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Scoping study of the potential spread and impact of the exotic fish Oriental weatherloach in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia: A resource document. Report to Agriculture, Fisher...
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Funded under the Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program
(A program of the Natural Heritage Trust)
Produced by Freshwater Ecology Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
2002 © Commonwealth of Australia.
Represented by Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry - Australia.
Title Scoping study of the potential spread and impact of the exotic fish Oriental weatherloach in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia: A resource document.
Produced by Wayne M. Koster, Tarmo A. Raadik and Pam Clunie
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
PO Box 137 Heidelberg Victoria 3084
Telephone: (03) 9450 8600
Facsimile: (03) 9450 8730
Produced for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry – Australia.
Contact Sue Grant
Murray-Darling Basin Policy and Programs
Telephone: (02) 6272 5922
Facsimile: (02) 6271 6448
Date August 2002
Photographs © Neil Armstrong. Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
SUMMARY
As part of the Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program, the Freshwater Ecology Section of the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DNRE) was commissioned by Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia (AFFA), to undertake a scoping study aimed at collating and investigating aspects of the biology, ecology and distribution of the exotic fish Oriental weatherloach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus), to determine its potential spread and impacts within the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB).
This report represents a resource document to define the biology and ecology of Oriental weatherloach, factors responsible for the continued spread of the species, the distribution and potential range of the species, and the potential risks and impacts of the species. Information was sourced from within and outside of the MDB, including overseas, to provide a comprehensive understanding of current knowledge and identify knowledge gaps, particularly in relation to management of the species. A community awareness campaign was conducted as a component of this project to inform the community and responsible agencies of the project.
A draft strategy (Koster et al. 2002) was also developed to provide a framework to guide future management of Oriental weatherloach in the MDB by the community and resource managers. The draft strategy includes a regime to monitor the future spread of the species that involves resource managers and the local community. The draft strategy has been prepared as a separate document to this resource document.
The specific tasks of this project were to:
1. Define the potential risk and impacts of Oriental weatherloach to aquatic ecosystems in the MDB;
2. Define factors or conditions influencing the spread of Oriental weatherloach within the MDB;
3. Document the rate and pattern of spread of Oriental weatherloach;
4. Form the basis for a management strategy for the species within the MDB;
5. Scope potential pest species management strategies for containment, reduction or eradication programs;
6. Identify knowledge gaps and priorities for research and management;
7. Increase awareness of the species in the MDB with community groups, government agencies such as fisheries and water managers, other MDB users, and the aquarium industry; and
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8. Develop a program to allow for community input in monitoring the future spread of Oriental weatherloach in the MDB.
Oriental weatherloach have been introduced accidentally, or intentionally for faunal supplementation, into at least six countries (Allen 1984, Welcomme 1988, Lever 1996), and have established self-sustaining populations in four: Australia, Palau, the Philippines, and continental and oceanic United States of America. Oriental weatherloach (Misgurnus spp.) were imported into Australia, as an ornamental, cold-water fish for the aquarium trade.
Weatherloach were banned from importation into Australia in 1986 (Burchmore et al. 1990), though by this stage they had established a number of self-sustaining populations in the wild, and were freely available in the Australian aquarium trade. Oriental weatherloach have been reported from five mainland states and one territory in Australia and have established self- sustaining populations in New South Wales (NSW), Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
In Victoria, Oriental weatherloach are established on both sides of the Great Dividing Range. Fish survey data and unconfirmed reports indicate they may occur in seven river basins in the Murray-Darling drainage division, and five river basins in the South-east Coast drainage division. Oriental weatherloach have been recorded from at least seven streams in the south- east of inland NSW (Murrumbidgee River and Murray River basins), and from the Hawkesbury River system and Snowy River systems in coastal NSW. Oriental weatherloach have established self-sustaining populations in at least four river systems in the Murrumbidgee River basin in the ACT.
Oriental weatherloach are considered to have a range of biological characteristics that make it a successful invader including broad physiological tolerances, flexible diet, low vulnerability to predation, high reproductive potential and long life-span. Oriental weatherloach have established feral populations in several countries, although evidence for the adverse impact of the species is largely speculative.
The spread of Oriental weatherloach in Australia has probably been facilitated by several factors. These include the dumping of unwanted aquarium fish, water diversion schemes for irrigation supply and the associated creation of modified habitats such as ricefields, illegal use as baitfish by anglers, and natural dispersal. However, the significance of possible factors in the species' spread is not well understood.
Established populations of Oriental weatherloach are not actively managed in any state or territory in Australia, nor is the species managed at a national level. Management within states appears to be ad hoc and reactionary. Whilst we know little about the potential impact of Oriental weatherloach, experience in pest management in Australia suggests a precautionary approach should be applied. Precautionary principles to minimise the risk of future introductions, and pest management principles to address existing introductions (MDBC 2002), should be applied within and outside of the MDB.
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Very few methods of control of Oriental weatherloach have been trialed in any depth in Australia, or overseas. Given the key features of this species which include its small size, cryptic nature, and potential for large population sizes, the ability to destroy entire populations is extremely unlikely. At present control options appear limited, with the greatest potential for success being directed at small sized standing waterbodies such as dams and ponds.
The environmental adaptability, high competitive ability, high reproductive output, high survivorship and high dispersal ability of Oriental weatherloach indicate that this species could potentially expand its range over a large portion of the MDB, as well as the southeastern coast region of Australia. The ecological impacts of Oriental weatherloach are poorly understood, as are the methods of containment and eradication. More research is required on key areas to better understand its impacts on the aquatic environment, rate and method of spread, as well as the possible methods for containment and control.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- iii -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the following people who contributed during the collation of this document:
First and foremost, the steering committee which comprised:
• Peter Gillard and Sue Grant, AFFA, Canberra
• Mark Lintermans, Environment ACT, Canberra
• Rachel Mackenzie, Queensland DPI, Brisbane
• Bob Faragher, NSW Fisheries, Cronulla, Sydney.
Mark Lintermans is especially acknowledged for providing access to unpublished data.
The following people were contacted during the course of this project, and earlier, and provided additional information (listed as `personal communications’ in the text):
• Andrews, A.P., former Curator of Vertebrates, Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart, Tasmania.
• Allen, G.R., former curator, Department of Ichthyology, Western Australian Museum, Perth.
• Breen, Peter, formerly of Dandenong Valley Authority, Victoria.
• Cadwallader, Phil, formerly of the Victorian Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Snobs Creek.
• Coles, John, Sydney Fly Rodders Club, Sydney.
• Cromb, Robert, Maffra.
• Datodi, Ric, Aquarium Industries, Victoria.
• Douglas, John, Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment, MAFRI, Snobs Creek.
• Dudgeon, David, Department of Zoology, The University of Hong Kong.
• Fisher, Lance, Gippsland.
• Glover, C.J.M., former Curator of Fishes, South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
• Grylls, John, Ballarat.
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• Hammer, Michael, University of Adelaide, South Australia.
• Humphries, Paul, Murray Darling Freshwater Research Centre, Albury, New South Wales.
• Johnson, Glen, Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment.
• Johnson, Jeff, Ichthyology Department, Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
• King, Alison, Murray Darling Freshwater Research Centre, Albury, New South Wales.
• Kottelat, Maurice, Zoologische Staatssammlung, Munchen, Germany.
• Kukolic, Kruno, formerly of the ACT Parks and Conservation Service, Canberra.
• Larson, Helen, Ichthyology, NT Museum, Darwin.
• Lawler, Peter, Queanbeyan Anglers Club.
• Lloyd, Lance, formerly University of Adelaide, South Australia.
• Mayers, Chris, Australian Fresh Water Fisherman’s Assembly.
• Meredith, Shaun, Lower Basin Laboratory, Mildura, Murray-Darling Freshwater Research Centre.
• Morgan, David, Fish Research Group, Murdoch University, Western Australia.
• O’Connor, Justin, Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Melbourne.
• Samuels, Steve, Kaleen.
• Singh, S.B., FAO/UNDS Project, Hanoi, Vietnam.
• Smith, David, Smith-Root Incorporated, Vancouver, USA.
• Thomas, Owen, formerly of the Victorian Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands.
• Tscharke, Mark, Parks Victoria, Kerang.
• Rohde, Murray, Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Swan Hill.
• Ronquillo, I.A., Fisheries consultant, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Philippines Department of Agriculture and Food.
• Unmack, Peter, currently Arizona State University, USA.
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• Walker, Keith, University of Adelaide, South Australia.
Thanks also to Anthony Conallin and Glynn Aland (formerly of Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research - ARI) who provided assistance with the literature review, and to Di Crowther and Paul Close (Freshwater Ecology, ARI) who provided comments on an earlier version of this document.
Designations in the text for specimens housed in Australian museum fish collections are as follows:
• AMS – Australian Museum, Sydney,
• QM – Queensland Museum,
• NMV – Museum Victoria,
• S – Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………………….…………………..iv 1INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2SYSTEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE ...... 3 2.1 Phylogeny...... 3 2.2 Taxonomy of Loaches of the Genus Misgurnus ...... 3 2.3 Asian Species in the Genus Misgurnus ...... 3 2.4 Species of Misgurnus Present in Australia...... 5 2.5 Common Names of Weatherloach ...... 5 3DESCRIPTION ...... 6 4DISTRIBUTION OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH ...... 8 4.1 Natural Distribution...... 8 4.2 Distribution Outside of Natural Range...... 8 4.3 Distribution in Australia...... 9 4.4 Summary...... 18 5BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH ...... 19 5.1 Sexual Dimorphism ...... 19 5.2 Habitat Preferences...... 19 5.3 Movement and Activity Patterns...... 20 5.4 Population Densities...... 21 5.5 Feeding and Diet ...... 21 5.6 Reproduction and Development...... 22 5.7 Age ...... 24 5.8 Tolerance to Desiccation...... 24 5.9 Temperature Tolerance...... 25 5.10 Salinity Tolerance...... 26 5.11 Tolerance to Pesticides, Heavy Metals and other Toxins...... 26 5.12 Closely Related Species and their Ecology ...... 27 5.13 Disease and Parasites ...... 27 5.14 Utilisation...... 29 5.15 Genetics ...... 29 5.16 Hybridisation...... 29 5.17 Summary...... 30 6FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SPREAD OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH ...... 31 6.1 Aquarium Trade...... 31 6.2 Water Diversion Schemes...... 31 6.3 River Regulation...... 32 6.4 Use as Bait ...... 32 6.5 Natural Dispersal...... 32 6.6 Fish Stocking...... 33 6.7 Aquaculture ...... 33 6.8 Mosquito Control ...... 33 6.9 Summary...... 34 7POTENTIAL RANGE OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH...... 35 8RISKS AND IMPACTS OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH ...... 37 8.1 Worldwide Impacts...... 37 8.2 Australia...... 37 8.3 Disease...... 38 8.4 Aquatic Environment ...... 38
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9LEGISLATIVE STATUS ...... 39 9.1 Victoria...... 39 9.2 New South Wales...... 39 9.3 Australian Capital Territory...... 39 9.4 Queensland ...... 39 9.5 South Australia ...... 40 9.6 Western Australia ...... 40 9.7 Tasmania...... 40 9.8 Northern Territory...... 40 9.9 Summary...... 40 10 CURRENT MANAGEMENT ...... 41 10.1 Community awareness...... 42 11 CONTROL OPTIONS ...... 43 11.1 Background ...... 43 11.2 Use of Pathogens and Parasites...... 44 11.3 Chemical Control...... 44 11.4 Molecular biology and biotechnology...... 47 11.5 Biomanipulation - Predation by Native Fish ...... 47 11.6 Physical Control ...... 48 11.7 Synopsis of Control Options...... 49 12 CONCLUSION ...... 51 13 CITED REFERENCES...... 52 14 OTHER USEFUL REFERENCES ...... 68 15 USEFUL WEB SITES ...... 73 16 APPENDIX 1 PROVISIONAL MISGURNUS SYNONYMY ...... 74 17 APPENDIX 2 COMMUNITY AWARENESS MATERIALS ...... 77
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- viii -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
At least 24 exotic fish species have been reported from Australian inland waters, of which 19 species are known to have established self-sustaining wild populations (Fletcher 1986, Arthington and Blühdorn 1995, Arthington and McKenzie 1997). The impacts of exotic fish are often inadequately known, but may include competition with native fish for food, shelter and breeding sites, predation of eggs, juveniles or adults of native fish, the spread of disease, and habitat modification. As part of the Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program, a scoping study was undertaken aimed at collating and investigating aspects of the biology, ecology and distribution of the exotic fish Oriental weatherloach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus), to determine its potential spread and impacts within the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB). Of the eleven exotic fish species reported from the MDB, the Oriental weatherloach has received the least attention. This species is a successful invader, having established populations in over 80% of the countries in which in has been introduced (Lever 1996, Arthington et al. 1999). Oriental weatherloach are now established in some reaches of the MDB (MacQueen 1995, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996, SMEC 1997) and the species is capable of rapid expansions in range (Lintermans et al. 1990a), however little is known about the processes of colonisation and dispersal. Little is also known about their potential impact, such as predation, diet overlap and competition for space, on native aquatic fauna communities, in particular fish communities (Arthington and McKenzie 1997).
This report represents a resource document to define the biology and ecology of Oriental weatherloach, identify factors responsible for the continued spread of the species, determine the distribution and potential range of the species, and assess the potential risks and impacts of the species. Information presented in this document has been sourced internationally, Australia wide and from within the MDB, in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of current knowledge and identify knowledge gaps, particularly in relation to management of the species. As a component of this project a community awareness campaign was conducted to inform responsible agencies and the general community of the project.
Based on the review of literature and current understanding of the risks and impacts of Oriental weatherloach, a draft strategy (Koster et al. 2002) was also developed to provide a framework to guide future management of Oriental weatherloach in the MDB by the community and resource managers. The draft strategy includes a regime to monitor the future spread of the species that involves resource managers and the local community. The draft strategy has been prepared as a separate document to this resource document.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 1 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
The specific tasks of this project were to:
1. Define the potential risk and impacts of Oriental weatherloach to aquatic ecosystems in the MDB;
2. Define factors or conditions influencing the spread of Oriental weatherloach within the MDB;
3. Document the rate and pattern of spread of Oriental weatherloach;
4. Form the basis for a management strategy for the species within the MDB;
5. Scope potential pest species management strategies for containment, reduction or eradication programs;
6. Identify knowledge gaps and priorities for research and management;
7. Increase awareness of the species in the MDB with community groups, government agencies such as fisheries and water managers, other MDB users, and the aquarium industry; and
8. Develop a program to allow for community input in monitoring the future spread of Oriental weatherloach in the MDB.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 2 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
2 SYSTEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE
2.1 Phylogeny
Loaches are cyprinform fishes classified in the family Cobitidae (Table 2-1), which currently contains approximately 110 species in 18 genera (see family summary in Froese and Pauly 2001). The family is naturally distributed throughout Eurasia, Morocco and Ethiopia (Nelson, 1994).
Table 2-1. Phylogeny of the family Cobitidae (after Nelson, 1994).
Classification Comment PHYLUM CHORDATA SUPERCLASS GNATHOSTOMA Class OSTEICHTHYES bony fishes Subclass ACTINOPTERYGII ray-finned fishes Subdivision TELEOSTEI Infradivision EUTELEOSTEI Superorder OSTARIOPHYSI Order CYPRINIFORMES Superfamily Catostomidea Family COBITIDIDAE Loaches
All cyprinids, therefore including the members of the family Cobitidae (see Table 2-1), are naturally absent from the Australasian region (Berra 1981, Allen 1989). Endemic species of the catfish family Plotosidae (eg. freshwater catfish Tandanus tandanus) are the most closely related species to the loaches in Australia.
2.2 Taxonomy of Loaches of the Genus Misgurnus
Loaches of the genus Misgurnus Lacepede 1803, belong to the sub-family Cobitinae in the family Cobitidae, of which they are a primitive member, lacking an erectile spine under the eye (Nichols 1938). They are naturally found in the eastern Indian sub-continent and Asia, except the European weatherloach Misgurnus fossilis (Linnaeus, 1758), which is distributed throughout central and Eastern Europe from France to Russia (Froese and Pauly 2001).
2.3 Asian Species in the Genus Misgurnus
Misgurnus loaches are highly variable in body morphology and colouration, and consequently during the discovery and description of fishes from eastern Asia from the mid 1800’s to mid 1900’s, over 30 species and sub-species were formally described (Appendix 1)
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(Kimura 1934, Kubota and Ono 1965). Additional scientific names appear in the literature following revisions that resulted in changes in generic designation (eg. Sawada 1982). A provisional synonymy of Misgurnus spp. can be found in Appendix 1.
Approximately four Misgurnus species are currently recognised as valid in the genus from Asia (Appendix 1), though there is still disagreement (see Yěn 1978, Chen 1981, Sawada 1982, Yu 1988):
! Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor, 1842)
! Misgurnus bipartitus (Sauvage and Dabry de Thiersant, 1874)
! Misgurnus cestoideus Kessler, 1876
! Misgurnus mizolepis Günther, 1888
The natural distributions of all four species appear to overlap, though M. anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis have the broadest distributions. M. bipartitus and M. cestoideus appear to be restricted to northern China and Mongolia.
Due to the confusion in the taxonomy of this genus, keys to adequately identify each species are lacking. Many characters used to separate species in available keys overlap. In addition to this, different authors accept some of the species listed above as valid, reject other species, and accept additional species as valid. Therefore no keys exists which can be used to adequately identify each of the four species listed above.
The verification of species based on identifications from photographs in published texts may be doubtful. The image of M. anguillicaudatus pictured in Dawes (1999, p. 186) may in fact be M. mizolepis, or another species, and the two images of weatherloach in Hay and Hodgkiss (1981) do not appear to match the designated species names. A good drawing of M. anguillicaudatus from Vietnam can be found in Chevey and Lemasson (1937, Figure 62, plate XXVIII).
One character that has been proposed to separate M. anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis is a skin fold on the dorsal and ventral edges of the caudal peduncle (Yěn, 1978). This fold has been reported to be well developed in M. mizolepis, and poorly developed in M. anguillicaudatus, however this character appears to be equally present or absent in many images of both species and also in the line drawings attributed to each species listed in Appendix 1. Therefore this character is currently considered inappropriate to use for identification purposes. While Vladykov (1935) noted that the lamina circularis in the pectoral fin of male M. anguillicaudatus is rounded and elongated in M. mizolepis, shape variations in the other described species have not been defined.
The taxonomy of M. anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis in Korea has been partially undertaken, but this report (in Korean) was unavailable (Yang et al. 1994). More recently, genetic and morphological studies have suggested that there are at least two biological
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 4 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT species of weatherloach, currently described as M. anguillicaudatus, in the Torentsu River, Japan (Dong et al. 1999), one of which is undescribed, though Khan and Arai (2000) cast doubt on this.
It is apparent that the weatherloaches of the genus Misgurnus, across their natural range in Asia, are in need of detailed systematic revision.
2.4 Species of Misgurnus Present in Australia
Weatherloach have been imported into Australia from Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore, however as the specific collection locations of stocks are unknown, potentially all four species may have been introduced. There is a greater likelihood that the majority of imported fish consisted of M. anguillicaudatus, and possibly M. mizolepis, as these two species have the broadest distributions. As there are currently no accurate identification keys available to separate these species, it is difficult to verify which is/are currently in Australia.
Information collated in this report on the distribution, spread, and ecology and biology of weatherloaches refers, in the main, to the Oriental weatherloach, M. anguillicaudatus, referred to as weatherloach or Oriental weatherloach in the text. Data is also included on M. mizolepis, where relevant. This data is clearly indicated as referring to M. mizolepis.
2.5 Common Names of Weatherloach
Weatherloach are also known by many common names and this can cause some confusion in the literature. The common names of the two most widespread species are given below:
Oriental Weatherloach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor 1842)
! Oriental weatherfish, dojo, weather loach, Japanese weatherfish, Amur weatherfish, Amur loach, cyprinid loach, loach.
Weatherloach Misgurnus mizolepis (Gunther 1888)
! Chinese fine scale loach, mud loach, Oriental weatherfish, loach.
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3 DESCRIPTION
Oriental weatherloach are a relatively small-sized fish known to attain a maximum length of about 250 mm, but in Australia usually growing to about 200 mm (Lintermans and Burchmore 1996). The term weatherloach reflects its apparent restlessness during changes in air pressure (see also Brown 1973).
Neil Armstrong
Figure 3-1. Oriental weatherloach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus, Maribyrnong River, Melbourne.
The species can be recognised by a combination of the following characters (Figures 3-1 and 3-2) (see also Jayaram 1981): an elongate, cylindrical body, almost circular in cross section but strongly compressed posteriorly; small embedded scales over the trunk of the body, with the head scaleless; small sub-terminal mouth (maxilla not reaching to the level of the eyes) surrounded by three pairs of barbels on the maxilla (upper jaw) and two pairs on the mandible (lower jaw); a small eye set near the dorsal profile of the head; a single, rayed, short-based dorsal fin located posterior to the midline; a rounded caudal fin; ventral fins small, located posterior to midline and posterior to the origin of the dorsal fin; anal fin located just forward of the caudal peduncle.
Neil Armstrong Figure 3-2. Detail of the head, mouth and barbels of Oriental weatherloach.
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Barbels are present just prior to hatching, or fully developed and apparent during the first third of the larval period (Fuiman 1984 p. 137). Scales are small and difficult to dislodge, and can regenerate if damaged (Kobayashi and Kawai 1960).
Body colour is generally orange-yellow to yellow-grey, darker on the dorsal surface and sides, and paler underneath. Black and dark brown spots are present on the back and sides, and there is usually a large black spot present in the dorsal region of the caudal peduncle at the base of the caudal fin (see Figure 3-1). Xanthic colour morphs are known, in which individuals are of orange-yellow colouration overall (see Axelrod et al. 1997, Bleeker 1982). The eye is orange-yellow and gill cover tends to be silvery-gold.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 7 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
4 DISTRIBUTION OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH
4.1 Natural Distribution
Weatherloach of the genus Misgurnus, except the European weatherloach M. fossilis, are naturally found in the eastern Indian sub-continent and Asia. They are indigenous to Mongolia, the eastern portion of the Russian Federation (from the Tugur and Amur Rivers, and including Sakhalin Island), Japan, North Korea and South Korea, China (including Hainan and Hong Kong), Taiwan, northern Vietnam, and north-eastern Burma (Myanmar) (Rendahl 1922, 1936, 1937, 1943, 1944, Fowler 1934, Chu 1931, Nichols 1943, Orsi 1974, Yěn 1978, 1985, Jayaram 1981, Kochetov and Kochetov 1986).
4.2 Distribution Outside of Natural Range
Oriental weatherloach have been introduced accidentally, or intentionally for faunal supplementation, into at least six countries (Allen 1984, Welcomme 1988, Lever 1996), and have established self-sustaining populations in four: Australia, Palau, the Philippines, and continental and oceanic United States of America.
Natural Range
Within their natural range, weatherloach are also exported from China to fish markets in Japan, Korea and Taiwan.
Australia
Oriental weatherloach have been reported from five mainland states and one territory, having established self-sustaining populations in NSW, Victoria and the ACT. See section 4.3 for more detail.
Mexico
Oriental weatherloach were imported into an aquaculture facility in Mexico, and were released into the wild in 1961 when the facility closed (Contreras and Escalante 1984). Its present status in this country is still unknown.
Pacific
Weatherloach have established self-sustaining populations in the wild in the Palau Islands, having been imported as a food source by the Japanese between 1914 and 1944 (Bright 1979, Bright and June 1981). There appear to have been no further introductions of this species (Eldredge 1994).
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Philippines
Oriental weatherloach were introduced as a food source in 1931 by a Japanese immigrant to the Trinidad River near Baguio City, northern Luzon (Herre 1953, Rabanal and Hosillos 1961). The species is now established and widespread in the mountain areas of this district (Ronquillo, I.A. pers. comm. 1988, Juliano et al. 1989).
United Kingdom
Two individuals of Oriental weatherloach have been collected from the wild in England during 1978 and 1995 respectively (Lever 1996). Both are suspected to be escaped or released aquarium fish.
United States of America
Oriental weatherloach are reported from one state (Tennessee), and are established in eight states (California, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Michigan, Oregon, Washington and Hawaii) in the USA (Fuller et al. 1999, DeLong 1999). A single specimen of M. mizolepis was also collected from Oregon (Fuller et al. 1999). Specific details on the majority of these introductions can be found in Fuller et al. (1999), including references to primary literature sources.
Earlier introductions of weatherloach to the USA were from fish that had escaped from aquarium supplies and the species was thought to have been deliberately introduced to Hawaii by Asian immigrants during the 1800s.
4.3 Distribution in Australia
OVERVIEW
Since initial records of captures of this species from the wild in the early 1980s, weatherloach have now spread to many parts of New South Wales (NSW), Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In particular, since their first record in north-eastern Victoria in the early 1980s, in a tributary of the Ovens River, they had colonised as far downstream as the Barmah floodplain by 1993.
There have been limited records of occurrences in Queensland, one record from South Australia, and no substantiated records from the Northern Territory, Western Australia, or Tasmania.
Self-sustaining populations of weatherloach are present in the south and south-eastern portion of the MDB in the Murrumbidgee River system (NSW and ACT) and mid to upper Murray River and tributaries (NSW and Victoria).
With the exception of the ACT, most survey data for Oriental weatherloach comes from miscellaneous surveys rather than those that specifically target Oriental weatherloach. Reported distribution and abundance information should be interpreted with care, taking into
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MODE OF INTRODUCTION INTO AUSTRALIA
Oriental weatherloach (Misgurnus spp.) were imported into Australia, as an ornamental, cold- water scavenger fish for the aquarium trade and hobby. It is unclear when importation of this species began, but they appeared on the list of permitted imports as early as 1964 (Anon 1964), and comprised one percent of all aquarium fish imported into Australia during 1978 to 1980 (McKay 1978). Approximately 50,000 were imported annually in the early 1980s, from Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore (Datodi, R. pers. comm. 1986). Note that Allen (1984) incorrectly states that Oriental weatherloach are caught in the wild in India.
Weatherloach were banned from importation into Australia in 1986 (Burchmore et al. 1990), though by this stage they had established a number of self-sustaining populations in the wild, and were freely available in the Australian aquarium industry.
VICTORIA
In Victoria Oriental weatherloach are established on both sides of the Great Dividing Range. Fish survey data and unconfirmed reports (1981-2000) indicate they may occur in seven river basins in the Murray-Darling drainage division, and five river basins in the South-east Coast drainage division (Table 4-1).
Weatherloach, purchased from an aquarium shop, were placed into a garden pond near Morses Creek, near Wandiligong in north-eastern Victoria, about 1977. In December 1981, one fish was found moving across the ground, out of the pond, on a rainy day, and was placed back into the pond. A drawing of the fish was sent to the Department of Ichthyology, Museum Victoria for identification, which was confirmed by the Curator, Martin Gomon (letters, correspondence file, Department of Ichthyology, Museum Victoria).
The pond was drained during 1982 and three weatherloach were collected, however no breeding appeared to have occurred (Cadwallader, P. pers. comm. 1986). Specimens were deposited in the Museum of Victoria collection.
There was confusion as to how many fish had originally been introduced into the pond, and given that one was collected moving over moist land, it seems probable that some may have entered the creek. By 1985/86 three weatherloach were collected in One Mile Creek near Wangaratta (Thomas, O. pers. comm. 1986), approximately 80 km downstream of Wandiligong. In 1993 Oriental weatherloach were also found in Colclough's Bend (a lagoon) and Taylors Bend (a depression), two areas along the Victorian side of the Murray River near Corowa upstream of the junction with the Ovens River (Johnson, G. pers. comm. 1993).
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Table 4-1. Summary of Oriental weatherloach records in Victoria, including river basin number). (NMV A – Museum Victoria specimen registration number).
Location Year Status Reference Murray-Darling Drainage Division Morses Creek, Wandiligong Dec 1981 Established, Department of Ichthyology, (03) spread Museum Victoria, letter file and downstream collection (NMV A7769) River Murray floodplain (01) Mar 1993 Established DNRE 2002 Barmah floodplain (04) 1993 Unknown McKinnon 1997 Campaspe River, near Dec 1996 Unknown Douglas, J. pers. comm. 2002 Rochester (06) Broken Creek, Kennedy’s Oct 2000 Unknown, O’Connor, J., unpublished data Weir (04) possibly spreading Drain, near Shepparton (05) Winter 2000 Unknown Landholder, pers. comm. 2002 Irrigation drain, near Cohuna Ca. 2000 Unknown Rohde, M. pers. comm. 2002 (07) Irrigation dam, near Ca. 2000 Unknown Rohde, M. pers. comm. 2002 Tyntynder (08) South-east Coast Drainage Division Yarra River (29) 1984 Established, Allen 1984 (NMV A3310, 7712) widespread throughout catchment Corhanwarrabul Creek, and Jan 1988, Established, Raadik unpublished data (NMV Dandenong Creek (28) Mar 1989 widespread A8119, A8176), Breen, P. pers. comm. 1989 Skeleton Creek (31) May 1989 Established, Raadik unpublished data (NMV restricted A8175, A8637, A9171) La Trobe River (26) Feb 1993 Unknown Raadik unpublished data (NMV A12552) Maribyrnong River (30) Oct 1997 Established, Raadik 1997 spreading Patterson River (28) Jan 1998 Established, Raadik and Zampatti 1998 spreading Irrigation drain, near Maffra 1998 Unknown Cromb, R., pers. comm. 2002 (25)
There have also been other reports of weatherloach being found in drying billabongs along the River Murray floodplain in Victoria. One of these reports mentioned that weatherloach were in such a high density that they blocked the inlet of an irrigation pump.
Weatherloach appeared on the Barmah floodplain wetlands towards the end of 1993 (McKinnon 1997), and are now more widespread being found in Hut Lake in 1999 and Steamer Plain in 2000 (Douglas, J. pers. comm. 2002). Other surveys of Victorian tributaries
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 11 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT of the Murray River in the last few years have recorded Oriental weatherloach in the Campaspe River (Douglas, J. pers. comm. 2002) and Broken Creek (O’Connor, J. unpublished data). Oriental weatherloach have also been reported from Bendigo Creek (Tscharke, M. pers. comm. 2001) in the Campaspe drainage basin and from Nine Mile Creek and several irrigation channels in the Broken Creek system (Landholder, pers. comm. 2002). There are also recent reports of Oriental weatherloach from Gunbower Creek and irrigation channels near Cohuna, Lake Charm, Kerang and Fish Point in the Loddon drainage basin, an irrigation dam near Tyntynder in the Avoca drainage basin (Rohde, M. pers. comm. 2002), and drains and channels in the Goulburn drainage basin near Shepparton (Landholder, pers. comm. 2002).
Oriental weatherloach were first officially recorded from Victoria from the Yarra River around Warrandyte in 1984 (Allen 1984). Allen (1984) questioned whether they were from a breeding population or were survivors of aquarium fish released into the river. Weatherloach appear to have been well established in the Yarra River by 1984, as they had been collected (but not reported at the time) from the Don River, further upstream in the system in 1983 (Koehn et al. 1991). Adults and juveniles also abundant further downstream around Bulleen including Koonung Creek and at Ruffey Creek in early 1985 and 1986 (Glenane 1985, Unmack, P. unpublished data, Raadik, T. unpublished data).
The species has rapidly spread both upstream and downstream of the original location. Many surveys within the Yarra catchment now record high numbers of Oriental weatherloach. Surveys have recorded the species at least as far downstream as Gardiners Creek below Dight’s Falls, and upstream as far as the Don River near Warburton, and in most tributaries (eg. Merri, Darebin Creeks, Diamond, Mullum Mullum, Koonung, Brushy, Badger, and Woori Yallock creeks, and Plenty, Watts and Little Yarra Rivers). They are also established in ornamental ponds in Melbourne (eg. Hedgley Dene Gardens, Malvern East; Ringwood Lake) (DNRE 2002).
More recently weatherloach have been recorded from the Maribyrnong River to the west of Melbourne, which flows into the lower Yarra River but from which it is separated by an estuary. Fish have also been found in Skeleton Creek (Werribee River basin) to the west of Melbourne, throughout the Dandenong Creek system and from the Patterson River system (Bunyip River basin) to the south-east of Melbourne.
Weatherloach have also been recorded in the Gippsland region in coastal eastern Victoria, from the LaTrobe River and more recently from the Macalister Irrigation area (Cromb, R. pers. comm. 2002) and an ornamental dam near Rawson (Fisher, L. pers. comm. 2002) in the Thomson River basin. There is also an unsubstantiated report of Oriental weatherloach in a small creek at Jan Juc, a small coastal town south-west of Melbourne (ca. 1995).
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AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY
Oriental weatherloach have established self-sustaining populations in at least four river systems in the Murrumbidgee River basin in the ACT, between 1980 and 1998 (Table 4-2).
The first record of the species in the ACT was of a gravid female (175 mm in length) collected from the east end of Lake Burley Griffin in September 1980. Subsequent fish sampling failed to locate any further specimens in this water body. In January 1984, a juvenile (65 mm in length) was collected from Ginninderra Creek downstream of Lake Ginninderra. Subsequent searches of these locations using dip netting and rotenone failed to record further specimens (Lintermans et al. 1990a).
Table 4-2. Summary of Oriental weatherloach records in the Australian Capital Territory, all from the Murrumbidgee River basin (basin 10).
Location Year Status Reference Murray-Darling Drainage Division Lake Burley Griffin Sep 1980 Isolated individual Lintermans et al. 1990a Ginninderra Creek Jan 1984 Established, Lintermans et al. 1990a spreading Tuggeranong Creek 1986/7, Established, Rutzou 1991 1991 spreading Cotter River, Paddys River 1992 Established, Lintermans 1993 spreading Molonglo River Ca. 1998 Established, Lintermans, M. unpublished data spreading
Following further reports of Oriental weatherloach, surveys were undertaken at five sites in Ginninderra Creek in February 1986 (Kukolic, K. pers. comm. 1988). The initial survey, from the wall of Lake Ginninderra to four kilometres downstream found a breeding population (19 individuals, length range 22 to 135 mm). In 1988 an expanded survey was undertaken along the river to the New South Wales border and Oriental weatherloach were recorded at all sites sampled. Later in that year the entire length of Ginninderra Creek was surveyed; Oriental weatherloach were recorded up to the confluence of the creek and the Murrumbidgee River although not in this river itself. It was emphasised however that sampling within the Murrumbidgee River was difficult due to turbid, fast flowing water (Lintermans et al. 1990a).
Oriental weatherloach have subsequently been recorded above the dam wall in Lake Ginninderra and in Ginninderra Creek above the lake (Lintermans, M. unpublished data). Lintermans et al. (1990a) also indicated that the species had been recorded in significant numbers in nearby Gooromon Creek and in smaller numbers in Halls Creek. By 1988 it was estimated the species inhabited approximately 25 km of local streams in the ACT (Lintermans et al. 1990a).
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Elsewhere in the ACT, Oriental weatherloach have been recorded from Tuggeranong Creek, since at least 1991, and possibly since 1986/87 (Lintermans 1993). In 1992 surveys recorded a breeding population of Oriental weatherloach in the Cotter and Paddy rivers. Lintermans (1993) noted that this represented the fourth stream system within the ACT where the species had been found. Populations were found both above and below the Cotter Dam and Lintermans (1993) argued that these may have represented separate introductions. At the time of this survey Oriental weatherloach had not been recorded further upstream in Condor Creek. The species has now been recorded from the full length of the Murrumbidgee River within the ACT.
NEW SOUTH WALES
Oriental weatherloach have been recorded from at least seven streams in the south-east of inland NSW (Murrumbidgee River and Murray River basins), and from the Hawkesbury River system and Snowy River systems in coastal NSW (Table 4-3), between 1989 to 2001. Collection records indicated that the species is continuing to spread.
Weatherloach were first recorded from NSW when 33 specimens (length range of 40 to 180 mm) were collected, using the ichthyocide rotenone, from the Wingecarribee River near Sproules Lane bridge in January 1989. The species was found to be widespread and reproducing successfully in this southern coastal river (Burchmore et al. 1990). Lintermans and Burchmore (1996) report that this population has also colonised the Wollondilly River to Lake Burragorang and the Coxs River.
In 1992, a population of Oriental weatherloach was recorded in a tributary of Lake Eucumbene in the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales (Lintermans 1993). Oriental weatherloach have also been reported from Lake Eucumbene in recent years including the Frying Pan (Lawler, P. pers. comm. 2002) and Buckenderra (Mayers, C. pers. comm. 2002) arms and Cobrabald Bay (Samuels, S. pers. comm. 2002). Oriental weatherloach have also been found in the stomach contents of trout captured from Lake Eucumbene (Samuels, S. pers. comm. 2002).
Lintermans and Burchmore (1996) report that Oriental weatherloach have spread from Ginninderra Creek in the ACT into NSW waters including the Murrumbidgee River down to Lake Burrinjuck. Weatherloach are also established in the Queanbeyan River, with the first specimen collected in 1996 and a reproducing population documented in 1998 (Lintermans 1998). There are unconfirmed reports of weatherloach in a small creek in Royal National Park on the outskirts of Sydney (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). A fish survey of the upper Murrumbidgee catchment in 1998 and 1999 recorded weatherloach from the Murrumbidgee River near Michelago. This is the most upstream record of the species within this catchment (Lintermans, M. unpublished data). There is also a recent unconfirmed report of Oriental weatherloach from the Peak River, a tributary of the Tumut River in the Murrumbidgee drainage basin (Coles, J. pers. comm. 2002).
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Table 4-3. Summary of Oriental weatherloach records in New South Wales, including river basin number.
Location Year Status Reference Murray-Darling Drainage Division Murrumbidgee River (10) Pre 1996 Established, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996, spreading Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002 Queanbeyan River (10) 1996 Established, Lintermans 1998 spreading River Murray (01, 02, 09) 1997 Established, McKinnon 1997, MacQueen 1995, spreading Tuppal Creek (09) 1997 Established, SMEC 1997 spreading Wakool River, Deniliquin (09) 2000 Unknown, probably Tudehope 2001 established and spreading Edwards River, Neimur River 2001 Unknown, probably Tudehope 2001, Grylls, J. pers. (09) established and comm. 2001 spreading Peak River, near April 2001 Unknown Coles, J. pers. comm. 2002 Goobraganda (10) South-east Coast Drainage Division Wingecarribee River (12) Jan 1989 Established, Burchmore et al. 1990 (AMS spreading I.28529-001) Lake Eucumbene, tributary Nov 1992 Established, Swales 1992, McFedran 1992 (22) spreading Wollondilly River, Coxs 1996 Established, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996 River, Lake Burragorang (12) spreading Unnamed creek, Royal ca. 1998 Unknown Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002 National Park (14)
MacQueen (1995) noted the furthest upstream occurrence of the species in the Murray River was between Corowa and Howlong in 1995, though more recent records indicate the species now occurs in wetlands near Albury including Normans Lagoon and Mungabareena Reserve (Humphries, P. and King, A. pers. comms. 2001). The furthest documented downstream occurrence in the Murray River is at Barmah (McKinnon 1997). Recent surveys from around Lindsay and Walpolla islands (between locks 6 and 9) have failed to record weatherloach (Meredith, S. pers. comm. 2001).
In 1997, a small population of Oriental weatherloach was recorded in the middle reaches of Tuppal Creek (SMEC 1997). Further surveys in March 1999 recorded small populations of the species throughout the length of the creek (AMBS 1999). In 2001 Oriental weatherloach numbers had more than doubled in the middle to upper reaches of the creek (AWT 2001). Tuppal Creek is used as a drain for irrigation tailwater from the Mulwala Canal and it is unclear whether Oriental weatherloach entered the creek via this canal system, or from the
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Murray River. There have been recent reports of the species from the Edwards River (Tudehope 2001) and Neimur River (Grylls, J. pers. comm. 2001). They may be more widespread in the Murray River system as they are commonly caught by rice farmers (B. Twomie, Fisheries Inspector, cited in Tudehope 2001).
Oriental weatherloach was not recorded during sampling for the New South Wales Rivers Survey (Harris and Gehrke 1997). Faragher and Lintermans (1997) suggested this may be explained by either habitat preferences, very small populations or extremely limited distributions.
QUEENSLAND
Weatherloach have been recorded on three occasions from Queensland between 1987 and 1995 (Table 4-4). They had established a self-sustaining population at one location, and were subsequently successfully eradicated.
A single individual of weatherloach was found in Kedron Brook, a suburban creek at Enoggera Memorial Park in Brisbane in January 1987 but no further specimens were obtained from this location. A survey in December 1987 did not locate any further specimens (Johnson, J. pers. comm. 1989). A small population of weatherloach was subsequently found in Burpengary Creek north of Brisbane in 1989 and an eradication program using rotenone was carried out by Queensland DPI Fisheries in 1990. Follow up surveys indicated that the eradication had been successful.
Table 4-4. Summary of Oriental weatherloach records in Queensland (including river basin number).
Location Year Status Reference North-east Coast Drainage Division Kedron Brook, Brisbane (43) Jan 1987 Not established Queensland Museum record (QM I.23962) Burpengary Creek, north of 1989 Eradicated Johnson, J. pers. comm. 1989 Brisbane (42) Logan River, south of ca. 1995 Not established Mackenzie, R. pers. comm. 2002 Brisbane (45)
Another individual was found in a tributary of the Logan River at Chambers Flat, south of Brisbane, but follow up surveys did not locate other individuals.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
There is an unconfirmed anecdotal report of Oriental weatherloach in the lower River Murray in South Australia from the late 1980s (Lloyd, L. and Walker, K. pers. comms. 2002) (Table 4-5). There are no specimens in the collection of the South Australian Museum (Glover, C.J.M. pers. comm. 1989, Hammer, M. pers. comm. 2002).
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Table 4-5 Summary of Oriental weatherloach records in South Australia.
Location Year Status Reference Murray-Darling Drainage Division River Murray ca. 1987 Unknown, presumed Lloyd and Walker pers. comms. not established 2002
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Burchmore et al. (1990) states that there is an unconfirmed record of weatherloach from Western Australia, but gives no other information. Additional data has not been discovered and there have been no collections of the species in the state despite intensive freshwater fish surveys, or collections in the Western Australian Museum (Allen, G.R., pers. comm. 1989, Morgan, D. pers. comm. 2001). This record therefore remains unconfirmed and should be considered doubtful.
NORTHERN TERRITORY
To date there have been no records of Oriental weatherloach being collected from the wild in the Northern Territory. Seven specimens are in the collection of the Department of Ichthyology, Museum and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, having been confiscated by Northern Territory Fisheries from the aquarium trade (Larson, H. pers. comm. 1989).
OTHER STATES AND OFF-SHORE ISLANDS
There are no records of weatherloach being collected from the wild from Tasmania, nor from any off-shore territorial islands (Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Cocos Island or Christmas Island). There are also no collections of weatherloach in the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart (Andrews, A.P., pers. comm. 1989).
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4.4 Summary
Summary of Oriental weatherloach distribution in Australia State/Territory Where Comments Victoria 7 river basins in Murray-Darling drainage division Numerous established populations over wide geographic range 5 river basins in South-east Coast drainage division High potential for further rapid expansion Australian Capital Territory 4 river systems in Murrumbidgee River basin Established and widespread High potential for further rapid expansion New South Wales 7 streams in south-east of inland NSW Established in eastern and southern regions of NSW Hawkesbury and Snowy River systems in coastal NSW High potential for further rapid expansion Queensland Recorded on 3 occasions near Brisbane Eradicated or not established South Australia Unconfirmed anecdotal report Presumed absent Western Australia Unconfirmed anecdotal report Presumed absent Northern Territory 7 specimens in NT museum confiscated from aquarium trade No records from wild
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5 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH
5.1 Sexual Dimorphism
Adult Oriental weatherloach can be externally sexed using the shape of the pectoral fins (Vladykov 1935), which is rounded in outline in females, and square-cut in males. Males are generally smaller than females, and with larger pectoral fins in which the second fin-ray is much thicker and elongated (Okamoto 1921). This enlarged second ray has a double bifurcation at its outer end, and a round extension (or bony plate) on its inner end called the lamina circularis (see Figure 18.2, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996). These characters are absent in females.
Pectoral and pelvic fins tend to be longer in males (Vladykov 1935), and there is a swelling of the body along the dorsal fin base in males (Okamoto 1921), which is oblique to the body axis (Vladykov 1935). Other, less obvious differences are also present (Kubota and Matsui 1955a).
5.2 Habitat Preferences
Oriental weatherloach are a bottom-dwelling, cryptic species (Hems 1983) that typically inhabit still lakes or ponds, or slow-flowing rivers or creek, with sand or mud substrates into which it can burrow to escape predators and aestivate (Okada 1960, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996). Juveniles (Innes 1935, cited in Breder and Rosen 1966) and adults frequently burrow into sediments, and they can remain there throughout the day.
Across its wide range, the species has been recorded from paddy fields (Naruse and Oishi 1996), irrigation ponds, run-off and shallow water from agricultural areas (Watanabe and Hidaka 1983, Lee and Lee 1985, Lintermans et al. 1990a, Logan et al. 1996), and highland streams (Welcomme 1984). Weatherloach have been recorded at an altitude of 515 m in Japan (Koshida 1908).
Weatherloach are also known to frequently move between semi-natural and temporary lotic waterbodies (Saitoh et al. 1988, Katano et al. 1998), and earthen, shallow ditches and partially concrete lined, deeper ditches which connect these habitats (Lane and Fujioka 1998).
In Oregon, USA, Logan et al. (1996) collected Oriental weatherloach in areas of muddy substrates, both with and without abundant vegetation. In Michigan, Schultz (1960) targeted surveys for Oriental weatherloach in areas where they were most commonly found, in standing or sluggish water in marsh areas adjacent to flowing waters.
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In Australia weatherloach have been found in rivers (Allen 1984) and creeks, anabranches and ephemeral billabongs and depressions (Raadik, T. unpublished data, MacQueen 1995), rice paddy fields (Tudehope 2001), and impoundments (Swales 1992). They have also been collected from concrete flood control channels, and rock-filled wire cages used as soil conservation structures (Lintermans et al. 1990a),
In the ACT, Australia, Oriental weatherloach have been recorded over a range of substrates including fine silt and mud, coarse sands, cobble and sand mix and protruding bedrock overlaid with boulders and small pockets of silt (Lintermans et al. 1990b). Most sites also had moderate to abundant instream cover present including emergent vegetation, accumulations of leaf litter, tree roots, cobble and bedrock and rock-filled wire baskets. Lintermans et al. (1990b) observed that in Australia, the species can survive in modified or degraded habitats. Oriental weatherloach were recorded in water depths ranging from 5 cm to 1.5 m although Lintermans et al. (1990b) noted they may have occurred in deeper water which could not be sampled due to poor visibility and the limitations of using bank-mounted electrofishing.
5.3 Movement and Activity Patterns
Oriental weatherloach do not appear to undertake migrations over long distances as part of their life-cycle (Lucas et al. 2001). Little appears to be known about their general movement patterns, with most observations made in from Japan. Tanaka (1999) observed that the species uses paddy fields for reproduction, permanent creeks for overwintering and temporary creeks for dispersal. Hayashi (1903) noted that when the species occurs in paddy fields it does not migrate widely, however when heavy rains increase the water level, it ascends the river to reach the upper stream.
Koshida (1908) noted the species lives on the bottom of canals or in lakes with muddy bottoms and that in spring it ascends the river to spawn. Katano et al. (1998) and Saitoh et al. (1988) both observed frequent short-range movements of weatherloach between temporary aquatic habitats and more permanent lotic water bodies.
Kubota and Matsui (1955b) noticed a decline in the number of weatherloach during winter and concluded that the species hibernate. During this period they are usually buried in the substrate. Naruse and Oishi (1996) observed changes in trapping of Oriental weatherloach over seasons, with peaks in spring and summer and a decline in early winter. They noted that fish moved into paddy fields from creeks to spawn once irrigation commenced. In winter most fish probably moved into ditches from the creek to hibernate under the mud.
Naruse and Oishi (1994) considered Oriental weatherloach to be a primarily nocturnal species although they can be active throughout the day. During feeding experiments, Oriental weatherloach displayed resting periods of several hours following feeding, and Naruse and Oishi (1994) suggested this benthic species may have to spend this time digesting food. Naruse and Oishi (1996) observed fish feeding largely during the day in the breeding season and at night in the non-breeding season. The species' activity patterns were apparently flexible, changing seasonally and during development.
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Only limited information is available concerning seasonal variation in habitat usage and activity by Oriental weatherloach in Australia. For example, Keller (2000) suggested fish were caught in a range of habitats during summer while were more restricted to shallow backwaters with organic matter in colder months. In the ACT, it has been observed that fish are not easily captured in rivers during winter, probably reflecting low activity rates (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). At other times weatherloach can be readily observed by spotlighting in shallow water at night (Lintermans, M, pers. comm. 2002)
There have been no observations of weatherloach moving upstream in rivers in Australia although they appear to spread downstream following displacement in high flows (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002, Raadik, T. personal observation).
5.4 Population Densities
Oriental weatherloach were found at a density of 0.003 fish m2 in a river in Japan (Goto and Goto 1971). In Australia, some estimates have been made of population densities. Keller (2000) indicated that studies by M. Lintermans and T. Raadik, in the ACT and Victoria respectively, suggest Oriental weatherloach commonly occur at densities of about 1 fish m2 while densities of up to 3 fish m2 are not unusual. At sites around Melbourne, Victoria, Keller (2000) recorded densities of up to 3 fish m2 in summer that increased to 5 fish m2 in shallow backwaters during winter.
5.5 Feeding and Diet
Oriental weatherloach are omnivorous, and use a combination of chemical and tactile cues to detect prey. Satô (1941) suggested weatherloach utilised taste-buds found on the body, particularly on the barbels, to sort food before it was ingested. Kubota (1961, cited in Watanabe and Hidaka 1983) also suggested Oriental weatherloach detect food by tactile sense, using its barbels. He described the fish as placing their snouts or heads into mud, inhaling food with the mud and then expelling the mud through the opercular slit.
Under experimental conditions, Watanabe and Hidaka (1983) observed that feeding behaviour was only elicited by chemical stimuli. This is supported by Tuge et al. (1968) who examined the brain of Oriental weatherloach and found that it had a small optic lobe (reduced visual capacity), a well developed Lobus olfactorius (increased olfactory sense of smell), and large facial lobes, which are linked to well developed gustatory sense (taste) linked to the presence of barbels.
Watanabe and Hidaka (1983) described Oriental weatherloach as a standard detritus feeder, involving a quick inhalation of organic matter, small aquatic animals, and substrate particles.
Ito and Suzuki (1977) found small larvae (15 mm in length) fed on Bacillariophyceae and Chlorophyceae in proportion to their availability in the water column, but suggested that algae may be hard for larvae to digest. They also found Rotatoria, Crustacea and chrinomid larvae in the alimentary tract, and these were eaten selectively in correlation to increasing
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 21 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT mouth size. Watanabe and Hidaka (1983) recorded small Oriental weatherloach feeding largely on crustaceans while large fish also fed on Tubifex worms, and plant material such as diatoms, plant stems, roots and seeds.
Investigation by Sawara (1974) on a population of Oriental weatherloach living in a pond found the species did not to negatively impact on mosquitofish due to separate habitat preferences (midwater/top for mosquitofish, and the bottom or benthic zone for weatherloach).
Little is known about the species' diet in Australia, however aquatic insect larvae, crustaceans, aquatic beetles and bugs, molluscs, gastropods, rotifers, aquatic worms, nematodes, fish, plant material, algae and detritus have been recorded in the diet (Swales 1992, Lintermans and Burchmore 1996, Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). Terrestrial food items have also been recorded (Swales 1992) but are considered only of minor importance (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). Burchmore et al. (1990) found algae, detritus and ostracods in the guts of a small number of fish in NSW, however most fish collected had empty guts possibly due to vomiting following exposure to rotenone poison.
A study near Melbourne, Victoria, observed benthic macroinvertebrates to be the major food item ingested, with the dominant taxa, based on the number of individuals eaten, being chydorids, chironomids and ostracods (Keller 2000). Keller (2000) observed fish to be more active and feed more during summer compared to winter where they used stored energy in fat reserves to supplement the low food intake.
Gut passage rate for ingested food items appears to be slow in Oriental weatherloach. Tanaka (1955) found that weatherloach had weak digestive powers, with shrimp taking 24 hours to be digested.
5.6 Reproduction and Development
In their natural range, Oriental weatherloach spawn from spring to summer (February to August) (Chen and Su 1980). Spawning occurs in streams, but also in temporary, artificial waters such as rice paddy fields (Katano et al. 1998). In Australia, Swales (1992) found that, during late November in a high altitude tributary of Lake Eucumbene, most female ovaries were in mature or developing stages, and male testis were either immature or developing. Lintermans et al. (1990b) found most fish were in an advanced stage of sexual maturity in December (summer) when sampling at lower elevations in the ACT.
Observations of breeding behaviour have shown a female may be pursued by a number of males, which may push and shove each other. The successful fish will wrap his body around the female's ventral region (Okada 1960, Brown 1973) then the female scatters eggs which the male then fertilises (Shafer 2002). Male weatherloach are able to discriminate between post and pre-ovulatory females by pheromones that are released by the female up to less than three hours after ovulating (Honda 1981). The pheromones attract males and elicit persistent courtship activity.
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Oriental weatherloach are reported to have begun spawning in an aquarium at water temperatures of 24oC (Shafer 2002) and Suzuki (1983) noted that the Oriental weatherloach had a gonadosomatic index ratio that is higher between 25oC and 30oC than at other temperatures.
Oriental weatherloach can spawn multiple times during the spring-summer period (Suzuki 1976), laying 4000-8000 eggs per spawning (Suzuki 1983), producing up to 150,000 eggs per spawning season (Lintermans and Burchmore 1996). Mature females can maintain their full maturity almost through the year under artificial conditions (Suzuki and Yamaguchi 1977). Suzuki (1983) undertook experiments in which spawning was induced once a month for 28 months. Females were able to spawn again within 20 days of the first spawning episode. The percentage of females spawning declined sharply after 20 months and the mean number of eggs produced for each spawning event decreased after 15 months. Fecundity appeared to vary widely between individuals. There have been some observations in Australia of fish being ripe for long periods of time (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002).
Eggs of Oriental weatherloach are laid on aquatic vegetation (Kochetov and Kochetov 1986) in shallow water (Okada 1960) or on mud between plant roots (Allen 1984) including rice plants in paddy fields (Okada 1960). Eggs are adhesive, spherical, small (0.72 to 0.84 mm in diameter) (Zheng 1985) and red (Kochetov and Kochetov 1986). Eggs of Misgurnus mizolepis are also demersal and adhesive, but are light yellow (Kim et al. 1987), and average 1.1 mm in diameter.
Kubota and Matsui (1955c) recorded larval hatching between 12oC to 31oC and considered suitable temperatures to be between 20oC and 28oC with 25oC being the optimal temperature. The critical upper temperature limit for egg maturation is 30oC (Suzuki and Yamahuchi 1977). Eggs hatch in about 10 days and then the larvae hide amongst sediment (Hems 1983). Under hard water conditions, embryonic development was postponed at low pH levels and growth of the fry was also restricted at pH less than or equal to 5.5 (Zhang and Li 1992). Kim et al. (1987) reported that eggs of M. mizolepis hatched in 24 hours after fertilisation.
Newly hatched larvae are approximately 1.95 to 2.4 mm in length and external gills appear two days after hatching (Zheng 1985). Larvae begin to feed five days after hatching at which stage the yolk sac is almost completely absorbed, and 15 days post-hatching the internal gills replace external gills. Forty-five days post-hatching the juvenile fish are fully formed and resemble the adults (Zheng 1985). Larval illustrations are provided by Okada (1960: plate Xlii).
Kim et al. (1987) reported that newly-hatched larvae of M. mizolepis were 2.7 mm long, at ten hours post-hatching pre-larvae were 3.5 mm long, and melanophores were observed along the sides. The yolk sac was resorbed after 4 days. No parental care of newly hatched larvae or juvenile fish is evident.
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Nomura et al. (1998) observed a 1:1 sex ratio at temperatures of 20oC and a bias towards males when Oriental weatherloach were reared at higher temperatures of 25 and 30oC. A study of fish in the ACT recorded a sex ratio biased in favour of males (Lintermans et al. 1990b), though Swales (1992) recorded a bias towards females in a tributary of Lake Eucumbene (NSW), with a female: male ratio of 1.6: 1 (n = 47 fish). It is not known whether this is a characteristic common of other populations.
While Sterba (1962 cited in Lintermans et al. 1990b) considered fish above 100 mm total length to be mature, Lintermans et al. (1990b) observed females to be sexually mature once over 125 mm and males at over 110 mm in length. Males reach sexual maturity at about one year old while females mature between one and two years of age (Lei and Wang 1990). Lintermans et al. (1990b) estimated that Oriental weatherloach of 22 mm in length were 19 days old and reached 30 mm by 29 days. Maximum growth in length occurs in the first and second years of life. Maximum growth in weight occurs in the second year (Fengyui and Bingxian 1990).
Sex reversal (male to female) can be artificially induced in weatherloach by immersion of newly hatched larvae in estrone solution (Kubota and Oohama 1984). Sterile triplod males and females can be artificially produced (Suzuki et al. 1985a), and diplod weatherloach fry can be artificially produced by fertilizing eggs with Cyprinus carpio spermatazoa (Suzuki et al. 1985b). Hermaphrodism in Oriental weatherloach is rare, but has been reported (Kobayashi 1963).
5.7 Age
Lifespan in captivity has been reported in excess of 13 years (Lintermans and Burchmore 1996).
5.8 Tolerance to Desiccation
Weatherloach are well adapted to the ephemeral conditions of common habitats such as swamps and rice fields, which can become stagnant or dry up for extended periods of time. Fish are able to survive out of water for prolonged periods and have been recorded in dry or drying billabongs beneath moist layers of leaves or buried in the substrate.
M. anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis are able to supplement their oxygen supply by intestinal respiration (Wu and Chang 1945, McMahon and Burggren 1987, Park and Kim 2001). The species' alimentary canal is morphologically and physiologically separated into an anterior region used for digestion and a posterior region specialised for gas exchange (Wu and Chang 1945, McMahon and Burggren 1987). During hypoxic environmental conditions weatherloach display a large increase in intestinal breathing yet no significant increase in gill ventilation.
Recently, the ability of Oriental weatherloach to eliminate up to 25% of excreted ammonia as ammonia gas during aerial exposure, was noted (Tsui, K. unpublished data). This is the first
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Oriental weatherloach is also able to undertake respiration through the skin (cutaneous) (Park and Kim 1999), especially when it has burrowed into the mud. Usually when left out of water, weatherloach exude a thick slimy coating. Keller (2000) noted that the presence of this coating might assist the fish in surviving out of water by slowing moisture loss.
A single specimen was discovered beneath a log, 95 m from the main channel of the Murray River, in the bed of a dry depression on the floodplain of the Murray River between Corowa and Howlong, NSW. The fish swam actively when placed in water (MacQueen 1995). Weatherloach have also been dug up from a dam in the ACT which had been dry for 4-6 weeks; the fish were not aestivating and were actively moving through tunnels in the substrate (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). Specimens have also been dug up from approximately 1 m depth from a dried drainage line by earth moving equipment at Healesville in Victoria (Raadik T. pers. comm. 1999).
5.9 Temperature Tolerance
Oriental weatherloach are able to live in a wide range of water temperatures and are considered relatively temperature-insensitive, a metabolic characteristic of a eurythermal animal which experiences significant changes in ambient temperature in its natural habitat (McMahon and Burggren 1987). Oriental weatherloach apparently thrive in water temperatures from 2°C to 30°C (McMahon and Burggren 1987). Many of the streams in their natural range are covered by snow during winter and water temperatures can be as low as 2 °C. In Korea the species are reported to survive harsh winters by burrowing into the mud 2 to 10 inches and hibernating. Weatherloach are also present in a hot-spring in China where water temperature ranges from 11.6°C to 41.6°C (Koba 1942). In Oregon fish have been recorded in channels where water temperatures can reach 30oC in summer while ice may cover the area for several weeks in winter (Logan et al. 1996).
Limited temperature tolerance trials have been undertaken on the species in Oregon. Fish were acclimatised at 18-20oC for six months. Chronic experiments involved decreasing the water temperature by 2oC each day, while acute experiments consisted of transferring fish from 18oC to 6oC. During the chronic experiments, fish movement slowed and foraging ceased at temperatures <8oC. During the acute experiments, slower movement and no foraging or feeding was observed at 6oC (Logan et al. 1996).
The species' wide environmental tolerances are demonstrated by both their extensive natural distribution from Russia to Vietnam as well as the many countries to which they have been introduced (Keller 2000).
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5.10 Salinity Tolerance
Salinity tolerance information for Oriental weatherloach is poor. Suzuki and Yanada (1954) compared Oriental weatherloach egg development at a range of concentrations of seawater. While hatching and development proceeded normally at 30% seawater, at 40% there were mortalities and deformities, and at 70% seawater no eggs developed. In Hong Kong, Oriental weatherloach are considered to be a lowland species, never entering tidal, brackish or estuarine habitats (Hayashi 1973, Dudgeon, D. pers. comm. 1989).
In Australia there have been suggestions that salinity levels may represent a physiological barrier to the species' spread. The Yarra and Maribyrnong Rivers near Melbourne in Victoria are connected via an estuary. Oriental weatherloach have been established in the Yarra River system for approximately 20 years, are widely distributed, and found downstream to just above the estuary. There appears to have been no colonisation of the Maribyrnong River system during that time, and individuals were only recently recorded from the Maribyrnong River. These fish were found upstream from the estuary and appear to be from a deliberate or accidental introduction (Raadik, T. pers. comm. 2001).
Results from a preliminary small-scale trial to determine broad salinity tolerances for Oriental weatherloach indicate that weatherloach can survive in aquaria for at least 96 hours with electrical conductivity concentrations up to 15000 EC (Koster, W. and Raadik, T. unpublished data).
5.11 Tolerance to Pesticides, Heavy Metals and other Toxins
Hashimoto and Nishiuchi (1981) investigated acute toxicity of pesticides in aquatic organisms, particularly carp (Cyprinus carpio), and stated that Oriental weatherloach are similar to carp in response to pesticides. They found that the following substances were highly toxic to carp (and hence weatherloach): rotenone, organochloride insecticides, a range of fungicides (organomercurual, organotin, dimethyl dithiocarbonate, and phthalimide), and dinitrophenol and pentachlorophenol herbicides.
These substances were also found to be most toxic in an emulsifiable concentration, and less so (in decreasing order) as technical products, wettable powders, dust and granules (Hashimoto and Nishiuchi 1981). They also found that pesticides introduced via the food were less toxic than via direct exposure to the organism.
Lee and Lee (1985) noted that weatherloach would be subject to a range of pesticides given their habitat within runoff areas and shallow water associated with agricultural areas. Given that weatherloach are frequently used in fish soups in Asia, Lee and Lee (1985) investigated methods of processing and cooking fish to reduce pesticide residues. They recorded considerable amounts of several pesticides in weatherloach, in particular α-BHC and endosulphan.
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Weatherloach have been found to be less sensitive than carp to the toxic effects of the two heavy metals mercury and cadmium (Kim 1979).
Embryo and newly-hatched larval weatherloach (M. mizolepis) were found to be sensitive to microcystin toxin (microcystin-LR) (Liu et al. 2002), with embryos more sensitive if exposed at a latter development stage. Juveniles were the least sensitive, and mortality and developmental abnormalities were dose-dependent.
5.12 Closely Related Species and their Ecology
Meyer and Hinrichs (2000) noted that European weatherfish M. fossilis has almost disappeared from large areas of central Europe in recent years, and noted this had been mainly attributed to swamp drainage, loss of muddy backwaters, oxbows and periodically flooded pools with abundant submerged vegetation as well as high amplitudes in water level, oxygen saturation and water temperature. They noted that ditch systems had now replaced pools and backwaters and that in drainage channels that were regularly maintained few weatherfish were present.
European weatherfish are phytophilous, open substratum spawning, preferring dense submerged vegetation to spawn although they may also spawn on grass in inundated areas (Meyer and Hinrichs 2000). This species may move between temporary and permanent waterbodies. Meyer and Hinrichs (2000) noted studies have suggested relatively stationary behaviour without considerable spawning movements although fish demonstrate increased movement within floodplains during spring floods which may be connected with foraging and spawning.
5.13 Disease and Parasites
Weatherloach are a host to a number of parasites and diseases, including digenean parasites (Table 5-1). Metacercariae of trematodes have been found in the distal intestinal wall and adjacent mesentry, perianal tissues, head and gills (Chai et al. 1985), and weatherloach are known to act as important secondary hosts. Some parasites of weatherloach are known to infect humans (Tani 1976a).
In China weatherloach have also been found to be infected by myxobacteria (Chondrococcus columnaris) (Chun 1975). Other diseases reported from cultured weatherloach include bacterial diseases such as red fin, red spot, and columnaris disease, the parasitic diseases yellow grub, black spot, and lerneosis (Liu 1979), and Birnavirus from cultured weatherloaches (Chen et al. 1984). Gas bubble disease and crooked spine disease have also been noted in cultured fish.
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Table 5-1. A partial list of parasites recorded from weatherloach (M. anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis).
Parasite Reference Eimeriidae Eimeria huanggangensis Duszynski et al. 2001 Eimeria Orientalis Duszynski et al. 2001 Gnathostoma Gnathostoma hispidium Akahane and Toshihiro 1986 Gnathostoma nipponicum Sohn et al. 1993 Gnathostoma spinigerum Miyachi et al. 1981 Gyrodactylidae Gyrodactylus macracanthus Ergens 1975 Gyrodactylus micracanthus Ergens 1975 Gyrodactylus strelkovi Ergens and Danilov 1983 Trematoda Asymphylotrema Dvorjadkin and Bespvozvanych 1985 macracetabulum Centrocestus formosanus Chen 1942. Clinostoma complanatum Lo et al. 1985 Echinostoma cinetorchis Seo et al. 1980, 1984 Echinostoma hortese Tani 1976a,b Macrolecithus gotoi Ozaki 1926 Massaliatrema misgurni Ohyama et al. 2001 Metagonimus yokogawai Okahashi 1966 Spiroxys japonica Ohmori et al. 1978 Protozoa Trypansoma cobitis Letch 1980 Cestoda Caryophyllaeus gotoi Motomura 1927
During the process of importation of Oriental weatherloach to Australia, fish were isolated for aproximately 14 days as a normal part of the quarantine procedure in approved premises. During that time fish were checked for visible signs of disease, but they were not quarantined specifically to check for particular parasites. It now appears that at least one monogenean parasite, Gyrodactylus macracanthus, may have been introduced into Australia with Oriental weatherloach (Dove and Ernst 1998). Dove and Ernst (1998) inspected Oriental weatherloach collected from only one stream in the ACT. Consequently there is no
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5.14 Utilisation
Weatherloach of the genus Misgurnus are an important food item within their natural range (Kim et al. 1987) and were also introduced to the Philippines as such in the early 1930s. They are extensively cultured in aquaculture facilities within their natural range.
Weatherloach have been extensively imported around the world as a cold-water scavenger fish in the aquarium trade, and the majority of the establishments outside of their natural range have been from escapes from fish farms, or accidental or deliberate release of unwanted aquarium fish.
5.15 Genetics
M. mizolepis has 48 diplod chromosomes (Ueno et al. 1985), and M. anguillicaudatus has 50 (Hitotsumachi et al. 1969). Genetic variation between geographically isolated populations of weatherloaches has been noted in Japan (Kimura 1977, 1978, 1979). More recently, genetic and morphological studies have suggested that there are at least two biological species of weatherloach, currently described as M. anguillicaudatus, in the Torentsu River, Japan (Dong et al. 1999). This is further evidence that the systematics of the weatherloaches of the genus Misgurnus requires revision.
5.16 Hybridisation
Hybridisation between Oriental weatherloach and other fish species have been reported in the literature (Schwartz 1972), and hybrids can be induced under artificial conditions (Suzuki 1955).
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5.17 Summary
Oriental weatherloach possess several biological characteristics typical of successful exotic species, namely broad tolerances for physiological parameters, flexible diet, low vulnerability to predation due to fossorial habits, high reproductive potential, and long life-span (Logan et al. 1996).
Summary of environmental tolerances and aspects which may influence ability of Oriental weatherloach to persist Aspect Comments Habitat Can survive in modified or degraded habitats Movement Some reports of the species moving overland Diet Flexible diet Reproduction Highly fecund Multiple spawner Physiology Able to supplement oxygen supply by intestinal respiration Able to undertake respiration through the skin Life-span Long life-span Salinity Able to tolerate high salinity levels Temperature Can survive in hot springs Can survive harsh winters by burrowing into substrate Desiccation Can survive out of water for prolonged periods Predation Low vulnerability due to fossorial habits
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6 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SPREAD OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH
The spread of Oriental weatherloach in Australia has probably been facilitated by several factors. These include the dumping of unwanted aquarium fish, water diversion schemes for irrigation supply and the associated creation of modified habitats such as ricefields, illegal use as baitfish by anglers, and natural dispersal. Some evidence comes from overseas observations of the species' spread as well as anecdotal information from Australia. However, the significance of possible vectors in the species' spread is not well understood.
6.1 Aquarium Trade
Due to concern over the potential impacts of Oriental weatherloach in Australia, the species was banned from importation as an aquarium fish in 1986. Dumping of unwanted fish purchased from the aquarium trade is likely to have been one of the key initial methods of release. Lintermans et al. (1990a) suggests that the probable mode of introduction of Oriental weatherloach to the ACT was the release of unwanted aquarium fish. He noted that many of the early records were in residential areas where aquarium fish could easily have been dumped. Allen (1984) also suggested the presence of fish in the Yarra River might have been as a result of the dumping of unwanted aquarium fish. The initial record of the species in the Ovens River system in Victoria was apparently caused by flooding of ornamental ponds, stocked with fish purchased through the aquarium trade.
Anecdotal reports of the continuing sale of Oriental weatherloach in aquarium shops suggest that the aquarium trade may still represent a potential factor assisting the dispersal of this species into the wild. New reports of Oriental weatherloach infestations at sites near residential areas may indicate that the practice of releasing unwanted aquarium fish continues (eg. Maribyrnong River, Melbourne).
6.2 Water Diversion Schemes
Logan et al. (1996) argued that while evidence regarding the ability of Oriental weatherloach to disperse is still unclear, its dispersal may be assisted by flood control and irrigation systems. They noted examples of the species' spread in California, Idaho and Oregon through flood control and irrigation channels.
In recent years there have been numerous reports of Oriental weatherloach from the irrigation regions of northern Victoria and southern New South Wales, and more recently from the Gippsland area of southern Victoria. Most of these records are from chance discovery, generally by farmers, and are often from irrigation drains and channels. Rice paddys cover many of these areas, a habitat commonly used by Oriental weatherloach in their native range (Saitoh et al. 1988, Katano et al. 1998, Lane and Fujioka 1998).
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Depending upon the inlet and outlet facilities for water supply to and from rice paddy fields, Oriental weatherloach are potentially able to access the paddy when it is inundated, spawn within this temporary habitat, and then adults and juveniles can pass out of the field when it is drained (Lane and Fujioka 1998).
6.3 River Regulation
The role of river regulation in facilitating the presence and dispersal of Oriental weatherloach is unknown. River regulation has altered natural flow regimes and key hydrological processes including the magnitude, timing, frequency and duration of floods, rates of rise and fall of water levels, changes in seasonality of flow patterns and changes to floodplain wetlands. Oriental weatherloach exist in a range of areas within Australia which are subject to river regulation and this may benefit the species where slow flowing areas occur, providing suitable habitat. They can also persist in areas of high flow by burying themselves in substrate. The nature of this interaction with respect to dispersal of Oriental weatherloach, or assisting in creating a disturbed ecosystem into which it can readily invade, is poorly understood.
6.4 Use as Bait
The use of Oriental weatherloach as bait fish by anglers may also facilitate the spread of this species. Oriental weatherloach have been used as bait for angling in other countries such as Japan (Suzuki 1983) and in the USA (St. Amant and Hoover 1969). Lintermans (1993) attributes the establishment of Oriental weatherloach populations in the Cotter River and Lake Eucumbene to their use as baitfish and reports of their sale as bait fish in the ACT also exist (Lintermans et al. 1990a). The use of Oriental weatherloach as bait has also been observed in the Edwards River near Deniliquin (Fisher, L. pers. comm. 2002). Appealing attributes for use as baitfish are that they can be transported out of water and are very active and hence attractive to large predatory fish.
6.5 Natural Dispersal
Oriental weatherloach have been classified as an “energetic …coloniser” by Yěn (1984 p. 92) who found that they had successfully invaded newly depauperate aquatic habitats in southern Vietnam which had been heavily treated with herbicides during the Vietnam War. Weatherloach are also able to frequently colonise temporary aquatic habitats (Saitoh et al. 1988, Katano et al. 1998).
Evidence regarding the spread of Oriental weatherloach in Australia suggests that the species is capable of unaided natural dispersal throughout river systems (Burchmore et al. 1990, Lintermans et al. 1990a, Lintermans 1993). Lintermans et al. (1990a) noted there were some reports in the literature of the species moving overland (eg. Tsui, K. unpublished), which suggests that their spread may not prevented by barriers such as weirs and dams. Little is known about the species' movement patterns, although in Japan there have been
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While temporal patterns of spread in some rivers can be documented, it is not known whether this spread is due to natural dispersal or if Oriental weatherloach have in fact been introduced at several locations at different times.
It does appear that dispersal in a downstream direction is more common, and there appear to be few examples, if any, of unaided successful upstream colonisation by Oriental weatherloach in Australia.
6.6 Fish Stocking
It is possible that batches of fish harvested for stocking programs may contain adult or juvenile Oriental weatherloach, which represents a method of accidental and unwanted spread of the species. It is not known how prevalent or significant this contamination may be.
6.7 Aquaculture
Oriental weatherloach is not utilised in the aquaculture trade in Australia. However, it is commercially caught and cultured as an important food source in Japan (Watanabe and Hidaka 1983), and Korea. It has also been deliberately released for aquaculture purposes in the Philippines and Mexico (Burchmore et al. 1990).
6.8 Mosquito Control
Weatherloach has not been deliberately introduced into areas within Australia for mosquito control. However there appear to have been some consideration of the species’ value as a mosquito control agent overseas. Hindle and Chow (1929) undertook brief testing of the effectiveness of seven indigenous fish species on the control of mosquitoes in China. They considered Oriental weatherloach "very efficient" but also noted that in areas where all seven fish occurred in a city lake, mosquito larvae could always be found on floating vegetation. Heung Chul et al. (1994) undertook experiments to determine how effective Oriental weatherloach were as a biological control technique for mosquitoes. They observed that densities of 4 fish per m2 produced substantial control of three mosquito species.
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6.9 Summary
Summary of factors influencing the spread of Oriental weatherloach in Australia Factor Comments Aquarium trade Dumping of unwanted aquarium fish was a key initial method of release in areas such as the ACT Recent records in residential areas suggests release of unwanted fish may still be a problem Water diversion schemes Widespread records of Oriental weatherloach in irrigation channels and dams Represents a key method of introduction and/or spread River regulation May benefit from changes to instream conditions (eg. reduced flow) Use as bait Has facilitated its introduction and/or spread in some areas (eg. Lake Eucumbene and Cotter River) The extent of its use as bait is unknown but it still occurs (eg. Edwards River) Natural dispersal Capable of unaided natural dispersal throughout river systems Some reports of the species moving overland Fish stocking Fish stocking programs may be contaminated with Oriental weatherloach May represent a method of accidental spread but extent is unknown Aquaculture trade Commercially caught and cultured for food and released for aquaculture purposes overseas Not utilised in aquaculture trade in Australia Mosquito control Value as mosquito control agent has been considered overseas Has not been deliberately introduced into areas within Australia for this purpose
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7 POTENTIAL RANGE OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH
An assessment of the potential range of weatherloach in Australia must consider whether aspects of the species' ecology may limit spread and survival in areas. Theoretically if comprehensive geospatial data were available across the species' known and potential range, then this data could be compared with known tolerance information. Such a comparison could enable predictions of areas that may be unsuitable for the species. Unfortunately there appears little potential to make such an assessment for weatherloach in Australia, given the lack of comprehensive relevant geospatial data within the MDB as well as the lack of information on the species' tolerances.
Oriental weatherloach are considered to have a range of biological characteristics that make it a successful invader including broad physiological tolerances, flexible diet, low vulnerability to predation, high reproductive potential and long life-span.
• Habitat: Oriental weatherloach has been recorded in a wide range of habitats, suggesting it could potentially occur throughout the MDB. Observations that it prefers still or slow flowing waters may indicate that it will do particularly well in these habitats, which include weir pools and irrigation areas. Nevertheless, limited understanding of the specific habitat requirements of weatherloach and how they may influence survival, breeding and abundance, makes it is difficult to predict the potential future distribution of the species. For example, it is unknown whether aquatic vegetation is important for spawning and whether cover availability for larvae influences spawning and recruitment success.
• Altitude: Altitude does not appear to be a significant barrier to the spread of Oriental weatherloach within the MDB, as they have been recorded from near sea level (Yarra River) to over 1000 m in elevation (Eucumbene Lake).
• Temperature: Oriental weatherloach can survive successfully in a wide range of water temperatures, which suggests the species could potentially occur throughout the MDB. Eggs have been recorded hatching between 12oC and 31oC, with suitable temperatures between 20oC and 28oC and an optimal temperature of 25oC. Thus temperature regimes across the MDB may influence the overall success of breeding events although it appears that the species' distribution is unlikely to be significantly limited by temperature.
• Salinity: Very limited information is available concerning the salt sensitivity of weatherloach. The only recorded research indicates that reproductive success begins to be affected at around 40% seawater. There have been some suggestions that salinity levels may represent a physiological barrier to the species' spread along the Yarra River into estuarine areas (Raadik, T. pers. comm. 2001). Preliminary small-scale trials showed that Oriental weatherloach can survive in aquaria for at least 96 hours with electrical conductivity concentrations up to 15000 EC (Koster, W. and Raadik, T. unpublished data).
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• Movement: Although current information suggests that Oriental weatherloach may be restricted in their ability to colonise in an upstream direction, further research is required. If they are found to be a poor upstream disperser, future spread may be limited to entry points in the mid-low reaches of systems rather than entire catchments. They would also potentially be restricted from colonising contiguous catchments. This potential inability to colonise in an upstream direction is counteracted by deliberate translocation and stocking.
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8 RISKS AND IMPACTS OF ORIENTAL WEATHERLOACH
The introduction of a species into an area outside its natural range may result in a range of impacts, both direct and indirect. For example, the exotic species may directly compete with native species for food, shelter and breeding sites. They may prey upon eggs, juveniles or adults of native species, or spread disease. They may also indirectly affect native species and the aquatic environment by modifying conditions such as altering water quality.
Oriental weatherloach have established feral populations in several countries, although evidence for the adverse impact of the species is largely speculative. Logan et al. (1996) suggests that Oriental weatherloach could be predators on native fish or parasite and disease vectors. The effect of Oriental weatherloach worldwide and more specifically in Australia is not well known.
8.1 Worldwide Impacts
Maciolek (1984) suggests that Oriental weatherloach have an “intermediate stream impact” in Hawaii, on the basis of preferred habitat, food habits and abundance. In the Philippines Oriental weatherloach form the basis of a moderately important food fishery and no noticeable side effects have been reported (Welcomme 1984), though it is unclear what form of assessment was conducted. In the Palau Islands and Mexico its impacts are unknown (Bright and June 1981, Contreras and Escalante 1984). Courtenay et al. (1987) regards Oriental weatherloach as a species with “localised distributions (= not expanding)” in North America, although more recent data (Logan et al. 1996) show Oriental weatherloach are widely distributed in other areas. Courtenay et al. (1987) in general suggested that such a species did not appear to represent a threat to native fish but that sympatry with native species could lead to adverse consequences.
8.2 Australia
Little is known about the impacts of Oriental weatherloach on native aquatic fauna communities, aquatic habitat and commercial activities in the MDB or Australia. Lintermans et al. (1990a) suggests that impacts may include competition for spawning sites, disturbance or predation of eggs, competition for food and shelter, and alteration of habitat. Oriental weatherloach are reported to have a mutually exclusive distribution with the native fish mountain galaxias (Galaxias olidus) in Halls Creek, ACT (Lintermans et al. 1990a). Lintermans et al. (1990a) suggests that this may represent exclusion by Oriental weatherloach or exploitation of habitat unsuitable to mountain galaxias. An experimental study by Keller (2000) found that Oriental weatherloach significantly decreased numbers and biomass of benthic invertebrates, and also significantly increased water turbidity and nitrogen concentrations. Keller (2000) suggested that Oriental weatherloach may be having adverse
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 37 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT ecological effects in Australian fresh waters, although further large scale research would be required before the impacts could be confirmed.
Data on the environmental impacts of this species in Australia, particularly with indigenous fauna and aquatic habitats, are lacking. Arthington and Blühdorn (1995) have recommended research on this key issue.
8.3 Disease
The risks and impacts of disease and parasites carried by Oriental weatherloach in Australia, on fish and other aquatic fauna, and humans, are unknown. This is of concern as the species is known to be a host to many parasites overseas, and at least one Monogenean parasite appears to have been imported into Australia with the weatherloach.
8.4 Aquatic Environment
Potential impacts on the aquatic environment are unknown, particularly with respect to increasing population abundance, which can occur when temporary habitats are drying and populations are condensed. Volkart (1990) described that in aquariums Oriental weatherloach can stir up sediment and uproot plants. In the context of high population abundance, the potential impact of these activities on the aquatic environment need to be investigated.
Oriental weatherloach is listed in the Draft Native Fish Strategy for the Murray-Darling Basin 2001-2012 (MDBC 2002) as a key threat to native fish management in the MDB with four other exotic species (trout, redfin Perca fluviatilis, gambusia Gambusia holbrooki and carp). Oriental weatherloach was ranked the 5th most significant aquatic pest species out of a total of 13 species in the MDB as part of a questionnaire sent to experts to obtain information on pest species in the MDB (Clunie et al. 2002). Surprisingly, goldfish (Carassius auratus) was ranked 3rd, which may reflect this species being well known compared to Oriental weatherloach and other species. Based on the information collated in this resource document it is suggested that the ranking applied to Oriental weatherloach should be higher.
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9 LEGISLATIVE STATUS
Oriental weatherloach is banned from importation into Australia under Part 13A of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
9.1 Victoria
Oriental weatherloach is declared a noxious aquatic species in Victoria under the Fisheries Act 1995. Under section 76 of this Act, it is an offence for a person to bring this species into Victoria, or take, hatch, keep, possess, sell, transport or release it into protected waters. Sections 84 to 87 relate to notice to be given of the location, seizure and removal of noxious species, prevention of spread and that no penalty applies if such species are killed immediately.
9.2 New South Wales
Under the Fisheries Management Act 1994, sections 209 to 213 relate to the declaration of noxious fish and include penalties for the sale and possession of such fish. Conditions may be included on aquaculture permits for the destruction (Section 213) or control of noxious fish. Under section 229 of the Fisheries Management (General) Regulations 1995, only Tilapia and Pacific Oysters appear to have been declared noxious species to date.
9.3 Australian Capital Territory
Under the Fisheries Act 2000, the Minister may declare a species noxious, however no species have yet been declared noxious under the Fisheries Act 2000.
9.4 Queensland
Oriental weatherloach is declared noxious under the Fisheries Act 1994 and it is an offence to possess, rear, sell or buy noxious fish, which includes keeping them in aquariums. If caught, noxious species must not be returned to the water.
There is a register to report information on noxious species that is aimed at determining how widespread such species are and to assist in planning for control measures. A spatial database is being developed for all pest fish in Queensland and management is guided by Control of Exotic Pest Fishes – an operational strategy for Queensland Freshwaters 2000- 2005 (DPI 2000).
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9.5 South Australia
Under the Fisheries Act 1982, section 49 refers to the import and sale of exotic fish. A person must not bring, or cause to be brought, into the State; or sell, purchase, deliver, possess or control, any exotic fish to which this section applies except as authorised by a permit. Under the Fisheries (Exotic Fish, Fish Farming and Fish Diseases) Regulations 2000 exotic fish are defined and species that are not classed as exotic are listed. Oriental weatherloach are not included in this list of species, and therefore by definition, are classed as exotic.
9.6 Western Australia
Oriental weatherloach is declared noxious under Schedule 5 of the Fish Resources Management Regulations 1995, and prohibited to be imported into the state. Under the act, a person may not keep, posses, consign or convey, breed, hatch or culture any noxious fish, release any noxious fish into any waters, or put any noxious fish into a container or receptacle in which it might remain alive.
9.7 Tasmania
Not declared noxious, or restricted by legislation in any way.
9.8 Northern Territory
Not declared noxious, or restricted by legislation in any way.
9.9 Summary
Summary of legislative status of Oriental weatherloach in Australia State/Territory Status Victoria Declared noxious (Fisheries Act 1995) New South Wales Not declared noxious ACT Not declared noxious Queensland Declared noxious (Fisheries Act 1994) South Australia Declared exotic (Fisheries Act 1982) Western Australia Declared noxious (Fish Resources Management Regulations 1995) Tasmania Not declared noxious Northern Territory Not declared noxious
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10 CURRENT MANAGEMENT
Established populations of Oriental weatherloach are not actively managed in any state or territory in Australia, nor at a national level. Management within states (besides legislative), appears to be ad hoc, with only a few targeted surveys undertaken (particularly within the ACT), or the investigation of new reports of Oriental weatherloach locations.
The majority of reports of new weatherloach locations appear to be from chance discovery, either by farmers, anglers, and the general public, or government agencies conducting either general fish surveys, or specific surveys for particular species or research projects.
There is no specific monitoring of established weatherloach populations, or investigation into range expansions of these populations, despite both of these recommendations being made by Arthington and Blühdorn (1995). They also categorised Oriental weatherloach as a species that is likely to undergo rapid range expansion if not managed effectively. This appears to be supported by the distributional data which details the rapid spread of weatherloach in Victoria, the ACT and NSW.
Whilst we know little about the potential impact of Oriental weatherloach, experience in pest management in Australia suggests a precautionary approach should be applied. For example, there is growing evidence of the detrimental impact of carp, though much research is still being conducted 30 years after their rapid expansion in the MDB. Oriental weatherloach possess many of the characteristics that have aided in the successful spread and establishment of exotic species such as carp, including environmental adaptability, high competitive ability, high reproductive output, high survivorship and high dispersal ability. Precautionary approaches to minimise the risk of future introductions, and pest management principles to address existing introductions (MDBC 2002), should be applied within and outside of the MDB.
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10.1 Community awareness
As a component of this project a community awareness campaign was conducted to inform the community (in particular anglers) and responsible agencies of the project and of the natural resource problem (see Appendix 2). This included:
! A one-page flyer circulated to fisheries offices throughout the MDB. The flyer provided information on the distribution, ecology and impacts of Oriental weatherloach, methods of identification, and also asked for people's assistance in determining the distribution of the species.
! A one-page media news story circulated to relevant regional newspapers outlining similar information.
! Information on the project included in the ‘Codwatch’ newsletter, distributed in February 2002.
! Information on the project circulated on relevant e-mail lists such as Australian Society for Limnology, Murray-Darling Basin Newsline and WaterForum.
! Interviews conducted with CSIRO as part of their national science radio series ‘SciFiles’ (May 2002) and ABC radio.
! Articles in magazines: ‘Modern Fishing’ (May 2002) and ‘Trailer Boat’ (June 2002).
! Article in the Institute of Freshwater Anglers (NSW) Inc.'s newsletter 'Freshwater Fisher' (Autumn/Winter Edition 2002) and its website www.easy.com.au/ifa.
Over fifty responses to the community awareness campaign were received from a range of people including anglers, natural resource managers, landholders and fish hobbyists through phone calls and e-mails. The information provided through the community awareness campaign included:
! Records of Oriental weatherloach including existing locations (eg. Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers) and new locations (eg. Loddon and Avoca catchments).
! Factors responsible for the spread of Oriental weatherloach (eg. use by anglers as fishing bait, water diversion schemes).
! Factors which facilitate the ability of Oriental weatherloach to persist (eg. ability to survive in mud and move through tunnels in the substrate).
! The importance of increasing community awareness and understanding of the potential impacts of the spread of Oriental weatherloach in the management of this species.
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11 CONTROL OPTIONS
11.1 Background
Since its release into the wild, Oriental weatherloach has spread relatively rapidly both within and outside the MDB in NSW, the ACT, and Victoria. Oriental weatherloach appear to inhabit a wide range of both large and small lotic and lentic habitats as well as ephemeral habitats such as irrigation drains, lakes and floodplains.
A variety of public authorities are responsible for the management and control of invasive species, such as Oriental weatherloach, and their approach, methodology and success tend to be highly variable. Although Oriental weatherloach have spread rapidly since their introduction large-scale attempts to either contain, reduce or eradicate this species are unknown. Arthington and Blühdorn (1995) recommended monitoring of weatherloach populations, including likely invasion sites, to investigate the extent and spread of the species, however this has not been undertaken.
It is important to consider the principles and objectives of control programs, which aim to contain, reduce and eradicate species such as Oriental weatherloach. The primary objective of most control programs is to substantially reduce impacts of a pest species in an area. Containment aims to prevent further expansion in distribution and requires sound and specific understanding of the species' biology and dispersal mechanisms. Reduction simply aims to decrease numbers thereby reducing density dependent effects on native aquatic biota such as predation and competition for food and space. Eradication is rarely a goal in management programs as this result is unlikely, especially for invasive species that are mobile, resilient to disturbance and highly fecund. Nevertheless eradication of aquatic pests may be achievable on small scales such as in isolated waterbodies or eradication of isolated populations and should be considered in any management plan.
Techniques to reduce numbers of exotic fish species, such as pesticide application, environmental management and remediation and selective harvesting, tend to be expensive, labour intensive, require substantial ongoing commitments to be effective, potentially cause environmental contamination and may affect non-target species (Bomford and O'Brien 1995). Moreover, eradication of introduced fish is often impractical and has almost always been unsuccessful in previous attempts (Kailola 1990), though some local successes have been achieved. Effective pest management usually requires a multi faceted approach (Bomford and Tilzey 1997) that combines different control techniques as well as consideration of social, political and non-target ecological impacts.
For these reasons, an integrated pest management strategy should be developed for Oriental weatherloach which examines all available pest fish control techniques and
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 43 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT compares their efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness for use across a range of circumstances.
11.2 Use of Pathogens and Parasites
The biological control of pest species is currently viewed as one of the most feasible methods of pest species control in Australia (McKay et al. 2001). Nevertheless the use of pathogens or parasites for the management of pest species should be carefully considered and their impacts on non target species through either direct (infestation) or indirect effects (predator prey interactions) needs to be fully understood.
NEMATODES, CESTODES AND OTHER PARASITES
In many vertebrates, metazoan parasites (including nematodes and some cestodes) are host specific, and therefore represent effective control strategies. In fish, diseases are poorly characterised, and the causative agent(s) are often not fully identified. At present, those parasites for which there is knowledge of, are not host specific and these are therefore inappropriate for use in biological control strategies. For a parasite to be considered as a biological control agent, its specificity must be restricted to either Oriental weatherloach, or introduced species that are also considered undesirable.
BACTERIA AND FUNGI
Many bacterial and fungal disease agents are limited spectrum opportunist pathogens; however, Saprolegnia spp. fungi commonly isolated from wounded fish, and Vibrio spp. frequently cultured from dead fish, appear to be non-host specific, and of enhanced pathogenicity to immune-compromised animals. These do not offer any obvious solution for Oriental weatherloach control at present.
From the limited information currently available on pathogens of Oriental weatherloach, it is obvious that a high level of effort must be directed towards further investigation and testing of existing and potential pathogens of this species if we are to consider their use in biological control of the species.
11.3 Chemical Control
Chemicals have been widely used to reduce populations of many terrestrial vertebrate, invertebrate and plant pests, as well as some aquatic plant and invertebrate pest species. In general, uses of chemicals are not common and are for the most part, impractical in aquatic habitats. Nevertheless lampricides (TFM and its synergist Bayluscide) have been used to control lampreys in the North American Great Lakes, and the use of Squoxin has been proposed for the control of squawfish Ptychocheilus spp. (Lennon et al. 1970).
In Australia introduced fish species such as carp, redfin, brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss have been eradicated from isolated waters in several
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 44 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT locations using the ichthyocide rotenone (Sanger and Koehn 1997). Species-specific poisons are not yet available in Australia, and the risk to non-target native fish species using chemicals such as rotenone is therefore unacceptable in most cases (Koehn et al. 2000).
Novel uses of chemicals, such as baits prepared to improve species selectivity, require further development and testing. Prentiss Incorporated, a United States based company, market rotenone-based baits (Prentox PrenfishTM) to control carp; however, it is unlikely that similar chemicals will be identified that are species selective (Koehn et al. 2000). Better knowledge of Oriental weatherloach biology and physiology may enable existing chemicals to be applied in innovative ways that deliver the poison to Oriental weatherloach without placing other species at risk.
The use of chemicals in the environment is normally controlled by agencies such as the Environment Protection Authority (EPA), whose regulations over-ride those of fisheries and other conservation agencies. As a consequence, the use of these chemicals must be well justified. The prospects for large-scale use are limited by a range of factors that include the cost and availability of chemicals, environmental risks, problems of ensuring a complete eradication along with (in most cases) the high risks of reintroduction. Chemicals may be most appropriate in degraded habitats where no significant native species are present or where their use is proposed as part of a "start all over again" rehabilitation program. Service (1996) concluded that chemicals would continue to play the dominant role in the foreseeable future in vector control operations.
ROTENONE
Rotenone is a key poison used by fisheries agencies in Australia to remove unwanted fish from freshwater habitats. Rotenone is a broad-spectrum piscicide that is toxic to most fish species. It is more toxic to fish in acidic water and in waters with low hardness, and is also more toxic at higher temperatures, where it also breaks down more rapidly, reducing the duration of its effectiveness. Because rotenone enters the body via the gills, and not through the skin, vertebrates other than fish, and frogs, toads and their tadpoles deemed highly susceptible to poisons, have little risk from exposure (Koehn et al. 2000). Fish that have not acquired a toxic dose of rotenone in their bodies can be revived by removing them to clean aerated water, but once a toxic level is reaches the fish will die. Potassium permanganate can be applied to de-toxify water treated with rotenone but cannot revive affected fish (Koehn et al. 2000).
In addition to the powder and liquid forms available, Prentiss Incorporated in the United States markets rotenone-based carp and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) baits (Prentox PrenfishTM) which act as a stomach poison, thereby avoiding direct introduction of the toxicant to water. Bait stations are set up and once the fish become used to feeding at the surface, floating poisoned baits are introduced. Recent trials on carp in NSW were unsuccessful because the baits broke down and were consumed by Australian smelt.
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Large-scale rotenone treatments in reservoirs have been conducted worldwide, with the most notable examples coming from the United States (see Sanger and Koehn 1997). A recent review found that about 48% of large-scale rotenone applications had achieved their goal (Meronek et al. 1996). The largest documented application in Australia was in the Leigh Creek Retention Dam, South Australia (Hall 1988), where the dam was successfully treated with rotenone to kill carp and prevent their escape into the Cooper Creek system (Koehn et al. 2000). These large-scale applications are high risk in terms of cost, risks to non-target species, the issue of complete control, and reintroductions.
An attempt to eradicate Oriental weatherloach from the Wingecarribee River system using rotenone was unsuccessful (Burchmore et al. 1990). Burchmore et al. (1990) noted that the species was widespread and abundant in the catchment and considered eradication to be impossible. Lintermans et al. (1990b) noted that the use of rotenone to locate the species in Ginninderra Creek had proved inconclusive. No specimens were found using rotenone although this result may have been attributable to a combination of factors such as burrowing habitat, ability to gulp air at the surface (ie. not use gills) and habitat complexity (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002). One small-scale control program undertaken to eradicate Oriental weatherloach from Burpengary Creek north of Brisbane using rotenone was apparently successful.
LIME
Slaked or builders lime (calcium hydroxide) has been used to control gambusia in large ponds in New South Wales (McKay et al. 2001). In 1962/63 lime was used by Victorian Fisheries in attempt to eradicate carp and apparently provided satisfactory results (DNRE 1998). Lime has also been used to eradicated carp from farm dams in the Canberra region (Lintermans, M. pers. comm. 2002).
OTHER PISCICIDES
Antimycin (sold as Fintrol®) is an antibiotic that was patented in North America as a piscicide in 1964. It is not currently registered for use as a piscicide in Australia, though it appears to still be used either alone or in combination with rotenone in North America to control pest fish. One recent report suggested that in 1991 the manufacturer discontinued this product (Scanlon 2001).
Acrolein, a herbicide still used to control aquatic weeds in Victoria, has been trialed for use as a piscicide in North America (Lennon et al. 1970). Under previous high dosing regimes, large numbers of fish were killed during these treatments. Current practice using relatively low acrolein concentrations has reduced the incidence of incidental fish kills (McKay et al. 2001). Given the highly volatile and flammable nature of this chemical, its potential for use as a piscicide may only be appropriate where it is being used concurrently with existing weed control programs. It is not currently registered for use as a piscicide in Australia.
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Chlorine is used as a disinfectant and piscicide at fish farms and can be easily neutralised with sodium thiosulphate. It is relatively non-specific and will kill most aquatic organisms; however, the dose rates required to obtain an effective concentration in most open environments (to overcome first the chlorine demand of the water and to then reach a lethal concentration for fish) seem prohibitive. Its may have some potential for use in water supply reservoirs where other toxicants could not be used (Lennon et. al. 1970). It is not currently registered for use as a piscicide in Australia.
11.4 Molecular biology and biotechnology
Molecular biology and biotechnology techniques can be used to produce immunocontraceptives or artificially enhanced pathogens that either kill or disable target species via the blocking of reproductive mechanisms. These techniques are extremely complex, requiring a range of expertise to establish such factors as levels of infertility to achieve control, the use of specialists in molecular biology to manipulate chromosomes and gender, and the introduction of fatality genes. Difficulties in the use of these techniques in Oriental weatherloach control include the fact that this species does not move large distances, and as these methods would probably rely on fish movements to facilitate spread, their effectiveness may be in doubt.
The daughterless-gene technology (Thresher 2001) has been proposed as a carp control methodology and may potentially offer a control technique for other pest species such as Oriental weatherloach. Further research and development of this technology is required to fill knowledge gaps including its efficacy and applicability on carp and other pest species.
Extensive work has been conducted on the artificial propagation of Oriental weatherloach for the aquaculture trade in Japan, Taiwan and Korea, and therefore many aspects of biological manipulation have already been researched. For example the egg membrane can be easily removed after fertilisation (Yang and Chen 1983), sex reversal can be induced by the use of hormones, and sterility can be induced. Sterile triploid males and females were artificially propagated (Suzuki et al. 1985a), though more recently, triploid females produced in this way were fertile and produced viable progeny (Matsubara et al. 1995).
Biological control may well be the only area with real potential for properly controlling a species such as Oriental weatherloach, despite it being likely that this method would require considerable effort and resources to establish.
11.5 Biomanipulation - Predation by Native Fish
Biomanipulation is defined as deliberately manipulating interrelationships among plants, animals and their environment to achieve a new ecological balance, with the aim of altering a system from an undesirable to a desirable state that will not revert back readily (Koehn et al. 2000). The idea of biomanipulation would appear to be more applicable to closed systems rather than rivers and creeks, as open systems are likely to suffer from
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 47 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT constant replacement. The applicability of this method for Oriental weatherloach control has not been explored, however it may be feasible to stock an area with a predatory fish that will eat Oriental weatherloach.
The potential exists for evaluation of this approach on a small scale to assess it for effectiveness, species suitability, required stocking rates and for any adverse impacts. Though there have been occasional reports of Oriental weatherloach being eaten by redfin and brown trout, weatherloach often occur in shallow degraded habitats which large native predators may avoid. Weatherloach are also able to burrow into the substrate. Therefore the broader effectiveness of using predatory fish as a control option may be extremely limited.
11.6 Physical Control
CAPTURE AND REMOVAL BY ELECTROFISHING, NETTING AND TRAPPING
The use of electrofishing techniques are impractical for removal of Oriental weatherloach, primarily due to its low efficiency for small species and the high effort which must be expended in order to ensure reasonable capture rates, particularly in larger water bodies. Oriental weatherloach are commonly associated with muddy substrates which also reduces capture rates because even though fish may be affected (shocked), they may not be visible or the difficulty in extracting them from the substrate reduces efficiency. Morgan et al. (1996) observed Oriental weatherloach were difficult to capture with electrofishing in Oregon, USA, because they occurred in a complex habitat and had effective escape abilities.
Bait traps will capture Oriental weatherloach, however their small size means that the area to be fished would need to be saturated with a large number of traps over many sampling events to ensure a reasonable return. Oriental weatherloach are also caught in the wings of fyke nets, although they may pass through the mesh because of their small size.
EXCLUSION METHODS/DEVICES
These techniques include mesh screens and rolling drum screens that are used in other countries for excluding fish from structures such as water intakes. These devices are often used to restrict the downstream salmon smolt migrations over weir walls or to restrict the access of undesirable species to areas not invaded or where eradication has taken place. Some of these options may be feasible, however they are generally fairly expensive, particularly for a small species such as Oriental weatherloach where screen mesh size would be fairly small and therefore require high maintenance to avoid clogging.
Oriental weatherloach may be able to be excluded from areas of agriculture to which water is transported (eg. rice paddys) simply by altering the way in which water is delivered and returned between the supply and effluent channel and the pasture/field. Lane and Fujioka (1998) found a decrease in the number of bird prey items (which included Oriental weatherloach) in ‘new type’ paddy fields in which water is pumped in via taps and drained
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ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION
Restoration of ecological processes may be an indirect method of control. It is argued that environmental disturbance and degraded environments can favour the establishment of introduced species and that improvements to the environment would benefit native species.
ENVIRONMENTAL MANIPULATION
Environmental manipulations involves the drainage and drying of isolated habitats and the drawing down of water levels to prevent access to particular areas. The draining of wetland areas has been used to successfully control other pest fish species (eg. gambusia) although the area must be dried out entirely as Oriental weatherloach are able to survive relatively harsh conditions with little water for some time. The option of ripping or tilling the bed of a target waterbody after drying to expose any buried weatherloach, with subsequent chemical treatment (eg. lime) to induce rapid mortality, should also be considered.
ELECTRIC FIELDS
In the use of electric fields, electrical current is passed from electrodes embedded into an underwater structure through the water column. This method is considered very effective for restricting upstream fish movements but not completely effective for fish moving downstream (Smith, D. pers. comm. 1999) and has been used in America to limit the movement of carp in lakes. This method is relatively expensive to install and operate, although considering the reduced ability of electric fields to affect smaller fish species, it is unlikely that this methodology would be completely successful. Also, considering that downstream dispersal of Oriental weatherloach may be facilitated by flood pulses, electric fields may be ineffective during these times.
SONIC BARRIERS AND BUBBLE CURTAINS
The Sonic Fish Repelling System (Smith Root Inc.) uses pre-recorded high intensity sounds to repel target fish, while bubble curtains are rows of air bubbles that are designed to deter fish from passing. It is unclear as to the effectiveness of these methods on Oriental weatherloach, and both are relatively expensive to install and operate.
11.7 Synopsis of Control Options
Given the range of potential control techniques available at present, different habitats will need to be tackled in different and innovative ways. For example, discrete small waterbodies can be effectively treated with chemicals such as rotenone and lime or can be dried out; however, these techniques may be unsuitable for larger lakes or rivers. In creeks, rivers and
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 49 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT water bodies which may only be infrequently linked (such as wetlands and billabongs during floods), control techniques will need to be approached differently and further evaluation made of the range of options available, particularly for the more feasible options such as habitat manipulation.
There is also a need to evaluate whether sustained control programs are a more worthwhile long-term solution for Oriental weatherloach. This may be a less problematic solution in areas where chemical or physical control is impractical (for example in large or deep water bodies where it is difficult to effectively poison them). This may be a more appropriate solution, particularly if a sustained control program maintains Oriental weatherloach at a level, which affords minimal or an acceptably reduced impact to other species.
There is also an obvious need to consider the presence of threatened species, populations, and communities within areas where Oriental weatherloach control is proposed, as populations of threatened species will further reduce the range of techniques available for use.
The above review of current and potential methods of control of Oriental weatherloach has demonstrated that very few methods have been trialed in any depth in Australia, or overseas, in a range of waterbody types. Available information on trials is generally based on 'one off' events or reports of attempts to control pest species in the field, rather than systematic evaluations of various methods under different conditions. To be entirely confidant of the likely success of particular methods, adequate evaluations would need to be trialed.
Given key features of this species in terms of its small size, cryptic nature, and potentially large population sizes, the ability to destroy entire populations is extremely unlikely. The options presently appear limited, with the greatest potential for success being directed at small sized standing waterbodies such as dams and ponds. Many methods, such as the use of chemicals, have clear disadvantages and potential impacts on native species, including those that are threatened, and further restrict available options.
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12 CONCLUSION
Oriental weatherloach are a highly tolerant coldwater fish that have been introduced into Australian inland waters. This species has established self-sustaining populations in two states (Victoria and NSW) and one territory (ACT) in southeastern Australia, and since the first record of the species in the wild in 1980, has increased its range rapidly. A review of the biology and ecology of Oriental weatherloach found that this species is:
• Tolerant to a range of habitat conditions including modified or degraded environments,
• Tolerant to fluctuation in environmental conditions including periods of drying,
• Physiologically competitive including ability to undertake respiration through the skin,
• Highly fecund, able to reproduce over an extended period and at a young age, and requires no parental care of larvae or juveniles,
• Resistant to predation to some extent through its ability to burrow into substrates,
• Suited to dispersal through human vectors particularly its use as fishing bait, and
• Able to negotiate physical barriers to some extent through its ability to move overland.
The environmental adaptability, high competitive ability, high reproductive output, high survivorship and high dispersal ability of Oriental weatherloach indicate that this species could potentially expand its range over a large portion of the MDB, as well as the southeastern coast region of Australia. The ecological impacts of Oriental weatherloach are poorly understood, as are the methods of containment and eradication. More research is required on key areas to better understand its impacts on the aquatic environment, rate and method of spread, as well as the methods to contain and control the species.
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13 CITED REFERENCES
Many of the following references have been published in overseas journals and technical report series, many in a language other than English. Where an entire document could not be obtained, an English abstract of the reference was reviewed.
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Raadik, T.A. (1997) Maribyrnong River Fishway Project. Phase 1 – prefishway construction fish survey. Report to Melbourne Water. Freshwater Ecology, Marine and Freshwater Research Institute, Victoria.
Raadik, T.A. and Zampatti, B. (1998) An assessment of barriers to fish migration in the lower Dandenong and Eumemmering Creek system. Report to Melbourne Water. Freshwater Ecology, MAFRI, Victoria.
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Rendahl, H. (1943) Uber das Vorkommen des Misgurnus anguillicaudatus anguillicaudatus (Cantor) in Birma. Arkiv. Zool., Stockholm, 35A(4), 1-9.
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Scanlon, P.F. (2001) Nature and use of rodenticides, piscicides, avicides and repellents. www.ento.vt.edu/~mullins/pestus2001/notes/lecture/Lec27. Html.
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Vladykov, V.D. (1935) Secondary sexual dimorphism in some Chinese cobitid fishes. Journal of Morphology, 57(1), 275-302.
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Zhang, F. and Li, X. (1992) Studies on the effects of low pH on embryonic development, growth of the fry and the damage of gills of fishes. Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica, 16(1), 175-182.
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14 OTHER USEFUL REFERENCES
The following references pertain to weatherloach of the genus Misgurnus, but were not cited in the text.
Ando, K., Tanaka, H. Taniguchi, Y. Shimizu, M. and Kondo, K. (1988) Two human cases of gnathostomiasis and discovery of a second intermediate host of Gnathostoma nipponicum in Japan. Japanese Journal of Parasitology, 74(4), 623-627.
Arai, K. (2001) Genetic improvement of aquaculture finfish species by chromosome manipulation techniques in Japan. Aquaculture, 197, 205-228.
Axelrod, H.R. and Burgess, W. (1982) Loaches of the world. Tropical Fish Hobbyist, April, 32-44.
Burr, B.M., Eisenhour, D.J., Cook, K.M., Taylor, C.A., Seegert, G.L., Sauer, R.W. and Attwood, E.R. (1996) Nonnative fishes in Illinois waters: what do the records reveal? Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, 89(1&2), 73-91.
Chao, N. and Liao, C. (1990) Production of golden loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus by means of gynogenesis. In: Proceedings of the Second Asian Fisheries Forum (Eds. R. Hirano and I. Hanyu), pp. 535-538. Manila, Philippines, Asian Fisheries Society. Asian Fisheries Forum, Toyko, Japan.
Chen, H. and Chang, C. (1987) Studies on the toxicity of methylene blue and malachite green to some aquatic organisms in eel ponds. The Memoir of Virology and Pharmacology in Fish Disease, 3(12), 116-127.
Chowdhury, B.R. and Wakabayashi, H. (1989) Scanning electron microscopic study on the invasion of loach by the bacterial pathogen, Flexibacter columnaris. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 36(4), 329-333.
Chowdhury, B.R. and Wakabayashi, H. (1990) Effects of co-existing bacteria on Flexibacter columnaris infection in loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. In: Proceedings of the Second Asian Fisheries Forum (Eds. R. Hirano and I. Hanyu), pp. 651-654. Manila, Philippines, Asian Fisheries Society. Asian Fisheries Forum, Toyko, Japan.
DLWC (1995) State of the Rivers report - The Murrumbidgee Catchment NSW. NSW Department of Water Resources, Sydney.
Fowler, H.W. (1924) Some fishes collected by the third asiatic expedition in China. Bulletin. American Museum of Natural History, 50, 373-399.
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Fowler, H.W. and Bean, B.A. (1920) A small collection of fishes from Soochow, China with descriptions of two new species. Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum, 58, 307- 321.Higurashi, T. (1925) A culture of Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Suisan Ken-kyushi, 20(2), 49-53.
Hensley, D.A. and Courtenay, W.R. Jr. (1980). Oriental weatherfish. In: Atlas of North American freshwater fishes (Eds. D.S. Lee, Gilbert, C.R., Hocutt, C.H., Jenkins, R.E., McAllister, D.E. and Stauffer, J.R. Jr), pp. 436. Publication No. 1980-12 of the North Carolina Biological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
Ichiyanagi, T. and Fujita, K. (1995) Development of the caudal skeleton in the cobitid fish, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Journal. Tokyo University of Fisheries, 82(1), 99-102.
Kahn, M.R. and Arai, K. (2000) Allozyme variation and genetic differentiation in the loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Fisheries Science, 66, 211-222.
Kim, D.S., Nam, Y.K. and Park, I.S. (1995) Performance of diploid and triploid hybrid loach, Misgurnus mizolepis female X M. anguillicaudatus male. Aquaculture, 137, 326-327.
Kim, D.S., Nam, Y.K. and Park, I.S. (1995) Survival and karyological analysis of reciprocal diploid and triploid hybrids between mud loach (Misgurnus mizolepis) and cyprinid loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus). Aquaculture, 135, 257-265.
Kim, H.S., and Lee, H.K. (1985) Studies on nutrient of loach. Korean Journal of Nutrition, 18(3), 167-172. [In Korean with an English summary – heavy metal concentrations in Misgurnus mizolepis, seasonality].
Kim, I.S, and Park, J.Y. (1996) Adhesive membranes of oocyte in four loaches (Pisces: Cobitidae) of Korea. Korean Journal of Zoology, 39, 198-206.
Kobayashi, H. (1936). Observations on the scales of Japanese cobitid fishes. Botany and Zoology, Tokyo, 4, 855-862.
Koga, M., Ishibashi, J., Ishii, Y., Hasegawa, H., Choi, D. and Lo, T. (1985). Morphology and experimental infections of gnathostome larvae from imported loaches, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Japanese Journal of Parasitology, 34(5), 361-370.
Kubota, Z. (1952). On maturing process of the ovary of a loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor). I. Successive maturity of the ovary in the natural living loach. Journal of the Shimonoseki College of Fisheries, 2, 35-39.
Lachner, E.A., Robins, C.R. and Courtenay, W.R. (1970) Exotic fishes and other aquatic organisms introduced into North America. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 59, 1-29.
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Langdon, J.S. (1988) Diseases of introduced fish. In: Fish diseases refresher course for veterinarians. Proceedings 106. Post-Graduate. Committee in Veterinary Science, Sydney.
Li, X. (1990) The toxic effects of butyl xanthate on developing embryos of loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. China Environmental Science, 10(4), 269-276.
Lintermans, M., Jekabsons, M. and Morris, B. (2001) A survey of fish in the lower Queanbeyan River. Report to Queanbeyan City Council. Environment ACT, Canberra.
Lo, C., Wang, C. and Kou, G. (1992) The pathology of loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) infected with Clinostomum complanatum (Rudolphi, 1814). Acta Zoologica Taiwanica, 3(2), 145-154.
Masaoka, T. Arai, K. and Suzuki, R. (1995) Production of androgenetic diploid loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus from UV irradiated eggs by suppression of fist cleavage. Fisheries Science, 61(4), 716-717.
McKay, R.J. (1984) Introductions of exotic fishes in Australia. In: Distribution, Biology, and Management of Exotic Fishes (Eds. Courtenay, W.R. jr and Stauffer, J.R. jr.), pp 177- 199, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
McKay, R.J. (1989) Exotic and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia. In: Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia (Ed. S.S. De Silva), pp. 21-34. Proceedings of the workshop on introduction of exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. Asian Fisheries Society Special Publication 3. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.
Migdalski, E.C. and Fichter, G.S. (1976) The fresh and salt water fishes of the world. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
Nakajima, T. (1987) Development of pharyngeal dentition in the cobitid fishes Misgurnus anguillicaudatus and Cobitis biwae, with a consideration of evolution of Cypriniform dentitions. Copeia, 1987(1), 208-213.
Naruse, M. (1993) Plasticity of biological rhythms and its significance: analysis of the locomotor activity rhythm in the loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Ph.D. thesis, Nara Womens University, Nara (in Japanese).
Nikiforov, S.N., Grishin, A.F. and Shendrik, M.S. (1988) Species composition of the Ichthyofauna in the freshwaters of northwestern Sakhalin. Journal of Ichthyology, 28(3), 107-110.
Oh, H., Lee, S., Kim, Y. and Roh, J. (1991). Mechanisms of selective toxicity of diazinon killifish (Oryzias latipes) and loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus). In: American Society for Testing and Materials Symposium on Aquatic Toxicology and Risk Assessment,
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San Francisco (Eds. M.A. Hayes and M.G. Baron), pp. 343-353. AMST, Philadelphia, USA.
Oshima, M. (1919) Contributions to the study of the fresh-water fishes of the island of Formosa. Annals. Carnegie Museum, 12, 169.
Oyamada, T., Mizutani, Y., Kudo, N. and Yoshikawa, T. (1996) Seasonal preference of Gnathostoma nipponicum larvae in loaches (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) collected from eastern Aomori Prefecture, Japan. Japanese Journal of Parasitology, 45(3), 238-241.
Page, l.M. and Laird, C.A. (1993) The identification of the nonnative fishes inhabiting Illinois waters. Center for Biodiversity Technical Report 1993(4) 1-39. Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois, USA.
Park, C.B., Lee, J.H., Park, I.Y., Kim, M.S. and Kim, S.C. (1997) A novel antimicrobial peptide from the loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. FEBS (Federation of European Biochemical Societies) Letters, 411, 173-178.
Park, E.S., Kang, D.S. and Ha, B.S. (1994) Comparison of carotenoid pigments in Chinese muddy loach, Misgurnus mizolepis, and muddy loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus, in the subfamily Cobitidae. Bulletin. Korean Fisheries Society, 27(3), 265-271.
Rutzou, T. (1991) Oriental weatherloach in Tuggeranong Creek. Internal report 91/1. ACT Parks and Conservation Service.
Sato, M. (1954). Studies on the pit organs of fish. II. The function of the large pit organs, with specieal reference to the inducibility of intestinal respiration in the loach. Sci. Rep. Tohoku University, (4) 20, 334-344.
Shao-L. and Wang-X.S. (1998) Studies on the individual fecundity of loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica, 22, 56-62.
Shu-Yen, L. (1932) On fresh-water fishes of Heungchow. Lingnan Science Journal (Zoology), 11(1), 63-68.
Sterba, G. (1973) Freshwater fishes of the world. T.F.H. Publications, Hong Kong.
Suzuki, R. (1976) Duration and developmental capability of eggs in ovarian cavity after ovulation of a cyprinid loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Aquiculture, 23, 93-99 (in Japanese).
Tsai, J.C. (1996) Cell renewal of the epidermis of the loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cypriniformes). Journal of Zoology, 239(3), 591-599.
Walker, B. (1974) Loaches. T.F.H. Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey, USA.
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Walker, B. (1975) Sharks and loaches. T.F.H. Publications, Hong Kong.
Yang, C.F. and Sun, Y.P. (1977) Partition distribution of insecticides as a critical factor affecting their rates of absorption from water and relative toxicities to fish. Archive of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 6(2-3), 325-335.
Yasuhiko, T. (1975) Geographic distribution of primary freshwater fishes in four principal areas of southeast Asia. South East Asian Studies, 13(2), 200-214.
Zheng, M., Ding, G., Liu, B. and Yang, J. (1992) Observation and study on the early development of Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. In: Trans Oceanol Limnol Hayaing Huzhao Tongbao no4 pp 85-90.
Zhou, L., Chen, X. and Qin, D. (1994) The study of toxicity of four kinds of heavy metal to Misgurnus anguillicaudatus embryo and juvenile fish. Journal of Xiamen Fisheries College, 16(1), 11-19.
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15 USEFUL WEB SITES
Australian Museum, Sydney – Find a Fish – Oriental Weatherloach
http://www.amonline.net.au/fishes/fishfacts/manguili.htm
Eschemeyer, W.N. (ed.). (1998). Catalogue of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. http://www.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/index.html
FishBase – A Global Information System on Fishes.
http:/www.fishbase.org/home.htm (FishBase Home)
http://www.fishbase.org/search.cfm (FishBase Search)
United States Geological Survey, Nonindigenous aquatic species – Misgurnus anguillicaudatus and M. mizolepis.
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16 APPENDIX 1 PROVISIONAL MISGURNUS SYNONYMY
Provisional synonymy of nominal species in the genus Misgurnus Lacépède, 1803.
Sources:
! Eschmeyer, W.N. (1998). Catalogue of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences,
San Francisco.
! FishBase (http://www.fishbase.org).
Species: Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (Cantor, 1842)
Cobitis anguillicaudata Cantor, 1842: 485. (Type locality: Chusan, China).
Junior synonyms:
Cobitis bifurcata McClelland, 1844
Cobitis pectoralis McClelland, 1844
Cobitis psammismus Richardson, 1846
Misgurnus psammismus (Richardson, 1846)
Cobitis maculata Temminck and Schlegel, 1846
Misgurnus maculata (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846)
Misgurnus maculatus (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846)
Cobitis rubripinnis Temminck and Schlegel, 1846
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus rubripinnis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846)
Cobitis decemcirrosus Basilewsky, 1855
Misgurnus decemcirrosus (Basilewsky, 1855)
Cobitichthys dichachrous Bleeker, 1860
Misgurnus dichachrous (Bleeker, 1860)
Cobitichthys enalios Bleeker, 1860
Cobitichthys polynema Bleeker, 1860
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Misgurnus polynemus (Bleeker, 1860)
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Gŭnther, 1868
Cobitis fossilis var. mohoity Dybowski, 1869
Nemacheilus lividus Sauvage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874
Misgurnus lividus (Sauvage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874)
Mesomisgurnus lividus (Sauvage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874)
Misgurnus crossochilus Sauvage, 1878
Ussuria leptocephala Nikolskii, 1903
Misgurnus fossilis anguillicaudatus (Cantor 1842)
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus anguillicaudatus Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus tungting Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mohoity Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mohoity mohoity Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mohoity yunnan Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mizolepis grangeri Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mohoity leopardus Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mizolepis punctatus Oshima, 1926
Misgurnus mizolepis heungchow Lin, 1932
Misgurnus mizolepis unicolor Lin, 1932
Misgurnus elongatus Kimura, 1934
Misgurnus mizolepis elongatus (Kimura, 1934)’
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus formosanus Rendahl, 1936
Distribution: China, Mongolia, Japan, Russia, Korea, Taiwan,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar (Burma),
Thailand.
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Species: Misgurnus bipartitus (Sauvage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874)
Nemacheilus bipartitus Suavage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874: 16.
(Type locality: Central and north China).
Junior synonyms:
Mesomisgurnus bipartitus (Sauvage and Dabry De Thiersant, 1874)
Misgurnus erikssoni Rendahl, 1922
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus erikssoni Nichols, 1925
Distribution: China and Mongolia.
Species: Misgurnus cestoideus Kessler, 1876
Misgurnus cestoideus Kessler, 1876, 34. (Type locality: Hu-Lun Lake, China)
Distribution: China and Mongolia.
Species: Misgurnus mizolepis Gűnther, 1888
Misgurnus mizolepis Gűnther, 1888: 434.
(Type locality: Yangtze River at Kiu-Kiang, China).
Junior synonyms:
Misgurnus mizolepis mizolepis (Gŭnther, 1888)
Misgurnus mizolepis fukien Nichols, 1925
Misgurnus mizolepis hainan Nichols and Pope 1927
Misgurnus mizolepis tonkinensis Rendahl, 1937
Misgurnus mizolepis multimaculatus Rendahl, 1946
Distribution: China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Vietnam.
Unplaced:
Misgurnus spilurus Guichenot, 1931
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 76 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
17 APPENDIX 2 COMMUNITY AWARENESS MATERIALS
Examples of materials developed as part of the community awareness campaign.
Flyer distributed to Fisheries Offices.
Have You Seen This Fish ? Oriental Weatherloach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus
WE NEED YOUR HELP Neil Armstrong Neil Photo 1. Weatherloach Photo 2. Weatherloach head Armstrong Neil
Distribution and Spread Ecology Oriental Weatherloach is a freshwater These fish are quite small, usually fish species native to Asia. Its common reaching about 200mm in size in Australia. name reflects its apparent restlessness They have an elongate, cylindrical body, during changes in air pressure. generally mottled brownish yellow colour, The species was once a popular aquarium with black spots on the back and sides and fish in Australia, although it was banned a pale underside. Fish have distinctive from importation in 1986 because of “whiskers” known as barbels which are potential spread into the wild. The first used for locating food. This feature population of Weatherloach recorded sometimes causes confusion with the was in the Yarra River in 1984, probably Freshwater Catfish Tandanus tandanus, a as a result of dumping of unwanted native species. Some people may also aquarium fish. Since then, fish have confuse Weatherloach with small become established in many areas blackfish and small eels. including New South Wales, Victoria and Weatherloach are bottom-dwellers the ACT. typically found in still or slow flowing, Unfortunately, Weatherloach are shallow waters with muddy bottoms into continuing to spread and increase their which they can burrow. They can be found range in Australia for reasons including in dry or drying billabongs, beneath moist water diversion schemes for irrigation layers of leaves or underground in the supply, illegal use as bait fish by anglers moist mud. Fish can spawn several times and unaided dispersal. per year during spring and summer and feed on a range of food types.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 77 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
Why Are We Concerned About We do not yet understand the impacts of Weatherloach on the aquatic environment Weatherloach? or on native species in Australia. Possible Weatherloach have many traits which impacts include competition for food make them a good invader. They are and/or space with native species, long-lived and have a high reproductive disturbance or predation of eggs, potential, a flexible diet, broad introduction of diseases and parasites, tolerances to particular environmental changes to invertebrate composition and conditions such as temperature and habitat degradation such as increased oxygen, and low vulnerability to turbidity and nitrogen concentrations. predation because of their burrowing habit.
The Oriental Weatherloach Please note the position of the fins The Oriental Weatherloach Dorsal fin (with no spine) 5 pairs of barbels R. M. McDowallR. M.
Pectoral fin Pelvic fin Anal fin Caudal fin
Fish usually reach about 200mm in size, are mottled brownish yellow with many black spots on the back and sides with a pale unmarked underside. There is a black spot on the base of the caudal fin. The body if covered with a slimy coating.
Where Are Weatherloach ? Vic: Yarra and Maribyrnong rivers, Ovens We are currently trying to accurately River, Broken Creek & Campaspe River. determine where Weatherloach occur in Qld: fish were once recorded in a small Australia. Clarifying their exact range, suburban creek near Brisbane but may no may help us understand how they are longer occur there. spreading and whether we can do anything We do not know if the species occurs to limit or stop their spread. Current elsewhere, e.g. in South Australia. information on their distribution is summarised below: NSW: Much of the Murray River possibly from around Albury downstream to at What Can You Do to Help ? least Barmah and some associated •If you have caught a Weatherloach please tributaries, the Murrumbidgee and Murray freeze or preserve a specimen in alcohol and Riverina areas, Lake Eucumbene and either ring us on 03 9450 8610 or write to coastal areas such as Coxs River and “Weatherloach Project”, ARI, 123 Brown Street Heidelberg 3084, Vic. and let us know Wingecarribee River. location details (by 30 June 2002) ACT: Ginninderra Creek, Tuggeranong Creek, Cotter River, Molonglo River and •Please don’t use Weatherloach as a bait fish. It is illegal to use live bait in many Murrumbidgee River. areas.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 78 -- Murray-Darling 2001 FishRehab Program Potential spread and impact of the Oriental weatherloach – RESOURCE DOCUMENT
Newspaper article.
Numurkah Leader Wednesday March 6 2002 p.9.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research -- 79 --