Becoming Holy in Early Canada: Performance and the Making of Holy Persons in Society and Culture Timothy G. Pearson Department of History McGill University, Montreal March, 2008 A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Timothy G. Pearson, 2007 i Abstract The records and archives pertaining to the history of European settlement in what is now Canada are filled with hagiographic texts – documents that describe the life, death and miracles of individuals who were regarded as holy by their authors. While the names and vocations of many of these individuals (for example, Isaac Jogues, Jean de Brébeuf, Marie de l’Incarnation, and Catherine de Saint-Augustine) are well known to historians of early colonial Canada, what has not been explored is holiness itself, the way it was performed, recognized and written about, and the roles holy persons played in social and cultural life. In this dissertation, I analyze how local religious figures became holy and the social functions they played, in order to better understand the connections between religion and colonialism and the shaping of faith communities over time. The study covers a broad time period from the early days of French settlement in Canada to the late nineteenth century. The focus falls on New France and the holy persons associated with the early years of settlement when religion and colonization were intimately connected. It was only towards the end of the nineteenth century that these figures were put forward for official recognition by the church in canonization causes, and consequently I conclude the study with an examination of the processes and resulting documents that contributed to the transformation of local holy persons into saints. Throughout the study, I concentrate on the place holy persons occupied in local society both during life and after death as intercessors for the faithful, the meanings they held and presented to their audiences, and the ways they performed the traditions of sanctity. ii Rituals of holiness were a form of communication. Holy persons and audiences interacted with and influenced one another to create a saint that was efficacious and effective. While faith communities developed around local, family and community networks, hagiographic texts described the lives, deaths and intercessions of select individuals and spread cults of belief. Between performances of holiness and the inscription of holy lives into texts, local saints were made who responded to the needs of their faith communities and became important parts of local religious, social, and cultural life. iii Resumé Les archives et témoignages relatifs à l’histoire de la colonisation européenne à l’intérieur des frontières actuelles du Canada sont semés de nombreux textes à caractère hagiographique, ces textes qui s’attardent à décrire la vie, la mort et les actions miraculeuses d’individus considérés comme saints. Alors que les noms et les oeuvres des Isaac Jogues, Jean de Brébeuf, Marie de l’Incarnation ou Catherine de Saint-Augustin sont bien connus des historiens du Canada français, on en sait cependant beaucoup moins sur le concept même de sainteté et les façons dont celui- ci était reconnu, démontré et mis en récit. De même, les différents rôles sociaux, culturels et religieux que les personnes ainsi désignées saintes pouvaient jouer, a souvent été négligé. Cette thèse analysera donc comment des figures religieuses locales ont pu devenir saintes et les multiples fonctions sociales qu’elles ont ainsi remplies. Nous pourrons ainsi mieux comprendre les liens serrés entre religion et colonialisme ainsi que les transformations des communautés de croyants au fil du temps. Car cette étude couvre une large période, des premiers temps de la colonisation française au Canada aux dernières années du XIXe siècle. C’est la Nouvelle-France et les saints associés à ses débuts, alors que religion et colonisation vont de pair, qui constituera le point focal de mon attention. Ces figures religieuses de la Nouvelle-France nous entrainerons à la toute fin du XIXe siècle, moment où elles verront leur statut de saint reconnu officiellement par l’Église par procès en canonisation. Je conclurai donc en examinant ces procès et leurs traces documentaires, qui ont permi cette transformation de personnes saintes en Saints. Nous verrons ainsi tout au long de cette étude la place que ces figures ont occupé iv dans leurs sociétés, au cours de leur vie comme après leur mort (devenus intercesseurs pour les croyants) et tâcherons de découvrir le sens qu’ils pouvaient avoir et représenter de même que les façons par lesquelles ils pouvaient incarner des traditions de saintetés. Les rituels de sainteté représentent une forme de communication à part entière. Les personnes saintes et leurs publics s’influençaient mutuellement, agissaient l’un sur l’autre pour parvenir à créer un Saint présent et efficace. Alors que les communautés de croyants se développaient autour de réseaux familiaux, locaux et communautaires, les textes hagiographiques décrivaient plutôt les vies, morts et intercessions de quelques individus choisis et de communautés éparses. Entre le « geste » de la sainteté et sa mise en récit, des Saints locaux sont construits pour répondre aux besoins de leurs communautés et s’inscrire pleinement dans leur vie religieuse, sociale et culturelle. v Acknowledgements When I began my PhD in the Fall of 2002 I had not taken a course nor likely read a book in Canadian history since the second year of my undergraduate degree. With a masters degree in hand in Medieval Studies, I began the work that would become this dissertation. My thanks and appreciation must, therefore, go first to my advisors, Catherine Desbarats and John Zucchi, who took a risk on me and my project, and have been supportive from the very beginning. Professor Zucchi has always been available to discuss ideas with me and push my thought in directions I had not considered. Professor Desbarats’s penetrating insights, timely advice, and suggestions have shaped my thinking and sharpened my writing in ways too numerous to count. Together they have shepherded this project to its conclusion, and along the way, taught me the historian’s craft and a deep appreciation of the past. In a project of this type the support and assistance of family and friends is indispensable. My parents, Graham and Miriam, have always supported everything I have tried and I can not thank them enough nor adequately express my deep appreciation. Thanks also go to my sisters, Kate and Sheila, as well as to newer members of the clan, especially Lucy who, without fail, provided me with the perfect excuse to take an hour’s break every afternoon for a walk. Along the way, friends and colleagues have always been there for a discussion or a diversion and sometimes a place to stay; especially Melanie Moore, Duncan Cowie, Anna Lepine, Liz Kirkland, Tom Brydon, Bruce and Barbara Bartleman, Alex Boutros, Kaarla Sundström and Anu. My sincerely thanks go to Jean-François Constant and Alexandre Dubé, not only for their friendship, but also for their last minute help in putting the manuscript vi together. Finally, over the last two years, members of the French Atlantic History Group gave me a job when I needed one and made it enjoyable. For this my thanks and appreciation go to François Furstenberg, Nick Dew, Dominique Deslandres, James Delbourgo and Tom Wien. There are several funding agencies and institutions that I would like to thank without whose aid this project would never have been completed. The History Department, Faculty of Arts, and Faculty of Graduates Studies at McGill University have all provided financial support at various stages. Doctoral fellowships from the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada, FQRSC, SSHRCC, and the Bibliothèque et Archives Nationale du Québec supported my work and research. I would like to thank the archivists at the Archives du Séminaire de Québec and the Archives Deschatellets at l’Université Saint-Paul for their help, and especially the librarians at the Grand Bibliothèque (Bibliothèque Nationale du Québec) for their assistance and patience in digging up obscure texts and canonization processes for me. At McGill I must also thank Colleen Parish, Celine Coutihno, Karen Connors, and Jody Anderson for their help and advice offered freely and without reservation on numerous occasions. For Kirsty, who found me in a cloud of tear gas and never let go, I can not give thanks enough. She has put up with my mood swings, doubts and frustrations, and never became frustrated herself. Without her I would never have even started this project. vii Table of Contents List of Figures ix Introduction 1 I Saints and Holy Persons in Canada 27 The Scenario of Holiness 32 Sources 43 The Holy in Canada 47 Conclusion 59 II Missions and Colonialism: Ritual, Text and the Performance 60 of Martyrdom Hopes and Expectations 66 Between Ritual and Writing 75 Victims and Oppressors 103 Conclusion 111 III “Nous avons au Ciel notre saint Martyr:” Martyrs in 113 Society and Text Relics, Miracles, and Holy Reputations 116 Aboriginal Holiness 134 The Martyrs and the Mission 158 Conclusion 164 IV Asceticism, the Shaping of the Self, and the Making of a 167 New World Coming to Canada 171 The Hôtel Dieu 178 Catherine’s Holy Performance 184 Asceticism and Ascetic Behaviour 194 Place 208 Conclusion 225 V The Social Function of Miracles 230 Miracles and Devotions 233 The Acts of Frère Didace Pelletier 241 viii The Cause of Frère Didace 264 Mgr de Lauberivière