and from fouling and freezing >>Understand and follow chemical clean drinking water, at least daily. and drug treatment instructions for >>Keep water troughs, bowls, and If the pasture is poor in quality and/ Lactating cows, and all cows in hot cattle nipples clean and check them at or quantity of feed, and there is no weather, should have access to water least once daily to ensure they are >>Identify distressed, weak, injured or supplementary feed, reduce the at least twice daily. dispensing water properly diseased cattle, and take appropri- stocking rate accordingly. ate action Supply calves removed from cows >>Situate watering points at walk- Distribute feed and water in such a with water at all times. through areas (cross-over alleys) >>Maintain appropriate records to way that animals can eat and drink optimise welfare (e.g. breeding >>Provide water with a depth of at without undue competition. Do not deprive animals of access purposes, such as recording calving least 10 cm in water troughs and to water for periods longer than 12 ease and polled animals) mount troughs at a height comfort- Protect cattle from toxic plants and hours, unless in transit. able for the cow to drink (60 - 75 >>Understand local patterns of other harmful substances. cm) disease and disease prevention During transport, do not deprive Grazing animals deplete soil nutrients cattle of water longer than 24 hours, >>Test water quality annually and >>Humanely kill cattle by appropriate progressively, which in turn leads to or 12 hours for pregnant and lactating occasionally test for stray voltage methods, or seek the assistance

96 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 97 Cattle used to drinking salty water appropriately, by sex, age and size, to should be devised for each farm. SICK OR WEAK ANIMALS may need special consideration. If reduce competition. Keep all records of treatment and Treat sick, injured or diseased cattle they refuse fresh water, they may pharmaceuticals. must promptly and appropriately, need a gradual change. For further PROTECTION FROM CLIMATIC or ensure that they are humanely EXTREMES AND PREDATION information on water quality and Seek appropriate veterinary advice slaughtered. Separate other cattle salinity, see Appendix 2. Take all reasonable precautions to for diagnosing diseases, treating and while the condition persists. minimise the effects of adverse preventing cattle diseases. Where water medications (e.g. bloat weather conditions, including climatic Do not mix weakened cattle with or facial eczema preventatives) are extremes and other factors causing Consider selecting cattle that are strong animals or subjected to the used, they must be introduced gradu- cold stress or heat stress. suitable for and adapted to the stress of sale through sale yards. ally. Observe the cattle to ensure they production environment, and that do not refuse to drink the medicated Provide shade where cattle would are resistant to parasites and specific Provide special protection for water. otherwise suffer from heat stress. diseases relevant to the environment. weakened cattle against exposure Where cold stress is likely, provide to extremes of weather, if possible, AIR shelter (e.g. windbreaks) and addi- Monitor and control internal and especially when in transit. Do not keep cattle in or exposed tional fodder. Cold stress is worsened external parasites. to any situation where the air is so by wind chill and wetting of the coat. FALLEN STOCK DISPOSAL Calves are particularly at risk. Given the risk of antimicrobial contaminated with dust or noxious Comply with legal measures to resistance transferring from livestock chemicals that it can cause harm to dispose of fallen stock in a manner In areas subject to flooding, ensure to humans, the use of veterinary the long-term welfare. that is safe for the environment and that paddock and facility design medicines should be used only when health of other livestock. Please look allows access to safe high ground, or necessary. Practices such as blanket Consider using sprinklers or misters to the guideline for managing waste plan for stock evacuation. and preemptive treatments should to settle dust in extremely dusty for sound carcass disposal. situations. Dust is not only a health only be used as a last resort to hazard but may impede smooth, safe Maintain adequate fire breaks. prevent an outbreak spreading from a working of cattle in yards. few veterinary diagnosed individuals. Attend to cattle after a natural PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DROUGHT disaster such as bush fire or flood, The best form of protection is Drought may be defined as a severe and have the animals assessed by a prevention; in the form of sound shortage of food and/or water, competent person. Immediate treat- stock management encompassing usually as the result of prolonged ment or humane destruction may be best management practices of animal periods of low rainfall. It is not a required depending on the animal’s welfare and hygiene standards. normal seasonal decline in the quan- condition. tity and quality of food available. Store and give internal medications, Take all reasonable steps to protect such as vaccines and drenches, and Where minimum water and food cattle from predators. Implement external medications, such as dips requirements cannot be met, move predator control programmes where and pour-on formulations, in strict cattle to a place where feed and predation is a significant risk. accordance with the manufacturer’s water is adequate, or have them sold instructions and methods of ad- or humanely slaughtered as soon as PROTECTION FROM DISEASE ministration. Overdosing may harm possible. Use appropriate preventive measures animals and under-dosing may result for diseases that are common in a in failure to reach the required effect. Attend to cattle being fed for district or are likely to occur in the Obey expiry dates. survival at least twice a week. Where herd. A suitable vaccination, internal possible they should be grouped and external parasite control plan

98 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 99 WELFARE NEEDS - SPECIFIC Cows that are too thin at calving may twice per day) has been found to >>Provide adequate linear feed bunk FOR DAIRY CATTLE not have sufficient body reserves to reduce the amount of TMR sorting space (e.g., 60 cm per cow). support high levels of milk produc- that occurs and allows subordinate >Keep a consistent feeding BODY CONDITION SCORING > tion. Cows that lose more than 1 BCS cows to access feed more often. schedule. All Body Condition Scoring (follow- experience reduced fertility, particu- Feed management programmes that >>Provide adequate bunk access ing BCS) refer to the scale shown in larly if the loss is too rapid. consider such behavioural needs are time. Appendix: Body Condition Scoring in likely to reduce stress and aggressive Dairy Cattle. We must take corrective action for behaviours within a herd, and have a >>Ensure continuous access by animals at a BCS of 3 or lower. positive impact on herd health and pushing up feed in the bunk. The BCS targets at calving are: productivity. UNWEANED DAIRY CALVES >>Mature cows: BCS 5.0 Employ corrective measures if more than 15% of the herd is above or Cows must receive a ration that is The early nutritional status of a calf >>Heifers and rising 3-year old: BCS below ideal BCS for their stage of adequate for maintaining health and has a marked influence on its later 5.5 lactation. vigour. productivity. Colostrum feeding man- >>No more than 15% of the herd agement has an important influence below BCS 5.0 Keep records - identify animals that Recommended best practices: on the health and welfare of calves. >No more than 15% of cows above > are too thin or too fat, ascertain the >>Ensure the composition of diets BCS 5.5 cause, and manage accordingly reflects production level, reproduc- The timing of first colostrum is tive stage, body size, and weather particularly important since a calf’s The BCS targets at mating are: NUTRITION AND FEED conditions. ability to absorb colostrum is sub- MANAGEMENT >An average decrease in BCS for stantially reduced six to eight hours > >>Test nutrient content of feed Our dairy cattle will primarily be after birth. the herd after calving is no more ingredients used. than 1.0 pasture-fed 365 days a year. If the pasture is poor, in quality and/or >>Ensure that all rations have been The ability of the calf to defend itself >>No more than 15% of cows below quantity of feed, and no supplements balanced and that all feed com- against infectious diseases is directly BCS 4.0 and cows gaining BCS are being fed, make sure to reduce ponents used in the ration are of related to the amount (litres), quality the stocking rate accordingly. good quality and free of spoilage. (immunoglobulin level and hygiene), Cows should be at an ideal BCS at >Where by-products are fed to and timing of colostrum intake. The dry-off and should be fed to maintain > However, supplemental feeding may cattle, use adequate treatments result of inadequate colostrum intake this condition until calving. Post be necessary. Dairy cattle experi- to destroy potential toxins, and is a low concentration of circulating calving (calving to 120 days) cows ence a number of transition periods monitor it for toxic substances immunoglobulin (Ig) in the blood of can be expected to lose 0.5 to 1 unit (unweaned to weaned, dry to fresh) regularly. the calf, a condition known as ‘failure of BCS. Cows should not lose more that present nutritional challenges. of passive transfer’ (FPT). than 1 BCS at any time. BCS should >>Dusty feeds cause breathing and remain constant or begin to increase eye problems. Use a fine water The nutritional requirements of a cow All calves, including bobby calves, during mid-lactation. During late spray to daily dampen dusty feeds. can be met using a variety of feed must receive at least four litres of lactation, cows should gain back >>Provide fresh feed to the cow daily components. Cows can be fed a Total good quality colostrum within 12 the BCS lost during the post-calving when they are temporarily housed Mixed Ration (TMR) or alternatively a hours of birth, with the first meal period. in the cow shed, except when component based ration. occurring as soon as possible, and no fasting is required for medical more than six hours after birth. Cows that are too fat at calving are reasons. Cows are motivated to perform the more prone to reproductive and same activity at the same time (e.g. >>Minimise factors that create stress Weaned calves should be provided metabolic diseases (e.g. difficult feed, rest, ruminate). Cows also or aggressive behaviours within a with appropriate energy and protein calving, retained placenta, cystic prefer to eat during daylight hours. herd. supplements. ovaries, uterine infections, ketosis, Increased feeding frequency (at least displaced abomasum, milk fever).

100 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 101 All calves must receive a volume and >>Check the quality of colostrum with Ensure that heifers receive a ration TRANSITION COWS quality of milk or milk replacer to a colostrometer. that is adequate for maintaining Cows that are transitioning from maintain health, growth and vigour. >>Measure immunoglobulin status health, growth and vigour. gestation to lactation have increased Increase milk intake during cold in calves and feed colostrum to nutrient demands that must be met. DRY COWS stress. achieve a blood serum immunoglobulin concentration of 10 mg/ml. Dry cows require changing levels of Inadequate nutrition during this Calves are motivated to consume nutrients for maintenance and growth >>Use good hygiene practices when period can lead to both metabolic large volumes of milk (in excess of of the foetus. collecting, storing, and feeding and infectious diseases, (e.g. ketosis, eight litres per day for Holsteins). colostrum. fatty liver, milk fever). These health Calves especially benefit from Rumen dynamics also change as issues impact negatively on animal >>Provide whole milk, equivalent milk higher milk intakes during the first cows move from a high concentrate welfare, reduce milk production, replacer, or pasteurised waste/dis- four weeks of life when their ability diet during lactation to a high fibre reduce reproductive performance, carded milk to calves ad libitum. to digest solid feed is limited. The diet early in the dry period, and and shorten the animal’s life optimal amount of milk will vary >>Offer milk that is between 36 then back to a high concentrate diet expectancy. with a number of factors. For - 40°C. post-calving. A sudden introduction example, under cold conditions, >>Offer calves a minimum total daily of grain post-calving can predispose Ensure that all cattle receive a diet energy requirements increase, as the intake of 20% of body weight in cows to ruminal acidosis. that is adequate for maintaining calves need this energy to gener- whole milk (or equivalent nutrient health and vigour. ate body heat. Calves will become delivery via milk replacer) until 28 A well-balanced diet during the dry cold-stressed at approximately days of age (e.g. approximately period (including trace minerals and Recommended best practices: <10°C, requiring additional energy for vitamin supplementation) has been eight litres per day for Holstein >>Test nutrient content of feed maintenance and growth. shown to minimise the incidence of calves). ingredients used. diseases and metabolic disorders that >>Provide milk via a teat or provide Whole milk has a higher protein, fat, can occur as cows transition from >>Ensure all rations have been a dry teat after milk feeding to and digestible energy content, as well pregnancy to lactation. balanced. satisfy the calf’s motivation to suck. as a better balance of nutrients than >>‘Dense up’ or concentrate the some commercial milk replacers. >>Increase milk intake when the Dry cows must receive a ration that is ration so that a lower Dry Matter environmental temperature drops adequate for maintaining health and Intake (DMI) of a high quality, Abrupt changes in diet, using poor below 10°C (increase all fluid diets vigour. palatable feed is possible, but quality milk or milk replacer, and by 25% in winter months). avoid feeding large amounts of force-feeding with milk are all as- >>Wean calves by gradually reducing Recommended best practices: concentrates at one time, to lessen sociated with health risks for the calf, their milk over 5 - 14 days. changes in rumen pH. >>Test nutrient content of feed including diarrhoea. >>Manage group feeding systems ingredients used. >>Monitor DMI, rumen fill, body con- to reduce competition between dition score and rectal temperature >>Ensure all rations have been Ad libitum nipple feeding milk to calves. of transition cows. dairy calves can allow for increased balanced. >>Reduce incidence of milk fever by milk intake and weight gain with no >>Feed diets high in forage to reduce DAIRY HEIFERS using forage that is low in potas- detrimental effects on intake of solid the risk of sub-acute and acute The nutritional management of sium or by feeding anions to induce food after weaning. ruminal acidosis. dairy heifers requires a systematic mild acidosis in close-up dry cows. approach to meet growth targets. >>Reduce the risk of sub-acute Recommended best practices: ruminal acidosis from high con- >>Increase concentrate gradually. Nutrition and growth rate affect Concentrate should be increased >>Provide supplemental colostrum centrate diets by ensuring the diet age of first calving and lifetime gradually (0.5 to 0.7 kg per head feeding even when calves are contains sufficient coarse fibre, by productivity. per day) according to appetite. allowed to suckle from the cow. feeding total mixed rations.

102 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 103 >>Utilise feed additives, propylene HANDLING CATTLE Modify surfaces which upset the of a dog must have the dog under glycol and rumen-protected smooth movement of cattle. control at all times during cattle YARDS choline, to prevent ketosis and work. fatty liver disease. Feeding Construct and maintain sheds, yards, Cattle should be confined on con- additional grain or using dietary ramps and other areas where cattle crete surfaces as briefly as possible. Goads must be made of cane, leather supplements of fat are not suc- come together to minimise stress, Long physical contact with concrete or plastic. “Flappers” (leather straps cessful strategies for preventing injury and disease. The design and floors predisposes cattle to lameness, attached to a cane) are acceptable. fatty liver disease. construction should aim to minimise particularly in wet conditions when Metal or wooden pickets, pipes, strik- dust and noise. Additionally, design >>Ensure cows are neither the horn of the hoof is softened. ers and fencing wire are banned for the yard to avoid sudden changes in extremely thin nor over-condi- use on animals. Using electric goads levels, poor lighting, narrow passages tioned. The cow in early lacta- Maintain gravel tracks to and from or electric immobilisation on any and awkward or 90° turns. tion will lose BCS. This should paddocks, sheds or dairies to avoid animals is forbidden. not be too rapid and should not excessive hoof wear and consequent Well-designed yards will take exceed a loss of greater than 1 lameness. Do not force cattle with Using unreasonable force in twisting advantage of the natural behaviour point over the first 120 days in worn hooves to walk on rough tracks. an animal’s tail to cause it to move of cattle, and encourage their free milk. is banned. Force sufficient to cause movement through the facilities. Use HANDLING breakage or dislocation of the tail is MILKING COWS appropriate visual barriers, visible Restraint facilities must allow for unreasonable. passageways and gateways to assist Regularly test and maintain safe inspection and treatment of in easy working of cattle. Design, maintain and use electric milking machinery and equip- cattle. Construct races and crushes fences so that contact with them ment. The milking technique to allow efficient handling without Design and locate objects such as does not cause unnecessary pain should minimise the risk of endangering animals or handlers. water and feed troughs, gate hinges or distress. When first exposed to discomfort, injury and disease. Head restraint facilities must allow for and latches so as to avoid injury to quick release to avoid choking. Walk- electric fencing, cattle must have cattle. Pens must be animal proof. adequate time and space to become Develop and implement a through bails are preferred; guillotine accustomed to it. lameness management strategy, headbails are banned. Design the sheds so that animals including practices for preven- have access to natural daylight. Do not use barbed wire as part of tion, early detection and effective Do not ever drive cattle to the point any fence around yards and handling treatment. of collapse. Ensure that floors of yards, sheds, facilities. For more information see pens and loading ramps have a also the Guidelines for Fencing. Regularly assess lameness and/ Handle cattle quietly and efficiently surface that minimises slipping and or inspect the animals’ hoofs. to minimise stress, and it is best to is easy to clean. Artificial floors must Move cattle in their familiar groups. Carry out hoof trimming when avoid using enforcers. Avoid sudden be non-slip, non-abrasive, and easy to Unless the animals are normally run necessary. movements and if possible stay in the clean and dry. visible zone of the animal (out of the together, it is best to keep separate: Develop a mastitis management blind angle). >>Horned and polled animals Design holding yards to minimise strategy, which should include stress or injury and allow all animals >>Bulls and cows practices for prevention, early Never use shotgun pellets on cattle held to lie down and move freely. >>Calves and unfamiliar older cattle detection and effective treatment. as an aid to mustering (or for any other purpose). Make sure that yards have sufficient Ensure training of staff that handle slopes to provide effective drainage Limit the use of goads and dogs for livestock to avoid potential injuries and to avoid development of boggy the handling and moving of cattle to for both employee and animal, plus areas. Uneven or steeply sloping the minimum necessary to complete induced stress that lowers the animal surfaces increase the risk of falling. the procedures. A person in charge welfare.

104 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 105 HANDLING - SPECIFIC FOR >>Provide calves with an opportunity >>Design facilities to allow for easy robotics. All systems require atten- DAIRY CATTLE to exercise and engage in normal moving and grouping of animals. tion to maintaining the equipment in social behaviour. good working condition. YOUNG CALVES FEEDING AREAS >>Position hutches to minimise envi- There are distinct advantages to To maximise milk production, it is Recommended best practices: ronmental impacts (e.g. out of the housing calves in either individual important to maximise the Dry Matter wind, facing south, shaded areas). >>Implement specific milking routines pens, calf hutches, or in small groups. Intake (DMI) of the cow. To achieve appropriate to the milking system. Most of the problems that affect HEIFERS, MILKING COWS AND DRY this goal, cows may be fed a Total calves in the first few weeks of life are COWS Mixed Ration (TMR) or alternatively a >>Ensure only milking equipment associated with infectious agents or component based ration. Regardless with an appropriate vacuum level, Design and construction of facili- nutrition. However, individual housing of the type of ration, it is important pulsation rate, and pulsation ratio ties have a direct influence on cow may place limits on a calf’s opportu- to ensure cows have easy access to is used. comfort, which can be gauged by nity for exercise and social contact fresh feed throughout the day and cow behaviour and health. >>Implement procedures to identify and should be avoided unless due to that water is easily accessible. veterinary reasons. cows treated with antibiotics. We encourage the adoption of facili- Most feeding activity occurs around >>Prevent contamination of bulk tank ties and management practices that Ensure that all calves have a bed that the time of fresh feed delivery and milk with milk from treated cows by reduce environmental risk factors for provides comfort, insulation, warmth, when cows return from milking. milking the treated cows last and disease and improve cattle health dryness, and traction. Bare concrete separate the milk. and welfare. is not acceptable as a resting surface. Cows are herd animals and if one >>Clean and sanitise milking equip- feeds, often all want to feed. It is Ensure that the facilities allow cattle ment and parlours. Construct housing so the calves can important that cows have ample to easily stand up, lie down, adopt easily stand up, lie down, turn around, space to eat and that dominant cows >>Ensure the interior of the milking normal resting postures, and have adopt normal resting postures, and cannot restrict access to feeding parlour is free of protrusions or visual contact with other cattle. have physical and visual contact with areas. Stocking densities at the feed other hazards and that gates and other calves. bunk that prevent all cows from restraining devices of individual Make sure that cattle have a bed that feeding at one time increase aggres- holding units operate safely. provides comfort, insulation, warmth, Do not tether calves except for the sive competition and keep subordi- dryness and traction. Bare concrete is >>Provide slip-resistant flooring in duration of feeding (max 1 hour nate cows away from feed. per day until 10 days old). Muzzling not acceptable as a resting surface. holding pens and parlours. calves is prohibited. Recommended best practices: >>Provide adequate lighting for cow Recommended best practices: movement and milker comfort. >>Ensure feed surfaces are smooth Make sure that the bedded area for >>Be aware of behaviours that and approximately 10 - 15 cm >Inspect and maintain milking group-housed calves is large enough indicate an animal is feeling unsafe > higher than the standing area. equipment on a regular schedule. to allow all calves to rest comfortably or fearful and rectify issues. Ensure all equipment is inspected at the same time. >>Minimise competition at the feed >>Inspect cattle for injuries that by a qualified person a minimum of bunk (e.g. use physical barriers). indicate hazards in yards or other Recommended best practices: every three months. areas (e.g. hair loss, abrasions or >>Ensure alleys at the feed bunk are >>Ensure access routes are safe, >>House calves in well-managed swelling on legs, necks or other at least 4.3 m wide to allow easy illuminated and clean. groups of less than 10 calves. body parts). movement of cattle. >>Ensure crowd gates are used with >>Provide bedding suitable for the >>Ensure access routes to the milking MILKING SYSTEMS caution. housing system and seasonal parlour are free of hazards and conditions (e.g. straw offers more illuminated so the cattle can see There are three main types of milking insulation than shavings for where they are going. systems: pipeline, parlours and housing during cold months).

106 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 107 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES type of food, method of feeding and Semen collection, artificial insemina- Difficult calvings must be promptly strength of competing cattle. tion, embryo collection, embryo detected and attended by a compe- Cattle are social animals with a transfer, and associated operations tent operator. natural desire to gather in herds. Grazing cattle require supervision, must be performed only by or under Herd management and husbandry according to the class of animal, the direct supervision of qualified Manually removing retained foetal procedures should not compromise stocking density, availability of operators. membranes is seldom helpful. It must their social activity or isolate them suitable feed, reliability of the water only be carried out by a competent unnecessarily. supply, age, pregnancy status, CALVING AND WEANING operator, and only once the cotyle- climatic conditions and management PRACTICES dons are completely separated. Always handle animals with care and practices. Carry out inspections with Take care to minimise calving difficul- in a calm, easy manner, following a a frequency that prevents welfare ties, by using proper management A cow’s body condition should be consistent routine. This will reduce issues. practices, such as: considered when deciding when fear, avoid injury, make observation >>Selecting heifers for mating only to wean the calf. Calves must be and treatment easier, and enhance MATING when they have reached the weaned only when their ruminant animal wellbeing and productivity. When testing bulls for serving capac- minimum target weight for the digestive systems have developed ity, only use mature cows with normal breed. sufficiently to enable them to main- Do not carry out procedures and reproductive organs; and only use tain growth and wellbeing. practices that cause pain, if painless >>Avoiding over- or under-feeding them for maximum two hours in any and practical methods of husbandry pregnant cows and heifers. 24-hour period. Cattle handlers should use weaning can be adopted to achieve the same >>Avoiding mating heifers to large time to familiarise weaners with result. Females which have had one calf bulls. routine management practices. This may be used with 2 - 3-year-old bulls; will make handling easier and reduce Minimise restraint to perform man- older cows must be used with adult Supervise cows close to calving, stress in later life. These practices agement procedures efficiently. bulls. and summon veterinary help early if may include handling in yards and needed. facilities, feeding from troughs or Promptly treat any illness or dis- Do not mate cows with bulls whose feeders, working through yards, tress observed. Undertake hygienic calves are likely to be too large to be Calving should occur in a sheltered trucking, and working with horses, precautions for all operations. born normally. and well-drained area where it is pos- dogs or motor bikes. sible to closely observe them. Unless SUPERVISION For natural mating, be vigilant about assistance is required, avoid disturb- In any situation, supervision must diseases transmitted by natural ing the cows. be carried out by competent stock service. Always provide secure persons. Relate the frequency and footing, and freedom from hazards The diet of the pregnant or lactating level of inspection to the potential for mounting and breeding behaviour. cow must be maintained at a level risks to the welfare of cattle and their that will minimise calving difficulties, handlers. Only experienced veterinarians or and favour calf survival. Frequently trained artificial inseminators can check calving cows, where possible, On a daily basis, inspect cattle kept carry out artificial insemination of but with minimal disturbance. under intensive management in cattle. Trainee artificial inseminators sheds, lots or yards, and provide feed must practise this procedure only Calving induction should only be and access to water. under the direct supervision of an done when necessary for the welfare experienced veterinarian or a trained of the individual cow or calf. Shy feeders require special atten- artificial inseminator. tion and treatment, depending upon

108 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 109 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - animals may be dried-off earlier for milking area or milking animals are associated with a professional SPECIFIC FOR DAIRY CATTLE other farm management reasons for the first few days after association. e.g. feed shortages. The aim is to dry-off. >Ensure restraint devices are safe for MILKING > shut down milk secretion and allow >>Cows should be monitored personnel and cattle. Minimising stress on cows in the the teat canal to seal as rapidly as weekly for signs of udder pain milking facility is very important. possible. or swelling for at least 3 weeks UDDER HAIR REMOVAL after dry-off. Long udder hairs trap and accumu- Proper milking procedures, gentle Generally, management procedures late dirt and manure. This increases handling, calm cows, clean udders such as feed restriction and reduced HOOF TRIMMING difficulty, time and labour for sanitis- and a clean environment contribute milking frequency are used to lower Claws grow about 5 - 7 mm per ing teats and preparing for milking. to the production of quality milk. milk yield around the time of drying- month. However, the walking The risk of off-flavour milk is greater off, rather than a sudden cessation surface affects the rate of growth in herds that do not clip the udder As there is a correlation between the of milking. Although lower feeding and location of wear. For example, hairs. amount of time standing on hard sur- levels seem to reduce discomfort toes wear quickly on sand or very faces and lameness, take measures to after dry-off, cows fed less are likely abrasive surfaces. Overgrowth of Excessive hair affects the clean- minimise the time cows spend away to experience hunger. Alternative the heel of the lateral claw of the ing ability of automated (robotic) from feed and water and a comfort- dry-off procedures, such as feeding hind foot is a common finding. milkers. Clipping udders has not been able stall. low-quality diets ad libitum may found to increase the incidence of help lower milk yields before dry-off, Toes tend to wear more slowly intra-mammary infections, reduce Recommended best practices: without causing hunger. because they are harder and total milk bacterial counts, or counts >>Train milkers and monitor and heels wear faster since the horn of environmental organisms. Drying-off may increase udder correct their practices. is softer. Claw trimming is an pressure in high yielding cows and in- >>Milk cows at regular fixed intervals important tool to prevent and Producers use electric clippers to crease the risk of mastitis. Therefore, (e.g. same time each day). Ensure treat lameness and should form remove hair from udders; however, cows need to be managed carefully lactating cows are not left un- part of an overall claw-health clipping is time consuming and during the drying-off period, includ- milked or with overly full udders. programme. hazardous. An alternative is flame- ing the first month of the dry period. clipping or singeing. The technique >>Achieve a complete milk-out. Drinking water must be available for Trim each claw to its own ‘normal’ uses a cool flame and quick pass >>Avoid painful or stressful proce- all cows throughout the drying-off structure in order to prevent under the udder to singe the hair dures (e.g. injections) in the milking period. hoof disease. Over-trimming is off. Improper use of equipment or parlour. a common error that can cause technique may burn teat ends. >>Minimise milking and holding times Recommended best practices: lameness. Only skilled individu- such that time away from feed and >>The drying-off process should be als should trim claws on cattle. Recommended best practices: water is kept to a minimum. done in a manner that minimises Inspect and trim feet and claws as >>Train workers or employ competent discomfort. >>Keep complete records, and required to minimise lameness. individuals for the task. observe cows for signs of: >>Cows should be milked less >>Remove hair from udders on a frequently for one week before Recommended best practices: • Mastitis regular schedule. dry-off. >>Preferably trim claws ap- • Swelling, inflammation or harden- >>Use clippers with sharp blades or >Cows should have reduced food proximately two months before ing of the udder > flame-clip with a cool flame. intake for the last few days before calving to prevent or minimise • Abnormal milk drying-off and for one week after. lameness after calving. >>Ensure animals are properly restrained. DRYING-OFF >>Cows should be put in a clean, >>Employ trained claw trimmers. Seek out hoof trimmers that Cows are generally dried-off at the dry paddock, well away from the end of their lactation. Individual

110 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 111 INTENSIVE CATTLE SYSTEMS >>Able to freely walk on and off Do not transport cows more than SURGICAL PROCEDURES transport vehicles eight months pregnant for journeys We do not operate intensive cattle Surgical procedures may cause pain >>Free of any injuries and with taking longer than eight hours due systems. and stress, but this can be reduced minimal bruising to the increased risk of metabolic disease and injury. They must be with minimal restraint and competent >>Minimally stressed All our cattle are free range. offered food and water as soon operators. as possible after arrival at the Use only reputable transport destination. Surgical procedures must only take ARTIFICIAL REARING OF companies. place under supervision of or instruc- CATTLE BORN OF BEEF Do not transport cows which have tion by a veterinarian. CALVES Load cattle quietly, preferably recently given birth until at least 4 without use of enforcers. We do not rear calves born of beef days after calving. Pay strict attention to the suitability cattle artificially and we keep beef of the work area in which the opera- Weak cattle, or cattle in poor condi- calves with their mothers. Ensure that lactating dairy cows in tion is to be performed, the catching tion, which lie down after limited full production and without calves at facilities and the type and amount of exercise are not fit to travel, and must foot must be milked at intervals not restraint. not be permitted to do so. Instead, TRANSPORT exceeding 24 hours. feed and water them until they are fit Maintain and adequately sterilise Animals being transported are to travel or promptly and humanely all equipment prior to use. Practise subject to a number of stresses, During transport, make sure that destroyed. proper hygiene, and give the animals which may have cumulative effects. cattle are not deprived of food longer than 36 hours, or 24 hours adequate after-care. Stressful influences include: Avoid consigning any cattle of poor for pregnant and lactating cows. temperament or with signs of severe >>Yarding and handling Animals must be fed within 2 hours When tetanus is known to be a risk, stress. consider implementing a vaccina- >>Deprivation of water and food of arrival unless sent to the slaughter immediately. tion programme against tetanus >>Changes in climatic conditions Direct consignment cattle should be to prevent the risk associated with processed within 48 hours from dis- When bulls are haltered and tied surgical procedures. >>Overcrowding or isolation, unfa- patch to slaughter, with a maximum miliar surroundings, noises and within the stock crate, never fit the of 36 hours in road transport, which Stock managers must be trained in sensations shank through a nose ring. can also include a rest period of up to all surgical husbandry procedures or 12 hours. >>Physiological responses associated It is recommended to pen in separate employ experienced operators. with pregnancy groups or individually: Transport weakened cattle which DISBUDDING AND DEHORNING Transporting cattle requires careful are strong enough to travel to their >>Young calves Disbudding and dehorning are done destination by the shortest possible planning to reduce any adverse >>A cow with a suckling calf for the safety of cattle and their effects. Selecting, handling and route. caregivers. preparing animals must be under- >>Horned cattle Calves must be strong enough to taken or supervised by competent >>Adult bulls Disbudding young calves is recom- stockworkers. withstand the stresses of transporta- mended over dehorning older calves tion. Make sure they are transported >>Cattle different in size because it is less invasive. The main objective is to start and in vehicles with enclosed fronts to >>Weak cattle finish the journey with livestock that prevent windchill. Calves weighing All calves must be disbudded to are: less than 23 kg or with wet umbili- >>Females in advanced stages of avoid injuries and behavioural cal cords must not be presented for pregnancy >>Fit to travel problems associated with horns in transport. later life. It is also important that the >>Hydrated

112 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 113 job of disbudding be done correctly Older animals may be “tipped” (ends the stress of unmanaged pregnancy, Take care when applying volatile to avoid the regrowth of horn in the of horns removed without cutting calving and lactation. It also assists pour-on treatments when hot-iron future. into sensitive horn tissue) without in controlling the genetic quality of branding. anaesthetic in order to reduce their the herd. Calves should be disbudded as young potential to cause injury. Conduct ear tagging and tattooing as possible. Disbudding of calves Surgical spaying must be conducted in a way that minimises the risk of under three months of age can be We recommend breeding for polled as quickly as possible by a skilled op- infection and tearing of the ear. Make done by Ingleby personnel if each cattle, as this makes dehorning erator, preferably a veterinarian, using sure that ear marking and tattooing calf has been anaesthetised by a vet- unnecessary. hygienic materials and technique. instruments are sharp and clean, and erinarian right before the procedure. that relevant hygienic techniques are CASTRATION Passage webbing or the dropped followed. Dehorning domesticated cattle must Castration is only allowed on very ovary technique (DOT) should be be undertaken by a veterinarian and young animals, preferably under 3 used in preference to other surgical Take care when applying an ear tag always by use of local analgesics. months of age and before weaning, methods for cattle spaying, where to avoid hitting the cartilage ridges and castration by knife or burdizzo possible. or major blood vessels. The recommended methods for de- without analgesics/anaesthetics is horning of calves are by heat cautery, prohibited. In mature cows where there is a Branding with corrosive chemicals is scoop dehorners or gouging knife, as greater risk of haemorrhage, use unacceptable. soon as the horn buds are detectable. Only under exceptional circumstanc- webbing by the passage approach Dehorning by means of chemicals or es must castration of older animals should where possible. TAIL DOCKING rubber/elastic bands is unacceptable. be performed, and then only by a Dairy cattle must not be tail docked veterinarian. Adequate restraint, such as a suitable unless medically necessary to treat Ensure that heat cautery is heated to squeeze crush, is essential. injury or disease, and then only under at least 600 degrees Celsius and that Calves must be at least 24 hours old veterinary advice. it keeps this temperature during the before castration, and castration with Spayed females must be rapidly entire dehorning process. Cut away rubber rings is recommended for returned to familiar and clean sur- We do not buy tail-docked animals. the hair around the horn buds before calves up to 2 weeks of age. roundings following the operation. burning. Inspect the cattle after the operation EXTRA TEAT REMOVAL In veal production, castration can (with or without mustering). Supernumerary teats may be found If the buds measure more than one be opted out. If calves are kept over as extensions of a primary teat, IDENTIFICATION centimetre, cut them away before 1 year, then they must be castrated between the front and rear teats, and burning. Burn one horn bud at a time, in order to avoid wilder tempers Ear-tagging, ear-marking, ear- behind rear teats. Supernumerary without interruption and as fast as that can jeopardize staff safety and notching, ear-tattooing, fire-branding, teats are a concern because they may possible within twenty seconds per induce stress in other animals. freeze-branding, electronic charac- be connected to the primary teat, horn bud. terisation, and photography are the posing a risk for leakage or entry for SPAYING preferred methods of identifying infection. They may also interfere Do not burn more than once at each Spaying by vaccination is preferred to cattle, from a welfare viewpoint. with the machine milking. horn bud. Hold the animal tight to surgical spaying. Spaying can benefit avoid the head from moving during animal welfare and production under Avoid hot-iron branding wet cattle. Trained personnel must perform teat the dehorning. extensive conditions where females The correct time period of applica- removal as soon as it is identified. cannot be segregated from males, tion and temperature of the iron This procedure should only take place After disbudding or dehorning, regu- particularly feral males and in other should be used when hot-iron brand- under supervision of or instruction by larly inspect the cattle for the first ten limited circumstances. It enables ing. Avoid hot-iron branding weak or a veterinarian. days, and treat any infected wounds. cull females to survive and achieve extremely thin cattle. marketable condition by preventing

114 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 115 HEALTH Veterinary medicines must only be >>Upset controlled breeding pro- The person in charge must have the used in accordance with registra- grams and prevent controlled relevant knowledge, experience and Preventing ill-health or distress is tion conditions, manufacturer’s genetic improvement. skills to kill the animal humanely, or much better than curing. Good stock instructions or professional advice be under the direct supervision of a handlers will have effective preventa- and only as a result of veterinarian If the health and welfare of the person who does. tive programmes in place. They will prescription. domestic herd is threatened, you also be familiar with their animals’ should remove or humanely destroy Exceptions to the recommended normal behaviour, recognise early Professional advice must be sought the feral cattle. practice may occur under extreme signs of disease or distress, have a where there is any significant injury conditions. In these circumstances, planned animal health programme or disease, or if a problem persists. common sense and genuine concern in place and take immediate action HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF for animal and human welfare should when necessary. Recommended best practices: CATTLE prevail. >>Stock handlers should be familiar Acceptable methods for the humane Signs of illness include any difference with the more common health slaughter of cattle are: from normal appearance or behaviour c problems of dairy cattle and organ- a such as: listlessness, separation from >>Overdose of anaesthetic under ise prompt and/or expert attention the herd, lameness, changes in milk, veterinary supervision (note that should they occur. faeces or urine, abnormal swellings tissue residues will render the b or growths on any part of the body, >>Separate sick animals from healthy carcass unfit for human or pet bloat, lack of coordination when companions. consumption if this technique is moving, pus or bloody discharge >>Humanely take down incurably ill used). from body orifices, recumbency, animals. >>Euthanasia using gunshot or physical depression, evidence of pain captive-bolt pistol by the frontal such as grunting and/or groaning, method. The captive-bolt pistol extreme nervousness and twitching, FERAL CATTLE or firearm must be directed at the excess salivation, coughing or diffi- Control of feral cattle is essential to point of intersection of lines taken cult breathing, loss of weight or body the welfare of the domestic herd, from the base of each ear to the a condition, changes in behaviour and because feral cattle: opposite eye. demeanour, changes in appetite and >>Cause difficulties in mustering, eating behaviour, lack of or excessive b handling, population control and An animal stunned with a captive- chewing, or lack of gut fill. disease control in domestic cattle bolt pistol must be bled out by sever- herds. ing the major vessels of the neck as Conditions which are painful and soon as it collapses to the ground. warrant immediate treatment are >>Makes it difficult to assess stocking serious injury, purulent infections, rates. To avoid injury due to the animal’s severe haemorrhage, deep wounds, >>Compete for feed and can cause involuntary leg movements, the op- bone fractures, lameness, severe or nutritional deficiencies. erator should stand behind the neck. chronic inflammation or damage to >>Contribute to land degradation. the eye and surrounding structures. >>Can act as reservoirs of disease- Methods may also be by gunshot a) Position for frontal method causing organisms and impede using the temporal or poll methods. Those responsible for the welfare (captive bolt pistol or firearm) disease control. All other methods of slaughter are of animals must be competent at b) Position for temporal method unacceptable. recognising ill-health or injury and >>May fight with, injure or kill domes- (firearms only) tic bulls and unnecessarily stress take remedial action as appropriate. c) Position for poll method (fire- the female cattle. Use of shotguns is not recommended for destruction of animals. arms only)

116 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 117 APPENDIX 1: BODY CONDITION SCORING IN DAIRY CATTLE BODY CONDITION SCORING OVERVIEW Below is an illustration of a dairy cow with the optimum Body Condition Score of 5. The Ingleby Body Condition Scoring The BCS targets at mating are: guidelines are based on The refer- >>An average decrease in BCS for ence guide for New Zealand dairy Rump the herd after calving is no more Hips Backbone farmers - the DairyNZ body condition than 1.0 scoring, and their publication Body >>No more than 15% of cows below Condition Scoring Made Easy – The BCS 4.0 and cows gaining BCS official field guide, published in June 2011. WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN BODY CONDITION SCORING Body Condition Scoring (BCS) is an estimate of the fat reserves on a >>Backbone cow’s body. BCS provides useful in- Is the backbone flat or is there a formation on the outcome of a cow’s ridge? previous feed levels, current health Can you see or easily feel notches? status, and future feed requirements >>Long ribs and productivity. Can you see or easily feel the ribs? Short ribs If visible, how many can you see? The BCS scale used in New Zealand Long ribs scales from 1 - 10, whereby a BCS >>Short ribs Thigh below 3 means the cow requires Can you see the short ribs? urgent action. A cow with a BCS What do they feel like? greater than 6 is considered obese. Are the rib ends sharp or rounded?

>>Hip bones One BCS unit change is the equiva- Backbone Are the hip bones rounded or lent of 6.58% of cow liveweight. The angular? average liveweight for NZ Holstein- Friesian is 500 kg, and 1 BCS unit >>Rump change is 33 kg liveweight. The live- Is the area between the pins and weight for overseas Holstein-Friesian hip bone flat, sunken or hollow? is 550 kg, and 1 BCS unit change is 36 Thigh > kg liveweight. > Pin bones Are they pointed, “tap-like” or rounded? The BCS targets at calving are: >>Mature cows: BCS 5.0 >>Tailhead Is there a hollow between the >>Heifers and rising 3-year old: BCS tailhead and pin bones? 5.5 Is it a deep V or shallow U shape? Pins >>No more than 15% of the herd Hips below BCS 5.0 >>Thigh Is the area indented, flat or >>No more than 15% of cows above rounded? BCS 5.5 Tailhead Is the muscle structure defined?

118 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 119 BODY CONDITION SCORE 2.5 BODY CONDITION SCORE 3.0

Backbone Backbone

Very prominent with visible notches Prominent ridge. “Roofing-iron” that can easily be counted. corrugations.

Long ribs Long ribs

The long ribs may be visible as far 4 to 5 ribs easily seen. down as the top of the udder.

Short ribs Short ribs

Clearly visible and easily counted. The Prominent with edges sharp to the short ribs will have very sharp edges. touch.

Hips Hips

Deep depressions on the side of the Angular, sharp edges. Depressions on hip bone. sides appearing.

Pins Pins

Very clear, three-pronged tap Tap-like appearance. Sharp edges. formation.

Tailhead Tailhead

Very prominent and angular, with a very Deep “V”-shape depression. Tailhead deep “V”-shape. prominent, bumpy profile.

Rump Rump

Severely depressed (hollow). Deeply dished.

Thigh Thigh

No visible fat and very little muscle. Indented. No visible fat. Muscle structure defined

120 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 121 BODY CONDITION SCORE 4.0 BODY CONDITION SCORE 5.0

Backbone Backbone

Ridge raised. Ridgeline uneven and Ridge easily visible but rounded and bumpy to the touch. smooth.

Long ribs Long ribs

2 to 3 ribs visible but rounded. Ribs Not visible but rounded to the touch. easily felt.

Short ribs Short ribs

Individual ribs can be seen. Rounded at Rounded, individual ribs not visible but the ends. can be felt.

Hips Hips

No sharp edges (smooth). Flattened Rounded. Curved in profile. top.

Pins Pins

Tap-like appearance. Rounded edges. Rounded.

Tailhead Tailhead

Shallow “U”-shape. Tail smooth. Base Tail rounded. Depression under tail around tailhead is sunken. filled. Even, no sharp edges.

Rump Rump

Slightly depressed. Dished. Flat even cover.

Thigh Thigh

Slight depression. Smooth and flat.

122 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF BEEF & DAIRY CATTLE 123 BODY CONDITION SCORE 6.0

Backbone

Ridge forms a bump. Starting to round across the loin.

Long ribs

Well-rounded with fat cover felt.

Short ribs

Rounded with fat cover felt.

Hips

Rounded with fat cover starting to appear.

Pins

Well-rounded. Fat cover starting to appear.

Tailhead

Fat cover starting to bulge.

Rump

Starting to round.

Thigh

Starting to round.

124 INGLEBY GUIDELINES View from the office, Tasmania. Photographer: Stephen Creese APPENDIX 2: WATER CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES

WATER CONSUMPTION IN LITRES • Excess minerals or compounds such as nitrates, sodium Average daily Peak daily Type of livestock consumption consumption sulphates, Dairy cows in milk 70 85 • Biological contaminants (bacte- Dairy cows dry 45 60 ria, algae, viruses). Beef cattle 45 60 Calves 22 30 SALINITY Salty water can cause gastrointestinal Note: These are average figures and there will be wide variation in practice depending on climate symptoms, wasting and sometimes and the water content of feed death. The severity of the symptoms can depend on other factors which WATER QUALITY must be taken into account with High water quality is vital for the knowledge of local conditions. health of livestock. Livestock growth and production can be diminished Factors to consider: when animals consume water con- >>Tolerance to salinity varies from taining high levels of contaminants. high to low in: sheep, cattle and Contaminated water leads to reduced buffalo, horses, pigs, poultry. feed intake and increased vulnerabil- ity to heat stress. >>Climate - e.g. animals are less tolerant to salty waters during hot, Water must be tested at least every dry periods. 5 years under normal circumstances, >>Age and condition - lactating, whereas any unusual situation such growing and weak animals require as changes in water smell, clarity, better quality water. taste, or changes in animals eating or drinking habits, loss of performance, >>Composition of pastures - higher or health problems must immediately salinity water is tolerated better if trigger the need for water testing. cattle are on green pastures.

>Habituation - stock not accus- The key properties to take into > tomed to salty water can suffer consideration while assessing water ill effects or refuse to drink, but quality for livestock include: adjust if introduced gradually. >>Sensory (organoleptic) attributes such as odour and taste Where the salinity of water may be high, make sure to test it for its suit- >>Physiochemical properties (pH, ability as stock drinking water. salinity, hardness)

>>Chemical composition: • Toxic compounds (heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, etc.),

126 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Dairy cattle, Tasmania. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen 127 This code outlines sound sheep be adequately protected. This code husbandry practices, and should be is intended to encourage all those treated as guidelines, as good stock responsible for sheep, and espe- handlers need to be flexible in their cially the inexperienced, to adopt the approach to caring for their animals. highest standards of husbandry.

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF Good stock persons are competent BASIC WELFARE NEEDS SHEEP and flexible in their approach to Animal welfare considerations are sheep management. The skills for becoming increasingly important for managing and handling sheep keeping and raising animals. Practices include the ability to: which may once have been deemed The Ingleby code of practice for the >>Work so that stress to sheep is acceptable are now being reassessed welfare of sheep is based on the minimised CONTENTS and modified according to new Australian Model Code of Practice for >>Allow the natural behaviour of knowledge and changing attitudes. the Welfare of Animals-Sheep and sheep has been adapted for use in Ingleby. >>Recognise the early signs of 129 BASIC WELFARE NEEDS The basic requirements for the 129 Food welfare of sheep are: distress or disease and to initiate 130 Water The original Model Code was prompt and appropriate preventive >>A level of nutrition adequate to 130 Air prepared for the Standing Committee or remedial action 130 Precautions against drought on Agriculture and Resource sustain good health and vigour >>Maintain appropriate records to 131 Protection from climatic Management (SCARM) and endorsed >>Access to sufficient water of suit- extremes and predation optimise welfare (e.g. breeding pur- by the Agriculture and Resource able quality to meet physiological 131 Protection from disease poses, such as recording lambing Management Council of Australia and needs 131 Fallen stock disposal ease) New Zealand (ARMCANZ) for use as 131 INTENSIVE SHEEP SYSTEMS >>Social contact with other sheep; a national code. It was prepared in but with sufficient space to stand, FOOD 131 SHEEP HANDLING FACILITIES consultation with the relevant indus- lie down and stretch their limbs Ensure that sheep have a diet avail- 132 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES try organisations and state agencies. >Protection from extreme weather able which is nutritionally adequate 132 Supervision > which may be life threatening to maintain health and meet the ap- 133 Handling and movement We have adapted this code to assist propriate physiological requirements 133 Shearing all people handling sheep on Ingleby >>Adequate shade and shelter 133 Dipping for growth, pregnancy, lactation and farms. The aims of this code are: >>Provision of reasonable precautions 133 Foot paring to withstand cold exposure. against the effects of natural dis- 134 Horn trimming >>To promote humane and consider- 134 Lambing asters e.g. fire-breaks and fodder ate treatment of sheep, and the During transport, make sure that 134 Orphan lambs storage use of good husbandry practices to sheep are not deprived of food 134 HUSBANDRY PROCEDURES improve the welfare of sheep in all >>Protection from predation longer than 36 hours, or 24 hours for 135 Tail docking types of sheep farming enterprises. 135 Castration >>Protection from pain, injury and pregnant and lactating ewes. Feed disease the animals within 2 hours of arrival 135 Mulesing >>To inform all people involved with 135 Identification unless they are sent to the slaughter the care and management of sheep 135 Teeth grinding/trimming The basic needs must be met, ir- immediately. about their responsibilities. 136 HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF respective of the nature of husbandry SHEEP >>To set an Ingleby standard by or farming system. In all systems of management, carry defining acceptable sheep man- out continuous assessments of the agement practices. Without good stockmanship, the needs of the sheep in relation to the welfare of our animals can never amount, quality and continuity of

128 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF SHEEP 129 feed supply. For example, grazing Make sure that sheep are not Carefully observe sheep being fed for are common in a district or are likely animals deplete soil nutrients deprived of water for longer than 24 survival at feeding times. Consider to occur in a flock. progressively, which in turn leads to hours, or 12 hours for pregnant and segregating weak animals for special poor pasture quality and growth rate. lactating ewes during transport. Give treatment. Given the risk of antimicrobial Regularly monitor this by soil and the animals water within 2 hours of resistance transferring from livestock pasture analyses. arrival unless sent to the slaughter PROTECTION FROM CLIMATIC to humans the use of veterinary immediately. EXTREMES AND PREDATION medicines should be used only when Keep sheep away from toxic plants Take all reasonable precautions to necessary. Practices such as blanket and other substances suspected of As a guide, sheep should not be minimise the effects of weather that and preemptive treatments should being detrimental to their health. deprived of water for more than 48 produce either cold stress or heat only be used as a last resort to hours. This period should be reduced stress in sheep. Freshly shorn sheep prevent an outbreak spreading from a The use of any drug for growth in the event of hot weather. and newborn lambs are particularly few veterinary diagnosed individuals. promotion is banned. susceptible. AIR The best form of protection is WATER Do not keep or expose sheep to any Provide windbreaks in the form of prevention; in the form of sound Ensure that sheep have safe access to situation where the air is so contami- scrub or planted trees, long grass or stock management encompassing cool, clear water; regularly assess the nated with dust or noxious chemicals artificial shelter to reduce the effects best management practices of animal quality and quantity of water supply. that it can harm the long-term of cold weather. welfare and hygiene standards. Make sure that the watering points welfare of those animals. are of sufficient capacity. Provide shade where sheep would Manage medication, including Dust is not only a health hazard but otherwise suffer from heat stress. vaccines, drenches and dips, in Regularly inspect the mechanical may impede smooth, safe working of accordance with the manufacturer’s equipment controlling the delivery sheep in yards. In areas subject to flooding, care is instructions, or under veterinary of water, and more frequently in hot necessary in paddock and facility supervision. weather, and keep it in good working PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DROUGHT design to allow access to some safe order. Drought is defined as a severe food high ground, or to plan for stock FALLEN STOCK DISPOSAL and/or water shortage following evacuation to high ground. Comply with legal measures to Ensure that the quality of water prolonged periods of abnormally low dispose of fallen stock in a manner provided is adequate to maintain rainfall. It is not a normal seasonal Maintain adequate fire breaks. that is safe for the environment and sheep health. decline in the quantity and quality of health of other livestock. Please find food available. Promptly attend to sheep in the measures for sound carcass disposal To minimise effects, monitor and event of fire, flood, injury or disease. under the guideline for managing manage drinking water which con- Prepare and implement farm strate- waste. tains potentially toxic levels of salts, gies for drought management well in Where predation is known to occur, or other harmful substances. Please advance. take reasonable precautions. find a section on this in the code of INTENSIVE SHEEP SYSTEMS PROTECTION FROM DISEASE practice for the welfare of cattle. If you are a manager with limited or We do not operate intensive sheep no previous experience of drought Give prompt and appropriate treat- systems. Where sufficient good quality management, you should seek guid- ment to sick, injured or diseased water to maintain health cannot be ance from qualified advisers. sheep, or ensure they are humanely provided, move the sheep to other slaughtered. Seek advice from quali- SHEEP HANDLING areas where an adequate supply is Where drought feeding is the fied personnel. FACILITIES available. Alternatively, sell them or preferred option, make sure to start it Well-designed sheep handling facili- slaughter them humanely on site. Take appropriate preventative before paddock feed runs out. ties, and the ease with which animals measures for sheep for diseases that flow through them, have important

130 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF SHEEP 131 implications for the welfare of the when it is performed quickly and HANDLING AND MOVEMENT Ensure training of staff that handle sheep. competently. There are times when sheep need to livestock, to avoid potential injuries be handled for close inspection or for both employee and animal, plus When new sheep yards are to be con- Minimise restraint used on sheep shifted to another place. It is essential induced stress that lowers the animal structed or existing yards modified, to efficiently carry out the required that the staff handle the sheep gently welfare. always seek expert advice. procedures. to reduce stress to individual sheep and to other sheep nearby. Use only reputable transport Construct and maintain sheds and Apply practices that cause pain in companies. yards to minimise the risk of injury such a way that pain is minimised If drafting facilities are not available, and stress. and do not carry it out if practical you can catch a sheep by one leg, Load sheep quietly, preferably with alternatives can be used to achieve but not pull it by one leg. If carrying no use of enforcers. Design the sheds so that animals the same results. is necessary, never lift the sheep by have access to natural daylight. their wool. Avoid consigning any sheep of poor Ensure that management pro- temperament or with signs of severe Design passageways, races, entrances cedures are only performed by Handle sheep quietly and efficiently stress. and exits to take advantage of the competent persons or under the to minimise stress, and it is best to behavioural patterns of sheep. direct supervision of an experienced avoid using enforcers. Avoid sudden SHEARING operator. Undertake relevant hygienic movements and if possible stay in the It is normal practice to shear sheep Make sure that the floors of sheds precautions. visible zone of the animal (out of the annually. At other times of the year, and yards have surfaces that mini- blind angle). consider additional limited shearing mise the risk of injury and disease SUPERVISION in the form of crutching, wigging and and allow sheep to stand and walk Ensure that sheep are sufficiently Move sheep quietly through yards ringing to reduce the risk of flystrike, normally. inspected to maintain a sound and with the minimum of force by dogs minimise impairment of vision, and healthy condition. or people. Take care around gates to the incidence of stained wool. Where sheep are held in yards for avoid injuries. extended periods, ensure that their The frequency and thoroughness of Because shearing is stressful, try to requirements for food and water are inspection should be related to the Take precautions to prevent smother- avoid undue handling and exposure met. likelihood of risk to the welfare of ing of closely confined sheep. Lambs to adverse weather. the sheep in relation to food, water, and weaners are at particular risk. Do not use barbed wire as part of protection against natural disasters, Return sheep to food and water as any fence around yards and handling predators, diseases and the likelihood The use of dogs and goading devices soon as possible after shearing. facilities. of parasites, e.g. flystrike. for handling sheep must be limited to the minimum needed to complete the Where circumstances indicate, treat For more information on fencing, see Once a day, an experienced stock- procedures. cuts made during shearing to prevent also the guidelines for fencing. handler should check housed sheep infection and flystrike. for signs of injury, changes in food Make sure that dogs that bite are ef- DIPPING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES and water intake, illness or distress. fectively muzzled while working and restrained when not working. Construct and operate dips or A large number of husbandry/ Sheep grazing under more extensive showers in a manner that minimises management practices are required conditions require variable supervi- Adjust transport times to match injury, disease and stress to sheep. in any sheep farming enterprise. The sion according to the density of favourable weather conditions. consequences of failing to perform stocking, availability of suitable Dramatic changes in temperature FOOT PARING certain husbandry procedures may feed, reliability of water supply, age, during transport, such as a cold snap Sheep with poor hoof conforma- result in far more pain and distress to pregnancy status, climatic conditions or heavy rain, will cause undue stress. tion, or grazed on soft ground, may the animal than the procedure itself, and management practices. require regular foot paring.

132 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF SHEEP 133 Sheep affected with foot disease may Fostering is a realistic option; espe- TAIL DOCKING IDENTIFICATION need to have diseased tissue pared cially on small farms. Some will need Tail docking is a recommended When it is necessary to mark sheep away by a sharp instrument. colostrum or colostrum substitutes, practice for blowfly control. It should for permanent identification, you can followed by milk on a regular basis. be performed on lambs as early as either tattoo the ear, or tag, notch or Keep the paring to the minimum management practices will allow; hole-punch it. necessary to remove affected tissue Provide them with warmth and preferably between one and two and ensure it will not result in severe shelter. weeks. Animals over two weeks Electronic methods may also be lameness. require an anaesthetic. acceptable. Humanely destroy weak lambs with Do not use paring in sheep with feet very little chance of survival. Acceptable methods of tail docking, Ensure that ear marking instruments affected by a foot abscess. without anaesthesia, are cutting with are sharp, with the cutting edges HUSBANDRY PROCEDURES a sharp knife, rubber rings applied undamaged, to prevent tearing of the HORN TRIMMING according to the manufacturer’s rec- ear. It can be necessary to cut back the Surgical procedures may cause pain ommendation, or a gas flame heated horns of rams and some wethers to and stress, but this can be reduced searing iron used according to the Ear tagging can cause some tearing avoid injury from an ingrowing horn, with minimal restraint and competent manufacturer’s recommendations. of the ears if not conducted properly; injury to other sheep and to allow operators. take care to avoid hitting the carti- free movement through handling Ensure that the docked tail is just lage ridges or major blood vessels. races. Make sure that all surgical procedures long enough to cover the vulva in take place under supervision of or female sheep and a similar length for TEETH GRINDING/TRIMMING Limit the amount of horn removed to under instruction by a veterinarian. males. Corrective dental procedures avoid damage to soft horn tissue and conducted on individual sheep may associated bleeding. Pay strict attention to the suitability CASTRATION be beneficial to their health and of the work area in which the opera- Castration may be unnecessary if all wellbeing. LAMBING tion is to be performed, the catching lambs are marketed for slaughter Ewe flocks lambing under grazing facilities and the type and amount of prior to puberty, which generally There is no current scientific evidence conditions should be disturbed as restraint. occurs at an age of 4 - 6 months. that either teeth grinding or trim- little as possible. However, monitor ming performed on a flock basis has the flocks adequately to ensure that Maintain and sterilise instruments ad- Where castration is required, make beneficial effects on health, wellbe- ewes having difficulty are given equately prior to use. Practise proper sure it is performed on lambs as early ing or productivity. Therefore this is attention and to ensure that other hygiene and give animals adequate as management practices will allow, not recommended as routine flock problems, such as pregnancy toxae- after-care. preferably before two weeks. Animals management procedures. mia and predation, are not occurring. older than two weeks require an Provide all stock managers with anaesthetic. Both teeth grinding and teeth trim- Access to a sheltered paddock is training in all surgical husbandry ming have the potential for causing recommended for lambing ewe procedures or employ experienced Rubber rings applied according to acute and chronic pain in some flocks, if the risk of bad weather at operators. the manufacturer’s recommendation animals. lambing is high. are an acceptable method of castrat- When tetanus is known to be a risk, ing male lambs, without anaesthesia. ORPHAN LAMBS consider applying a vaccination pro- Where orphan and stray lambs gramme against tetanus to prevent MULESING the risk associated with surgical can be identified, ensure that they The removal of wool-bearing skin procedures. are either humanely killed or given from part of the breech area of the attention. sheep (mulesing) is prohibited.

134 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF SHEEP 135 HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF Ensure that the person in charge has SHEEP the relevant knowledge, experience and skills to kill the animal humanely, Acceptable methods for the humane or be under the direct supervision of slaughter of sheep are: a person who does. >>Overdose of anaesthetic under veterinary supervision (note that Exceptions to the recommended tissue residues will render the practice may occur under extreme carcass unfit for human or pet conditions. In these circumstances, consumption if this technique is common sense and genuine concern used). for animal and human welfare should prevail. >>Euthanasia using gunshot or captive-bolt pistol by the frontal c a method. The captive-bolt pistol or firearm must be directed at the point of intersection of lines taken b from the base of each ear to the opposite eye.

Ensure that an animal stunned with a captive-bolt pistol is bled out by severing the major vessels of the neck as soon as it collapses to the ground.

To avoid injury due to the animal’s involuntary leg movements, the operator should stand behind the neck. a

Killing may also be by gunshot b using the temporal or poll methods. All other methods of slaughter are unacceptable.

Use of shotguns is not recommended for destruction of sheep.

Lambs may be stunned by a heavy blow to the back of the head to a) Position for frontal method render them unconscious, provided (captive bolt pistol or firearm) that the lamb weighs less than 10 kg and only when there is no firearm, b) Position for temporal method captive bolt or lethal injection avail- (suitable for firearms only) able. This must be followed immedi- c) Position for poll method (suitable ately by bleeding out. for firearms only)

136 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Sheep awaiting shearing, Tasmania. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen 137 adequately protected. This code Colts, stallions, mares close to foaling, is intended to encourage all those and sick animals generally require responsible for horses, and espe- segregation from other groups to cially the inexperienced, to adopt the reduce the risk of injury and transfer highest standards of husbandry. of disease.

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF The code takes account of five basic Adjust the number of horses and HORSES requirements: their grouping in each paddock or yard so it is appropriate for their 1. Freedom from thirst, hunger and compatibility and for the ground malnutrition conditions, and take into account the 2. The provision of appropriate climatic conditions of the season. The Ingleby code of practice for comfort and shelter CONTENTS the welfare of horses is based on CARE OF PADDOCKS the New Zealand Model Code of 3. The prevention or rapid diagnosis Horses are poor utilisers of pasture, Recommendation and Minimum and treatment of injury, disease compared to cattle or sheep. Most Standards for the Welfare of Horses, or infestation with parasites pastures where horses are the sole 139 GRAZING OF HORSES and has been adapted for use in 139 Care of paddocks 4. Freedom from distress grazers contain a large proportion of Ingleby. 140 Fencing weeds and rough patches of grass. 141 Yards and shelters 5. The ability to display normal 141 Tethering We have prepared this code to assist patterns of behaviour Horses will not eat pasture that is anyone handling horses on Ingleby 142 HOUSING contaminated with horse dung. This 142 Stables farms. The management of wild horses does usually causes the contaminated area 142 Loose boxes not fall within the scope of this code. to become larger and the grazing The aims of this code are: 143 FEEDING HORSES area smaller. The pasture growing 144 Supplementary feeds >>To promote humane and consider- round the dung patches is usually 144 Dried forages GRAZING OF HORSES ate treatment of horses. lush and looks to be the best feed, 145 Cereals On our farms, horses are mainly 145 Overfeeding, obesity and while the patches in between will >>To inform all people involved with kept on extensive grazing and less laminitis look overgrazed. 146 Water the care and management of frequently in yards, pens and stables. horses about their responsibilities. 147 HUSBANDRY Where possible, let horses graze in The risk of injury increases where 147 Supervision of horses >>To set an Ingleby standard by conjunction with cattle or sheep. The horses are overcrowded, and compe- 148 Preventing common diseases defining acceptable horse handling other species will clean up the rough and unhealthy conditions tition for food, water and space may practices. patches while also reducing the worm 148 Hoof care lead to fighting. 149 Care of teeth contamination on the pastures. 149 Internal parasites Animal welfare considerations are Ensure that on all farms that keep 150 External parasites and skin becoming increasingly important for Although harrowing can also be conditions horses, there are an adequate keeping and raising animals. Practices useful to spread the dung around, in 150 Strangles number of paddocks or yards to which may once have been deemed moist conditions, and when the grass 150 Working with horses permit incompatible animals to be 152 Saddlery and equipment acceptable are now being reassessed is long, it may spread worm eggs, segregated. and modified according to new making a larger area of the paddock 152 TRANSPORT knowledge and changing attitudes. infected. 153 HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF Subordinate animals must have an HORSES opportunity to escape bullying by Without good stockmanship, the Where no cattle or other grazers are dominant animals. welfare of animals can never be available, it is essential to remove the

138 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 139 dung or spread it around regularly animals) with access to effective should carefully supervise the horses Horses kept in yards do not have the during dry periods, when the sun and shelters. until they have become accustomed same freedom of movement as those ultraviolet rays will tend to destroy to the fence. in open paddocks. They are more parasite eggs and larvae. Ensure that paddock-grazed horses susceptible to the chilling effect of always have access to a dry area You can create temporary internal cold winds and rain, and heat stress Grazing animals deplete soil nutrients on which to lie down, except under subdivisions quickly with electrified from direct summer sun. progressively, which in turn leads to continuously wet conditions. tape and fibreglass standards. Do poor pasture quality and growth rate. not use this method to create pens Provide artificial shelters where Therefore, regularly carry out soil and FENCING or yards, as horses are likely to panic natural shelterbelts and trees do not pasture analyses. The suitability of fencing varies ac- and flee when shocked. provide protection from adverse cording to the breed, sex and disposi- weather. Keep paddocks free from plants that tion of the horses, as well as stocking Ensure that all power units for elec- are poisonous to horses. Ragwort density and paddock size. tric fences are effectively earthed to Construct the walls of the artificial poisoning has serious results where prevent shorts and electricity being shelters to shield the horses against horses are forced to eat it through Barbed wire and narrow gauge (2.5 conducted in unwanted places, e.g. cold winds. Construct the roof to lack of sufficient safe forage. mm) high-tensile steel wire can cause gates and water troughs. allow adequate ventilation and at severe injury to horses because of a ceiling height which provides a Do not accommodate horses on pad- their cutting, non-stretching and A single electrified wire or tape at- minimum clearance of 60 cm above docks which expose them to items non-breaking properties. Avoid them tached to outriggers on conventional the poll of the animal when in its of machinery, equipment or rubbish when constructing fences and avoid post and rail and wire fences provide normal standing position. likely to cause injury (especially wire). internal fence-stays, which are a an effective barrier to prevent common cause of injury. contact between animals in adjacent In any yard or shelter, ensure that Keep horses relying solely on grazing paddocks and chewing of rails. each horse has adequate room to at a stocking rate that ensures their Make all fences readily visible to lie down, stand up, and turn around. individual feed requirements are met, horses and properly maintained. The Design gateways so they allow for Establish a clean, dry area for the based on age, breed, type, weight ideal fence for premises designed the easy and safe passage of horses. horse to lie down, the surface of and stage of pregnancy or lactation. mainly for horses is the post-and-rail Fasten all gates securely to prevent which protects the horse from abra- type, with rails treated or painted escape and injury to the animals. sions and capped elbows and hocks. Where paddock size and/or pasture with non-toxic preparations. availability do not cater for each Place concentration points such TETHERING horse’s daily feed requirement, A popular alternative, which also pro- as watering or feeding areas at an Tethering is a practice that has a provide the horses with sufficient vides a good visual barrier, is a single adequate distance from the fence to high risk of injury to horses and is supplementary feed. top rail attached to a conventional decrease potential impacts. not recommended. Use it only when post-and-wire fence. other forms of grazing or contain- Ensure that the grazed paddocks YARDS AND SHELTERS ment are unavailable and only when provide the horses with access to A form of internal fencing on horse For the purpose of this code, a yard you can maintain close supervision of clean, fresh drinking water at all properties, which is growing in means any small enclosure without a the horse. times. popularity, is the use of posts spaced roof, that is not a stable, loose box or about 5 m apart with two electri- paddock. Yards are frequently used Only placid horses and those In the absence of natural and fied wires 60 cm and 120 cm above to accommodate horses but they are adequately trained to accept the adequate protection against cold or ground level. not intended to support the grazing practice should be tethered. wet conditions, provide susceptible needs of horses. Make sure they are horses (i.e. very young, very old, sick, Use a heavier gauge wire to provide located in well-drained areas and seriously injured or non-acclimatised a good visual barrier and, as with all soundly constructed of timber or electrically fenced paddocks, you metal piping.

140 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 141 HOUSING clear space above normal head posi- to lie down, rise and turn around maintain a clean dry bed in loose tion should exceed 1 metre. comfortably. boxes, make sure that manure and STABLES fouled bedding is removed daily and The term “stable” has a variety of Ensure adequate lighting to permit The minimum floor sizes for various stored in suitable bunkers, away from meanings. It may refer to a complete the inspection and safe handling of types of boxes are: other buildings. To avoid wastage, training or riding establishment, animals. >>Ponies – 3 m x 3 m small quantities of damp straw or an individual loose box used for may be put up to dry in a thin layer >>Horses – 3.5 m x 3.5 m horse accommodation. In this code Fit all windows or ventilators at around the inside edges of the box. stable means any building containing a high level on opposite walls to >>Mares and foals – 3.9 m x 3.9 m loose boxes or stalls. Such buildings provide cross ventilation, but avoid Make sure that the interior of the frequently incorporate feed storage directing draughts on to the animals. Loose boxes that are smaller than loose box does not contain any rough and tack rooms. Where necessary, a grill should be these minimum sizes may increase edges or projections which may fitted to prevent injury to horses. the risk of injury to both the horse injure the horse. The main considerations in planning There must be no draughts at floor and its handler, particularly when the construction and layout of stables level. young and untrained animals are Ensure there is a minimum 60 cm are the safety and comfort of the being housed. of clear space above the poll of the horses, adequate drainage and venti- Fires are always a threat in stable animal standing in its normal position lation, and the safety of handlers. areas. Avoid storing damp straw, hay Construct the loose box floor of a and ventilation must comply with and used bedding in or near stables, non-slip surface with sufficient slopes the requirements outlined above for Construct the building soundly, with as it is a common cause of fires. to allow liquid effluent to drain away stables. Ideally, the clear space above no exposed surfaces or projections from the animal accommodation. normal head position should exceed likely to cause injury to horses. Do not store highly inflammable 1 metre. liquid material in or dangerously Where dirt floors are used, maintain Use floors with a non-slip surface and close to stables where horses are an even surface by regularly filling in Allow horses kept in a loose to look design them to direct liquid effluent accommodated. developing holes. at other horses through half doors away from the animal accommoda- and the like. tion. Where dirt floors are used, It is not allowed to smoke in stable When any horse is kept in a loose box maintain an even surface by regularly areas. with a concrete or similarly hard floor All horses must have daily access to filling developing holes. for more than 6 consecutive hours, pasture paddocks. Construct and install water contain- spread an adequate layer of bedding Make sure that alleyways in stables ers and feed bins in a manner that over the floor. are wide enough for horses to be minimises the risk of injury to horses. FEEDING HORSES turned around in comfort without risk On dirt floors, provide bedding if the In its natural state, a horse eats a of injury to other horses and people; Design the stables for easy access horse is to be housed for more than variety of forages (mainly grasses) to 3 m is the suggested minimum. to horses, and for their quick 8 hours. meet its nutritional needs. Due to the release in the event of a fire or other small size of its stomach, the horse Ensure that stable roofs are high emergencies. Ensure that the bedding is clean, dry will normally consume its daily intake enough to provide good air circula- and sufficiently thick to allow the over 16 - 20 hours. tion and prevent hot conditions from LOOSE BOXES animal to rest, protect it from abra- developing. Loose boxes are mainly used for sion and provide a warm bed. When the energy requirements are temporary accommodation of horses. low, such as for horses in light work, In areas where horses are to be The essential factor in deciding on Straw is the most frequently used dry broodmares and non-working handled, ensure a minimum clear the size of a loose box is that the bedding, but deep litter beds of horses, fresh forage can provide most space of 60 cm above the poll of horse must have sufficient room untreated wood shavings, sawdust of the horse’s needs. the animal when they are standing or bark are also suitable. In order to in their normal position. Ideally, the

142 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 143 When pasture is limited, however, kilograms of dry matter (kg DM). This Bales of lucerne usually weigh 30 - 35 This is one of the causes of a you should supplement the diet with is the feed content less the weight of kg. common and crippling disease, dried forage, i.e. hay or chaff. the water. laminitis, which is also commonly You can mix both oaten and lucerne called Founder. Provided the stocking rate is correct, It is important to think about feeding chaff with grains and concentrates. most broodmares can meet their in terms of weight rather than They have the advantages over hay It is important to note, however, that energy, protein and mineral demands volume, as different feeds have differ- of reducing wastage and prevent- other causal agents include stress, from an adequate supply of good ent densities, as well as the different ing horses from bolting their feed. a sudden increase in work, exces- quality spring pasture, since they water contents mentioned. To reduce potential respiratory sive concussion, and drinking large have adequate time to consume the problems, it is important that chaff is amounts of cold water when hot. quantities required. A feed dipper of oats, for example, dust-free. will weigh less than one of corn and The common factor with each of SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS far more than the same one filled To aid digestion and prevent dust these causal agents is a “shock” reac- When a horse is working, its feed with chaff or bran. inhalation, we recommend dampen- tion, one of the effects of which is a demands increase and a pasture-only ing feed with high chaff content just reduction in blood circulation to the diet may not be sufficient to meet the The seeds of grains provide more before feeding. foot. Urgent treatment by a veterinar- increased needs. energy per kilogram fed than forages ian in the initial stages is essential (pasture, hay or chaff). However, CEREALS to avoid a breakdown in the laminar Forage takes a long time to digest some forage (fibre) must be fed to Cereals must generally be the major bond which holds the bone structure and the horse may not physically aid digestion and keep the horse component of a feed designed to of the foot in place. be able to eat enough to sustain its healthy. The minimum daily intake meet extra energy needs. needs. of fibre for horses should be 1 kg Breakdown of the tissues can lead to DM/100 kg body weight. All grains can be processed to separation and rotation of the pedal Moderate-to-heavy working improve their utilisation. It must be bone away from the hoof wall (Figure horses generally need supplemen- When considering the supplementary noted that processing may reduce 1). tary feeding in the form of grains or feeding of horses, an important point the feed’s nutritional value. concentrates. to note is that horses tolerate poor Signs that a horse may be developing feed badly. Horses will not thrive Cereals must always be measured severe laminitis include an inability To avoid major health problems, unless they are fed good feeds in the by weight rather than volume when or reluctance to move, refusal to get introduce any changes in the type right quantities. feeding, as there are marked differ- up, distress, rapid breathing, sweating and quantity of feed gradually over a ences in densities not only between and high temperature. period of several days. DRIED FORAGES types of grains, but also within differ- Meadow hay is a form of roughage ent consignments of the same grain. The hooves will be particularly hot When working horses are given a rest commonly fed to horses to supple- around the coronary band and the day (i.e. a day without any work), it is ment pasture. Make sure it is of good To avoid digestive problems, carefully front feet will be stuck out in front important to reduce the concentrate quality to supply nutritional require- consider bulking-out by adding bran of the body. (The coronary band is or grain part of the ration by ap- ments and avoid health problems, i.e. or chaff. the ring of soft tissue at the junction proximately one third, as it is likely to it must be dry at the time of feeding, between the wall of the hoof and skin result in energy overloading. smell fresh and be free from dust and OVERFEEDING, OBESITY AND on the lower leg.) mould. LAMINITIS Hay generally contains about 15% Some horses, particularly ponies, are Restrict the access for susceptible water, whereas grass has levels as Lucerne hay is higher in protein than able to utilise energy in feeds very horses and ponies to spring and high as 80%. Most grains contain less meadow hay. It should be leafy and efficiently, and can suffer from severe autumn pasture and grains. Feed than 15% water. For this reason, food green in colour, and free from mould. energy overloading. them low energy forages such as hay intake is best expressed in terms of instead.

144 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 145 Structure of a normal hoof: and humidity, body weight, level of Regularly clean water troughs and of causes, e.g. internal parasites, Deep flexor activity and health. The basic water containers to prevent algae build-up. poor dental condition, or insuf- tendon requirement may be worked out at 52 ficient or unsuitable food. ml/kg body weight/day, or: Middle phalanx HUSBANDRY >>Abdominal pain or colic, which may be shown by the horse being SUPERVISION OF HORSES Laminae WATER CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES reluctant to move or being restless, Body weight Average water consumption Every person responsible for the looking or kicking at its stomach, Hoof wall (kg) (litres/day) supervision of horses must be able attempting to lie down or roll, 200 10 to recognise signs of ill health, have straining as though attempting 300 15 knowledge of basic equine first aid, to urinate, grinding its teeth, and 450 25 and have access to a veterinarian to sweating in patches. Pedal bone Digital cushion 500 30 diagnose and treat any serious illness or injury. >>Digestive upsets are indicated by Note: These are average figures and there will be The laminitic hoof: a loss of appetite, diarrhoea (fluid wide variation in practice depending on climate and the water content of feed. Healthy horses: droppings), soiled tail and hind legs, or constipation. >>Are active, move freely, eat and As a general guide, horses need drink well. >>Lameness, due to injury, laminitis 2 - 4 litres of water per kilogram of Laminae >>Have clear eyes and nostrils, clean (Founder), foot abscess or im- dry matter intake. This requirement skins and coats. proper hoof maintenance. increases with air temperature, e.g. an increase in temperature from 13°C >>Are neither very thin nor over >>Discharges from the eyes, nostrils to 25°C increases water needs by weight. or swollen glands under the throat, 15 - 20%. >>Have vital signs within the normal which may be signs of a respiratory disease and may be accompanied Space left when laminae Tip of rotated pedal ranges shown in the table below: tear from hoof wall bone pressing on sole Rapid loss of water and essential by a cough, fever, and loss of electrolytes can result in severe appetite. Figure 1. The normal hoof (top), versus a hoof VITAL SIGNS OF HORSES with laminitis where the pedal bone is rotated diarrhoea, obstructive colic and other Vital sign Normal Average following breakdown of the laminar bond. bowel diseases. You should urgently Adjust the frequency and level of Daytime have a veterinarian administer an rectal 37.5 – 38.5 oC 38.0 oC supervision of the horses so it relates emergency fluid replacement to temperature to the likelihood of risk to the welfare Do not permit horses to become overcome dehydration. At rest of each animal. Take the following 23-70 beats/min 44 beats/min over-fat, but do not control over- pulse factors into account: weight horses using starvation diets. Do not give horses access to cold At rest >>Stocking rate and availability of Supply these horses with a balanced drinking water when overheated and respiration 10-14 breaths/min 12 breaths/min feed. pulse reduction diet of food and water. blowing immediately after exercise; >>Breed, type, nature and disposition. allow them to cool down to avoid the Note: Exercise, feeding and excitement will raise WATER risk of colic. the body temperature, while drinking cold water >>Age and pregnancy status. and/or bleak conditions will lower it. Pulse and Horses must have access to an respiration can vary widely. Factors which affect it >>Nature of fencing and reliability of include exercise, excitement, weather and disease water supply. adequate supply of cool clean drink- Water quality may have significant conditions. ing water at least twice per day but impacts on an animal’s production >>Likelihood of injury from natural preferably continuously. and health, therefore you should Sick horses may show any or a com- landscape features. test the water for horses periodi- bination of the following signs: >>Activities on adjacent properties A horse’s daily water requirements cally. Please see the code of practice with potential to alarm horses and may range from about 20 to 70 for the welfare of cattle for further >>Lack of energy and loss of condi- cause injury. litres, depending on air temperature information. tion, which may be due to a variety

146 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 147 >>Abnormal vital signs – unusual vari- >>Persistent weight loss. Make sure that hooves of horses in In a mature horse, sharp and uneven ations from the normal ranges for >>Stubborn skin conditions that work are examined daily for signs of edges may develop on the outer temperature, respiration and pulse. have not responded to treatment, injury and other abnormalities, loose edges of the upper teeth and on including saddle sores and girth shoes and impacted foreign material. the inner edges of the lower molars. At least twice a day, you should galls. Make sure these are evenly filed by a inspect horses kept under intensive Make sure that hooves of horses not veterinarian or competent horseman. management in stables and yards for Follow veterinary instructions regard- in work are examined weekly for signs of injury and ill health. ing the resumption of work. signs of injury, abnormalities, loose In younger horses, the primary or shoes and impacted foreign material. milk teeth are sometimes not shed At least weekly, inspect horses turned Do not intentionally mix horses and this interferes with the digestive out in paddocks for body condition, suspected of having, or known to be Where abnormal heat or painful process. A competent horse dentist hoof condition, signs of ill health and infected with strangles, with non- pressure points are found in the hoof, or veterinarian can easily remove ill-fitting halters and covers. infected horses. have either a competent farrier or these crowns. veterinarian to help determine the Mares in late pregnancy must be Do not move them to a new property cause. At least annually, you should have the observed at least daily for signs of during the infective period, unless horse’s teeth examined for condi- impending foaling. you have prearranged effective isola- You can treat thrush, a smelly conditions that may cause unnecessary tion and care. tion of the hoof frog, by bathing in a pain or interference with normal Consult a veterinarian if there is: 10% solution of formalin and improv- feeding and digestion. The period >>Acute abdominal pain or colic. PREVENTING COMMON DISEASES ing stable and yard hygiene. should be reduced to 6 months when AND UNHEALTHY CONDITIONS concentrates or grains are being fed >>Serious injury involving deep Promptly remove loose shoes, and regularly as a large portion of the wounds, severe haemorrhage, sus- Tetanus is a serious disease caused those with risen clenches, to prevent ration. pected bone fractures or damage by bacteria which may gain entry possible foot injury. Replace the to the eyes. through deep pricks or wounds. shoes prior to work on hard surfaces. INTERNAL PARASITES >>Evidence of straining for more than Protect horses against the disease by Control internal parasites through 30 minutes by a mare that has not vaccination. At least every six weeks, you should the use of a planned treatment foaled. remove, adjust or replace shoes programme in conjunction with good >>Inability to rise or stand. Follow a local veterinary surgeon’s unless a farrier or veterinarian has pasture management. Determine the >>Inability or reluctance to move. advice for other serious diseases instructed otherwise. frequency of treatment by following which may require vaccination discussions with a veterinary surgeon. >>Severe diarrhoea. CARE OF TEETH programmes. Generally, however, horses and ponies Horses with worn or abnormal intensively grazed with others require Consult a veterinarian within 48 hours HOOF CARE teeth are unable to chew their food regular 6-weekly worm control. of becoming aware of the following properly, resulting in poor digestion. conditions: When unshod (or barefoot), trim hooves to permit normal mobility. Common signs of this are: Horses kept in large paddocks (10 >>Marked lameness that has not >>Half-chewed food dropping out of hectares plus) in conjunction with, responded to normal first aid Have all horses ridden or driven the mouth. e.g. cattle or sheep, may only need treatment. one worm treatment per year. Discuss on roads or hard, rough, surfaces >>Poor condition and lack of energy >>Injury that has not responded to properly shod by a farrier or compe- the treatment regime for these >>Whole grains, such as oats, in the normal first aid treatment. tent horseman. This also applies to horses with a veterinarian. droppings. >>Signs suspicious of strangles. heavy horses pulling loads on roads >>Avoidance behaviour, associated >>Persistent signs of a cold. or paved surfaces. with the bit, and failing to respond >>Sustained loss of appetite. to pressure on the reins.

148 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 149 EXTERNAL PARASITES AND SKIN It is generally first noticed by a Do not beat or abuse the horses. Make sure that the use of discipline CONDITIONS gradually thickening nasal discharge is minimal, and when appropriate, To maintain a healthy skin and coat, over 1 - 2 days, accompanied by Do not use an electronic prodder on that it immediately follows an act of regularly groom and wash horses in swollen lymph glands between the horses. misconduct. work after strenuous work. branches of the lower jaw. The horse develops a high temperature and Do not use mouthpieces that are While desirable, minimise basic Uncovered horses grazed in pad- increased rate of respiration, and is twisted at the point where the device education of young horses (under docks should receive infrequent also off its feed. is in contact with the bars of the 2 years old), to reduce the risks of washing only, to avoid removing horse’s mouth. injury and growth abnormalities. Do grease from the coat, which is The lymph glands continue swell- not give young horses heavy work. essential for warmth. Attention to ing, and in many cases, eventually Do not use electronic collars, such as grooming will help identify parasitic rupture, releasing large quantities anti-crib collars, on horses. Please follow these recommendations and skin problems at an early stage. of creamy-yellow pus. Frequently a to minimise the risks of injury and cough will also develop. Ensure that persons engaged in the distress to young horses: Lice are a common source of itching education and training of horses are >>Handle foals less than 4 or 5 and discomfort to loose horses in Call a veterinarian immediately experienced, or under direct supervi- months old to accustom them to winter. Control the issue by using an whenever strangles is suspected. sion of an experienced person. being caught and led, and to being approved wash. confined within a yard, loose box or The organism may be readily identi- Make sure that the horses are of the horse float, when on their mothers. Cattle tick infestation may seriously fied from samples of nasal discharge appropriate type, adequately edu- affect the health of foals and young and rapid treatment during the early cated, fed and housed, and trained to >>After weaning (usually between horses. Use an approved wash for stages may prevent development of the degree of fitness for the task to 5 and 7 months old), introduce the immediate treatment of affected abscesses and minimise spread. be performed. foals to having their legs and feet animals, and implement a plan to handled, and to being tied up and prevent reinfestation. To further prevent or control disease Most horses respond best to firm but confined alone. spread, isolate the affected horses gentle techniques and to rewards >>When first introduced to new Rain scald, caused by wet condi- from others until a veterinarian when the horse responds correctly. harness, equipment or unfamiliar tions, frequently results in rough considers the infective period to have People training horses should be surroundings, keep the young lumpy areas on the skin surface and passed. confident and instil this confidence in horse under close supervision to significant loss of hair. When this con- the horses they train. prevent injury. dition is noticed, obtain a veterinary Disinfect contaminated equipment surgeon’s advice for an appropriate and facilities with an effective Ensure that training schedules must >>Do not ride horses under the age treatment. product before re-use with other be suited to the horse’s physical ca- of 2 years. horses. pabilities or level of maturity, and that >>Only allow competent persons to Mud fever, which has similar charac- they are adapted to suit the needs of ride or drive any unbroken horse of teristics to rain scald but is usually WORKING WITH HORSES the particular horse. any age. confined to the lower legs, should Persons involved in handling, shoeing, first be treated by cleansing and treating, educating, conditioning, React to any abnormal physiological Horses require regular exercise for application of zinc ointment. If this training, riding or driving horses and behavioural responses to han- a period of months before they are doesn’t work, call a veterinarian. must prove competence or be under dling, training and confinement, and exposed to heavy work. Lengthen supervision of a competent person. take measures taken to correct their this conditioning period for over- STRANGLES suspected cause. These responses weight horses and those spelled from Ensure that training methods are may include aggression, biting, Strangles is a serious and highly in- work. fectious respiratory disease of horses. humane and do not cause unreason- pawing, kicking, weaving, pacing, able pain or suffering to the horse, crib-biting or wind-sucking.

150 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 151 Every person training, riding or generally adapt well to their environ- Do not transport horses if you cannot from the base of each ear to the driving horses has an obligation to ment and when fully acclimatised do prove competence or appropriate opposite eye. use the horse in accordance with not require covering. experience in the transport and its fitness and, if in doubt, must supervision of horses, unless you are Make sure that an animal stunned seek advice from an experienced During warm conditions, replace directly supervised by such a person with a captive-bolt pistol is bled out horseman. winter covers by summer ones to throughout the journey. by severing the major vessels of the prevent heat stress. neck as soon as it collapses to the SADDLERY AND EQUIPMENT Do not transport any animal whose ground. Make sure that all saddlery, harnesses If worn during inclement weather, health or condition makes it unfit to and other equipment used with maintain covers in a waterproof withstand the intended journey. To avoid injury due to the animal’s horses is of sound condition, well- condition, and keep them correctly involuntary leg movements, it is fitting, correctly adjusted, regularly fitted to prevent rubbing, hair loss Make sure that the consignor of every important that the operator stands cleaned and must not compromise and abrasions. animal confined in a vehicle arranges behind the neck. the welfare of the horse. for the supply of proper and suf- Cover horses when they are kept in ficient food and water, and arranges Killing may also be by gunshot Make sure that ropes used for temporary yards or pens which do that where necessary and practicable, using the temporal or poll methods. educating and restraining horses not provide adequate shelter from the animal is off-loaded to eat and All other methods of killing are are pliable, at least 15 mm thick and cold winds and rain. This also applies drink. unacceptable. made of hemp rather than nylon. to tethered horses. Except during emergency treatment, It is not allowed to confine or trans- Use of shotguns is not recommended make sure that ropes are not at- Remove covers at least every week port any animal in a manner which for destruction of horses. tached directly to a horse’s legs. for airing, and for the removal of causes the animal unnecessary pain loose hair and caked-on dirt from the or suffering. Ensure that the animal Ensure that the person in charge has Use leather straps, preferably felt- cover. being conveyed is provided with the relevant knowledge, experience lined, where leg restraint is essential. reasonably comfortable and secure and skills to kill the animal humanely, Ensure that bits contain no rough accommodation. or be under the direct supervision of Disinfecting gear is recommended or sharp surfaces which may cause a person who does. damage to the mouth. between uses on different horses, HUMANE SLAUGHTER OF to prevent the transfer of infectious Exceptions to the recommended HORSES conditions. Make sure that no person ever strikes practice may occur under extreme a horse with a whip or other object. Acceptable methods for the humane conditions. In these circumstances On a weekly basis, check halters slaughter of horses are: common sense and genuine concern left on horses for damage, signs Do not use spurs on a horse. for animal and human welfare should >Overdose of anaesthetic under of chaffing or injury and fit. Young > prevail. veterinary supervision (note that horses out-grow their halters rapidly, TRANSPORT tissue residues will render the causing pressure injury if they are not carcass unfit for human or pet adjusted as necessary. Various international codes of consumption if this technique is conduct are used to protect the used). Covers are a form of artificial shelter. welfare of horses travelling. The Only use them on non-acclimatised, person in charge of the horse and >>Euthanasia using gunshot or sick, injured and very old horses the driver of any vehicle transport- captive-bolt pistol by the frontal during cold weather. ing horses has clear obligations to method. The captive-bolt pistol protect the animal. or firearm must be directed at the Unclipped horses, turned out in point of intersection of lines taken paddocks with reasonable shelter,

152 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF HORSES 153 introduce the new dog gradually BODY CONDITION under supervision. Consider introduc- An adult dog must be well-propor- ing dogs to each other on neutral tioned and have an observable waist ground to avoid territorial issues. behind the ribs when viewed from above and from the side. Ribs must FOOD AND WATER be palpable (able to be felt), but have CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF a light fat covering over them. DOGS Dogs need a balanced daily diet in quantities that meet their requirements for health and welfare and to CONTAINMENT, TETHERING maintain their ideal body weight. AND SHELTER

The Ingleby code of practice for CONTAINMENT AND TETHERING Some dogs have special nutritional the welfare of dogs is based on the Containment of unsupervised dogs CONTENTS requirements, such as puppies, preg- New Zealand Animal Welfare (Dogs) prevents them from injuring or other- nant and lactating bitches, growing Code of Welfare 2010 and has been wise harming themselves, other dogs dogs and working dogs. Adjust the adapted for use in Ingleby. and people. The length of time that diet when necessary. 154 DOG OWNERSHIP dogs are in containment or tethered 155 FOOD AND WATER Owners and people in charge of dogs can have a significant negative Dogs must not be working hard soon 155 Risky foods and objects have a responsibility to understand impact on the physical and mental 155 Body condition after a large meal because this in- and meet the welfare needs of their health of dogs and can contribute to creases the risk of gastric (stomach) 155 CONTAINMENT, TETHERING dogs. The purpose of this code is to behavioural problems. Ensure that AND SHELTER torsion. encourage all those responsible for the dogs have access to food, water 155 Containment and tethering dogs to adopt the highest standards and shelter while in containment. Do 155 Kennels and shelter Ensure regular access to good quality of husbandry, care and handling. not contain or tether them in a way 156 SANITATION water. that causes them injury or distress. 156 BREEDING The code sets minimum standards for 156 Desexing RISKY FOODS AND OBJECTS the care and management of all dogs Collars must fit comfortably without 157 Bitches in heat and mating within Ingleby, including working As dogs are natural scavengers damaging the skin or restricting 157 Pregnancy and whelping and tend to eat quickly, they may 157 Weaning dogs as well as farm and family dogs. breathing. eat harmful material. Puppies are 158 Supply of puppies The code includes recommendations for best practice to encourage a high especially at risk because they like to KENNELS AND SHELTER 158 HEALTH chew. Make sure that all food given 158 Ill health and injury level of welfare. Establish shelter for the dogs that to dogs is free from harmful objects 159 Diseases related to diet gives shade and is free from draughts that could cause intestinal problems. 159 Prevention of infectious and excessive heat or cold, to meet diseases DOG OWNERSHIP This includes wool (e.g. from un- their physical needs. They also need 159 Parasitic and skin diseases skinned sheep carcasses), small toys 159 Diseases transmissible to Dog ownership is a life-long com- a dry bed and enough space to allow and balls. Sharp plastic or wooden humans (zoonoses) mitment for that animal. However, in the dog to stand up, turn around and objects can also be harmful. 160 Care of claws and coat case this cannot be fulfilled, you must lie down comfortably. 160 Exercise ensure the dog a safe future. 160 Harmful substances Bones need to be fed with care. We Kennels must be no smaller than the 160 Surgical procedures do not recommend giving the dogs Take care when a new dog is intro- minimum kennel and run sizes given 161 BEHAVIOUR cooked bones (including chicken) or duced into an environment which in the table below. 161 Aids for behavioural fish bones, as they can cause bowel modification already includes dogs or animals damage or constipation. Large, raw of other species, as aggression 161 TRANSPORT bones present fewer problems. may occur. If there is confrontation, 162 EUTHANASIA

154 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF DOGS 155 MINIMUM SIZES FOR KENNELS of faeces and the area changed BITCHES IN HEAT AND MATING After whelping, allow the dam access regularly to prevent a build-up of Bitches generally come into heat to her puppies until they are fully Size of dog Kennel only Kennel plus run hookworms in the area. (oestrus) at intervals of about six to weaned.

Small 0.5 m x 0.5 m >>In cold weather, provide addi- ten months. Each heat period lasts 0.9 m x 0.7 m Unweaned puppies must be individu- (<7 kg) plus 0.6 m x 1 m tional bedding, food or a source of approximately three weeks. ally checked each day and regularly heating to keep the dog warm, or Medium 0.6 m x 0.7 m 1.2 m x 0.8 m treated for parasites. (7 - 20 kg) plus 0.8 m x 1 m bring the dog indoors. Only use dogs in good health and physical condition for breeding. Large 0.8 m x 0.8 m WEANING 1 m x 1.5 m (21 - 40 kg) plus 1 m x 0.8 m SANITATION Do not intentionally mate bitches at Puppies rely on the dam’s milk to obtain all nutrients for the first few Extra large 1.2 m x 1.2 m less than twelve months of age or in 1 m x 2 m Good hygiene is important to main- (>40 kg) plus 1.2 m x 2.4 m their first heat. weeks of life. Puppies must remain tain the health and welfare and to with the dam to suckle the first three minimise disease and distress. Note: This is guidance only and expert advice Bitches must not whelp and rear weeks. must be sought where there is any uncertainty. litters on consecutive seasons. Prevent faeces and urine from From 3 - 4 weeks, they spend more Construct the kennels of solid, accumulating to an extent that they PREGNANCY AND WHELPING time exploring their immediate non-permeable materials, preferably pose a threat to the health or welfare environment and less time with the raised above ground level, and make of the dog. The length of gestation in the dog dam. You can introduce solid food at them stable, draught-free and of a is about 63 days. Information about this stage, and let the dam seek time size to comfortably house each dog. Keep food and water containers the stages of pregnancy, whelping alone. clean of contamination that may pose and lactation can be obtained from Dogs must be able to urinate and a threat to the health or welfare of veterinarians and dog breeders. Do not start with supplementary defecate away from the sleeping the dog. feeding before the puppies are three area. Provide bitches that are due to whelp, or are whelping, with a suit- weeks of age, except with veterinary BREEDING advice in circumstances in which the We do not want dogs to sleep on able whelping area in a safe, warm and quiet environment. bitch is unable to supply adequate concrete or metal surfaces. Where Take precautions when breeding so milk to feed the pups. kennel and run areas are made of the genetic make-up of both sire and Frequently inspect bitches that are these materials, create a raised dam will not result in an increase in not due to whelp to ensure that Do not remove the puppies perma- platform, shelf or other type of bed the frequency or severity of known they are not experiencing whelping nently from the dam to be weaned made of a softer material. inherited disorders. difficulties. If a bitch is exhibiting before 4 weeks of age. They must be given access to the dam for suckling In general, the following considera- DESEXING any signs of difficulty during the whelping, immediately seek expert until six weeks of age and removed tions can help with kennel design: When identifying suspecting an assistance. before this only where the dam inherited fault, desex dogs as early as >>Toxic materials, such as lead-based shows aggression to the puppies practicable. paint, cause a risk of poisoning. Replace the bedding material after or where ongoing lactation could the birth has taken place and as damage the dam’s health. >>The requirement for bedding Desex dogs that are not intended for frequently as needed to keep the depends on factors such as the breeding before puberty. A dog may area clean, but without causing Ensure that the puppies are com- body condition of the dog, the reach puberty from approximately six unnecessary disruption to the dam pletely weaned onto solid food by length of its coat, its age and the months of age. and puppies. Cleaning will need to age 6 - 7 weeks, and before they are effectiveness of the housing. be more frequent as the puppies re-homed. Desexing must only be carried out by >>Dog-runs on the ground need to get older and the dam is less able to a veterinarian or veterinary student be well drained and kept clean clean up after them. under direct supervision.

156 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF DOGS 157 SUPPLY OF PUPPIES >>Signs of rapidly deteriorating DISEASES RELATED TO DIET and securely isolate them to prevent Puppies must be able to feed health Feeding unbalanced or inadequate infecting other dogs. independently and be in good health >>Serious injury diets to dogs can cause problems when made available for sale or re- associated with abnormal growth, Provide dogs with protection homing, unless: Euthanise the dog, if it is suffering weight, reproduction and dental against infectious disease by vaccination according to veterinary >>They have been orphaned and from pain or distress that is extreme health. recommendations. must be re-homed to ensure that or untreatable. they are able to obtain milk from Seek veterinary advice if your dogs Puppies are particularly susceptible another dam or be hand raised. Have all ill or injured dogs examined show signs of food sensitivity which by a veterinarian. include, but are not limited to, skin to infectious diseases. Vaccination >>Early removal from the dam disease (especially scratching or programmes normally begin at six is deemed necessary by a Consult a veterinarian immediately dermatitis), vomiting and diarrhoea. to eight weeks of age. Thereafter, veterinarian. if bleeding is profuse or persists for we recommend an annual veterinary more than a few minutes. Seek veterinary advice if your health check, including an assess- Puppies must be at least eight weeks dogs show extreme or unexpected ment of any need for a vaccination and must have begun socialisation Treatment can be provided by veteri- changes in appetite. Both decreased booster. with other dogs and humans when narians or appropriately trained and and increased appetite can indicate made available for sale or re-homing. experienced practitioners in other underlying disease. PARASITIC AND SKIN DISEASES treatments. Injuries such as puncture Parasite infestation can cause disease If you are aware of any inherited wounds, which often appear rela- Check the dogs’ teeth and gums and death. Give the dogs regular and disorders that the puppy or adult tively insignificant, can be worse than regularly and take appropriate effective treatments to prevent inter- dog may be predisposed to, you are they look. Seek advice if any doubts action where tooth and gum health nal and external parasite burdens, as obliged to inform the persons receiv- exist about their severity. deteriorate. recommended by veterinarians. ing the dog.

Accidental injury to dogs while they If a dog is suffering from an illness Skin diseases are common in dogs, HEALTH are crossing roads is common and or disease, pay special attention and may cause considerable pain and there is a recognised moral obligation to the dog’s diet, as it also affects distress. ILL HEALTH AND INJURY for the driver of a vehicle who injures dental health in dogs. Dogs’ teeth Owners have a responsibility to main- any animal, including a dog, to stop and gums will benefit from chewing Failure to maintain a regular worming tain their dogs in good health and and give assistance. on harder food, such as raw bones schedule can result in the dog losing to treat injury and disease when it and dry kibble food, and from regular weight and can cause a gradual occurs. Check the health and welfare An injured dog, whether familiar or cleaning. deterioration of the health of the dog. of the dog on a daily basis, including not, may be in severe pain and may observing whether the dog is eating, bite during attempts to assist it. Take PREVENTION OF INFECTIOUS Many diseases can be related to poor drinking, urinating, defecating and care when handling injured dogs, and DISEASES hygiene. behaving normally. if in doubt, seek expert advice. An Vaccination is an important means of effective muzzle will prevent biting. If controlling infectious diseases such DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO Seek advice from a veterinarian or an injured dog is unable to walk and as parvovirus, distemper and hepa- HUMANS (ZOONOSES) appropriately trained animal health needs to be moved, use a blanket titis. Infectious diseases can rapidly Be aware that some diseases (e.g. practitioner, if you observe your dogs or similar as a stretcher to minimise spread among unvaccinated dogs, ringworm, roundworm, mange, lepto- showing any of the following: movement of the body and reduce with consequent negative impacts on spirosis and campylobacter) can be >>Signs of significant acute pain the risk of exacerbating serious animal welfare. transmitted between dogs and other species, including humans (zoonotic >>Signs of chronic pain injuries. Carefully supervise dogs known to be diseases). >>Signs of suffering and distress infected with an infectious disease,

158 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF DOGS 159 Owners and handlers can act as a Dogs are commonly poisoned by BEHAVIOUR AIDS FOR BEHAVIOURAL vehicle for transmission and unknow- baits containing poisons that prevent MODIFICATION The earlier that behavioural problems ingly transfer diseases from dog to blood clotting laid to control rats, A range of devices is available are addressed, the greater the chance dog. rabbits and possums, and by car- to assist training and modifying of correcting them. casses of the poisoned animals. Slug behaviour. Do not use training aids in Where a zoonotic disease has been bait poisoning is also common. a way that causes unnecessary pain We recommend using positive diagnosed, discuss the best course of or distress to the dog. action for both dog and owner with a Dogs are particularly susceptible to training techniques that are based on the understanding that inherent dog veterinarian. 1080 poison, which can remain active Training devices, especially elec- behaviour is a consequence of their for many months in the carcasses of tronic devices, have the potential for evolution as pack animals. Problems CARE OF CLAWS AND COAT poisoned rabbits and possums. 1080 misuse and abuse. If used incorrectly, can arise when the dog misunder- Neglected coat and claws can cause poison is used in New Zealand under they can significantly reduce the stands its hierarchical position as considerable distress and suffering. government control. Dogs entering long-term welfare of a dog. Only a subordinate member within its Hygiene around the perineum, anus areas treated with 1080 poison must use electronic devices when other human ‘pack’ (its human family and and tail is particularly important in wear muzzles. training methods have failed. contacts). dogs with long hair to reduce soiling and the risk of flystrike. If a dog has eaten a poison which is Do not use pinch or prong collars. strongly acid, alkaline or a petroleum Ensure that puppies are well socialised to minimise the development of Clip claws, including dew claws if not product, or if the dog appears to be Ensure that muzzles fit comfortably behavioural problems. Socialisation removed as required. losing consciousness, do not make without chafing the skin or impeding must be appropriate to the cir- it vomit as this could cause further breathing and ensure that it allows cumstances in which the individual EXERCISE harm. the dog to open its mouth sufficiently dog will be kept as an adult (e.g. Exercise is extremely important for to enable panting or drinking. SURGICAL PROCEDURES dogs likely to come into contact both physical and mental health, with livestock must be socialised particularly where dogs are confined Surgical procedures need to be Only use choke chains during training accordingly). for prolonged periods, and also helps conducted in a manner that manages sessions when the dog is on a leash to meet dogs’ social needs. likely pain and distress. and supervised. Make sure that the dogs socialise with other dogs on a daily basis if Regular exercise is important for Significant surgical procedures must possible, and train them to minimise TRANSPORT working dogs to maintain their always be performed by a veterinar- the risk of inappropriate behaviour. fitness, especially during periods of ian or a veterinary student under Dogs are frequently transported in Make the training sessions short and little or no work. direct veterinary supervision. If in a variety of vehicles. Every person regular and adapt it to the animal’s doubt about a surgical procedure, in charge of a vehicle must ensure reactions and condition, without HARMFUL SUBSTANCES seek veterinary advice. that any animal carried in a vehicle is over-working the animal. As natural scavengers, dogs are sus- secured and its welfare attended to. The following procedures are prohib- ceptible to accidental poisoning by Calmly and patiently enforce your ited on Ingleby farms: Transport dogs using a specially many substances, e.g. vertebrate pest dominant position using recognised designed, climate-controlled travel- baits, poisonous plants, illegal drugs, >>To crop, or cause to be cropped, techniques that provide positive rein- ling crate if possible. If dogs are prescription medicines, household the ears of a dog. forcement for acceptable behaviour carried in a purpose-built transport cleaners, and contaminated water. >>Debarking of dogs. as part of the training process. Do box fixed to a vehicle, make sure it is >>Voluntary tail docking, as opposed not establish dominance by physical Take all practical steps to ensure that well-ventilated and free from exhaust to tail docking performed to punishment or processes that are they are not exposed to poisons and fumes and road dust. manage existing injury or disease. psychologically harmful to the dog. harmful substances.

160 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF DOGS 161 Except for working dogs at work, Dogs can be seriously injured if dogs must not be carried on the allowed to travel with their heads out open rear of a moving vehicle unless of the window of a moving vehicle. they are secured or enclosed in a crate. EUTHANASIA

When dogs are transported on the Where, in the opinion of a veterinar- back of trucks or in vans, provide ian, a dog will not respond to treat- non-slip surfaces for the dog to assist ment for any serious injury involving it retain balance when the vehicle is significant pain, or where it would be moving. Provide shelter if the dogs cruel to keep it alive, the animal must are carried on the open back of be euthanised. vehicles during extreme weather. The preferred method of euthanasia When dogs are tethered on the back for dogs is by a veterinarian using an of an open vehicle for transport, intravenous injection of a drug regis- attach the securing lead or chain tered for this purpose. Tranquillised so that the cab provides protection dogs which are difficult to handle. against the wind, and make it long enough to permit the dog to stand, Carry out euthanasia in such a way lie down and move about, but short as to ensure that death occurs enough to prevent the dog’s legs quickly and that pain and distress is from reaching the side of the tray so minimised. that it cannot fall off or enter the cab of the vehicle. No person may kill any animal such that it suffers unreasonable or un- Do not transport dogs loose in a necessary pain or distress. stock crate with livestock.

Do not carry dogs in the closed boot of a car unless they are injured and then only them over a short distance.

Do not leave dogs unattended in vehicles. If a dog must be left in a vehicle even for a short time, park the vehicle in shade with more than one window left open to allow air to circulate so that heat stress will not occur.

If a dog is suffering from heat stress, it must be cooled by wetting down and providing cool water, and then seek veterinary assistance.

162 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Working dog, Tasmania. Photographer: Mette Bøgeløv Erichsen 163 Install nesting boxes installed. It could Provide the birds with access to be a box of 0.40 x 0.40 x 0.40 m shelter and shade at all times. Bales with one open side, and it must be of straw, trees, bushes, fences, filled with hay or straw. Three birds weather porches etc. can be used to can share one nesting box. Nice and create suitable outdoor conditions. clean nesting boxes help ensure clean CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF eggs. GROOMING POULTRY Provide chickens with minimum 0.6 Avoid pinioning the flight feathers. m2 net surface area, although more space is recommended depending on Beak trimming is not permitted. the type of bird. Poultry animals, including chickens, >>Food waste such as all leftovers turkeys, ducks, quails or geese are from vegetables and fruits, as well Cover at least 1/3 of the indoor SLAUGHTERING POULTRY useful to keep around the household. as fresh grass and weeds, can be surface area with dry and porous ma- They are relatively easy to take care added as poultry food. Euthanise old or sick birds ef- terial, e.g. sand, soil, straw or similar of and provide a fresh supply of eggs. ficiently, and dispose of the carcass >>A sufficient amount of calcium to to allow the birds to take dust baths. responsibly. sustain successful egg production FOOD AND WATER for the egg-laying birds. Calcium All birds must have access to To humanely slaughter a bird: can be provided as a food supple- perches. Mount the perches so Poultry birds require large amounts >>Render the bird unconscious by ment using crushed seashells or each bird has at least 0.15 m inside of energy for egg production and hitting its head on a wooden log or cleaned and pulverised egg shells. the poultry house, and install them adequate food is an important for chopping block. Each egg-layer needs approxi- at about 0.5 m above the ground. their well-being. To avoid diseases, it mately 3 - 5 g of shells per day. Preferably use rectangular perches to >>Use a sharp axe to swiftly remove is important to have healthy animals provide the best grip. Branches are the head. with sound digestive systems. recommended for outdoor perches. HOUSING AND SHELTER As a general guideline, ensure that Establish a well-designed poultry the birds have: house and yard. It is important to >>Access to food at all time. They create a suitable environment with need approximately 150 grams of spaces that occupy the animals cereal or similar per day per bird. during the day and enhance the egg A mix of different cereals (wheat, laying. Also, poultry houses and yards barley, corn and oat), beans, canola protect the animals from threats such or peas, etc. can be used. Optimal as dogs, foxes and rats, etc. poultry food contains both starch/ carbohydrates and proteins. Provide the poultry house with dry bedding (e.g. straw or sawdust), >>Access to fresh and clean water perches, nesting boxes (1 box per at all times. One animal needs a three-five egg-layers), and access to minimum of 200 ml water per day, food and clean water. or minimum 1 litre for five animals.

>>Access to coarse fodder from the In the poultry house, ensure daylight age of three days to keep them access and adequate ventilation, but occupied during the day. avoid drafts. Figure 1: Example of a poultry house for three birds with perches and nesting boxes

164 INGLEBY GUIDELINES CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE WELFARE OF POULTRY 165 SELECTION OF REFERENCE >>Shock-absorbing hammer with LOCATIONS soft nylon faces to minimise probe surface damage (optional). Farm managers, supported by the >>2 plastic containers (e.g. wash tub) Ingleby Production & Sustainability labelled 0-20 cm & 0-40 cm team, should identify the most PROTOCOL FOR REFERENCE SOIL appropriate fields for reference soil >>Plastic bags, preferably zipper type sampling locations. – pre-labelled SAMPLING >>Permanent marker Because soils are often non-uniform >>Pocket or kitchen knife within farms, and sometimes also >>Tape measure within fields, we need to select a We want to understand, monitor, and QUICK GUIDE number of fields that represent the improve the soil quality of our farms. variation of soil types important to SAMPLING 1. Select representative fields our crop or forage production: To monitor the development of our of the farm based on farm Before going to the field to take soil soil quality over time, we need refer- size and production: >>Crop production/pastures samples, you should prepare plastic As an average, choose one repre- ence soil samples from representative • Crops/pastures: 1 per 400 ha bags pre-labelled for each sampling sentative field per 400 hectares of location and for each of the two areas of all our farms. These are • Natural grassland: 1 per field crop production or improved analysed for key soil properties that 1,000 ha depths at these locations, including pastures. farm name and date (e.g. RSS 1, field, determine soil quality for crop and • Orchards: 1 per 200 ha farm name, depth, date). forage production, as well as for po- > 2. Within each of the repre- > Natural grassland/forests (RO) tential accumulation of environmental For natural grasslands and our sentative fields, identify a Take soil samples when the soil is pollutants such as nitrate. Changes forests in Romania, choose one sampling site and mark it moist (not too wet or dry), when it is in these properties over time will representative field per 1,000 with GPS coordinates. easiest to use the soil sampling probe provide us with information about hectares. the direction of change, and our goal 3. Take surface and sub-surface to get intact soil cores. is to maintain or improve them over soil samples in a 2x2 m area >>Orchards time. around the GPS coordinate Choose one representative field per For crops, the ideal time to take for each sampling location. 200 hectares. reference soil samples is during the Since most of the soil properties we • Surface soil samples: fallow period between crops, after Within each selected field, you should measure are relatively stable, we only Take 10-12 soil cores from harvest of the previous crop and select one geo-referenced sampling need to collect reference soil samples 0-20 cm depth, pool and mix before planting the next crop. location that is representative of the once every five years. in a pre-labelled bag field. The geo-referenced sampling Avoid sampling shortly after you have • Sub-surface soil samples: locations will become our long-term applied lime or fertilisers, or the field Compared to routine soil samples Take 10-12 soil cores from reference soil sampling sites. has been ploughed or disced and the used for making short-term decisions 20-40 cm depth, pool and soil surface is uneven/rough. about crop management, reference mix in a pre-labelled bag soil samples provide an in-depth 4. For all samples, break-up MATERIALS analysis of our soil quality and should At each soil sampling location, take large pieces of soil and mix be seen as a supplement rather than Soil sampling tools: samples from two depths: carefully to ensure uniform a substitute for routine soil samples. >>Soil sampler probes with sharp 1. Surface soil (0-20 cm) samples. edges and marked/engraved 2. Sub-surface soil (20-40 cm) 5. Air-dry the soil samples in measures of 20 and 40 cm. Soil the bags 5-10 days. cores should be approximately 1.3 This is to get a picture of the most 6. Ship the samples to the lab. to 3 cm in width active portion of the soil profile, in

166 INGLEBY GUIDELINES REFERENCE SOIL SAMPLING PROTOCOL 167 Ken Cassman and Mette Duedahl Before taking a soil sample, remove Place the soil probe perpendicular to Høyer with different types of soil any residue from the soil surface the surface. Gently push it into the probes soil while twisting the first 1-2 cm

which the roots grow and acquire 2. Align the probe in a perpendicu- nutrients and water. Monitoring lar position to the soil, and press trends in sub-surface soil is important it down, by twisting side by side to determine if there are any negative for the first 1 to 2 cm (to avoid trends, which might limit root func- compression). tion and restrict the volume of the 3. Continue pressing (small probe) active root zone. or hammering (large probe) it down until the desired depth. To ensure a representative soil Occasionally, twist side to side sample, you should take 10-12 soil to slice the core and alleviate soil cores in a 2x2 m area around the GPS Continue pressing (small probe) or Gently pull up the soil probe, slightly When taking sub-surface soil compression. hammering (large probe) the soil leaning back. Remove excessive soil samples of 20-40 cm, only collect coordinate for each reference soil probe until you reach the desired to get a perfect cylindrical shape the first half from the tip of the probe 4. Gently pull the core up, slightly sampling location. depth leaning back. Check if at the tip of the probe there is any exces- Cores from the same depth interval sive amount of soil. If so gently should be combined into one sample remove it to obtain a perfect so that there are only two reference cylindrical shape and concise soil samples from each sampling volume. location, i.e. one sample for 0-20 cm and one for 20-40 cm. The total 5. Extract the core from the weight of each pooled soil sample probe into the respective should be 400 g or as specified by container (0-20cm or 20- the soil sampling laboratory used. 40cm). Remember, sampling the 20-40cm depth, collect only the first half from the tip Repeat the process 10-12 times at Pool and mix soil cores from the Break-up large pieces of soil to When a stone or another hard each depth at each geo-referenced same depth in a plastic container ensure uniform samples. Remove any material prevents probing, stop of the probe. You may use your location within the 2x2 m area. rocks or crop residue the sampling and choose another fingers or assist with a tool (e.g. location. Stones and hard materials pocketknife) cause compression and thus give an 6. Repeat the process 10-12 times inaccurate soil sampling volume. (or fewer with a large probe), around the GPS reference point For soil sampling, we recommend in equal parts, within the 2x2 m appointing a conscientious team area. Pool and mix samples from member, who might preferably have the same depth and location in a an interest in soil science and plant pre-labelled sample bag. nutrition, to do the field sampling in a 7. After completing each sampling, reproducible way. proceed as described in the The soil sample should look similar Place the uniform sample in a plastic You will have two samples from each samples handling procedures to this. bag pre-labelled with the farm name, sampling location. Let them air dry SAMPLING STEP-BY-STEP section. sampling location, depth and date 5-10 days before shipping to a lab

1. In the pre-selected geo- For more information please visit: referenced point, remove the http://videos.inglebyfarms.com soil residue from previous crops Password: nature and start sampling from the soil surface.

168 INGLEBY GUIDELINES 169 HANDLING SOIL SAMPLES When returning to the farm office/ workshop, we recommend doing In the field, handle each soil sample sub-samplings for future use, sending as follows: only one half to the laboratory and 1. Pour the soil sample into a clean saving the rest for future analysis. plastic container. Do not use metal bowls or dishes because ANALYSIS they can contaminate the soil sample with iron, zinc, or other The soil samples should be analysed metals. by an authorised and accredited laboratory. 2. Quickly break the intact cores

into smaller pieces of about 2-4 Soil properties to be measured cm in length. include: 3. Mix the soil thoroughly to achieve >>pH a uniformly mixed sample. This >>Organic matter is an important step because the laboratory only measures a small >>Total organic nitrogen quantity of the sample. >>Extractable nitrate

4. Remove stones and crop residue. >>Phosphorus Make a note of the percentage of >>Potassium stones for reporting. >>Calcium 5. Return the mixed sample to its >>Magnesium labelled bag. >>Sulphur 6. Air-dry the sample at room >>Iron temperature with the bag open. >>Zinc Adequate drying should be >>Manganese achieved in 5-10 days depending on initial soil wetness. A small air >>Boron fan can be used to speed up the >>Texture (Only first year) drying process. Soil quality also includes soil physical 7. After drying, close the bag and structure, nutrient stocks, chemical ship it to the laboratory with the and biological properties. Detailed other samples. discussion of soil quality and its components are beyond the scope of Do not let the soil samples dry out this sampling protocol, but suffice it before breaking them up and mixing to say that we measure a set of soil because dry soils are difficult to work chemical and physical properties that with. Avoid letting soil samples sit provide a robust assessment of the at elevated temperatures such as in soil quality. closed vehicle cabins.

170 INGLEBY GUIDELINES Seeding spring barley, Lithuania. Photographer: Rasmus Juul Christoffersen 171 STEP 1 STEP 2 Locate the Reference Soil Sample (RSS) site. Place the Remove any crop residues from the surface earthworm testing site 10 metres from the RSS site as to not disturb future tests

EARTHWORM ASSESSMENT

STEP 3 STEP 4 Mark out a 20cm x 20cm square Remove a 20 cm cube of topsoil and place the soil in one of the buckets Earthworm population density is di- ASSESSMENT rectly affected by soil properties and management practices. Therefore, 1. Locate the RSS site and place the year-to-year comparisons of earth- earthworm testing site 10 metres worm numbers give an indication on from the RSS site how environmental and management 2. Remove any crop residues from decisions are effecting soil health. the surface 3. Mark out a 20cm x 20cm square There are no specific thresholds that 4. Remove a 20cm cube of topsoil relate the number of earthworms and place it in a bucket to a qualitative improvement in soil health. The number of earthworms is 5. Break apart the topsoil cube a purely quantitative measure used and place any earthworms in the STEP 5 STEP 6 second bucket Break apart the topsoil cube and place any earthworms Take a photograph of the earthworms to get a quick and easy picture of soil in the second bucket health that can be tracked over time. 6. Photograph the earthworms 7. Return the earthworms and soil SELECTION OF LOCATIONS to the field 8. Make an earthworm assess- Earthworm assessments should be ment report to be included in conducted at the farm's Reference the Sustainability Reporting. Soil Sample (RSS) sites. However, The report must include the place the earthworm testing site 10 following: metres from the RSS site as to not • Total number of earthworms disturb future tests. including a photo • RSS site and its GPS coordinates MATERIALS STEP 7 STEP 8 • Date of assessment Return the earthworms and soil to the field Note down the total number of earthworms as well as the RSS site, GPS coordinates and date as well as weather and >>GPS • Weather and soil conditions soil conditions >>Spade >>Measuring tape Earthworm assessments must be >>2 x Buckets made at the same time of year >>Camera/smartphone when soil moisture and temperature are similar, thus limiting seasonal >>Notebook and pen differences.

172 INGLEBY GUIDELINES REFERENCE SOIL SAMPLING PROTOCOL 173 MY NOTES

174 INGLEBY GUIDELINES MY NOTES 175 176 INGLEBY GUIDELINES MY NOTES 177 Aberdeen Angus Cattle, Uruguay. Photographer: Rafael Leguísamo