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Chapter 2 Gamma-Ray Bursts Observations of X-ray Counterparts to Gamma-ray Bursts in RXTE's All-Sky Monitor by Donald Andrew Smith B.A., Physics, The University of Chicago (1992) Submitted to the Department of Physics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Physics at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY September 1999 ( Donald Andrew Smith, MCMXCIX. All rights reserved. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part. Author. ...................... ....................... Department of Physics August 11, 1999 Certifiedby ........ *.. .... ... .......................... Hale V. D. Bradt Professor of Physics Thesis Supervisor Accepted by ...... k.............................. ThomasJ reytak Associate Department Head for Education Observations of X-ray' Coulterparts to Gamma-ray Bursts in RXTE's A-ll-Sky Monitor lby Donal(c rAndrowSmith Submitted to tle lepatmnent of Physics on August 11, 199%, in-partial flfillment of the requirements Eor the degree of Doctor of !hijlcksphy of Physics Abstract In this thesis, I report on a system I desigied ad implemented to rapidly indentify and localize new transient X-ray sources bSsetvedby the All-Sky Monitor (ASM) on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (XTJS), I used this system to identify fourteen Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs). Eight of hese events were found in archived ASM observations from the first 1.5 years of peration, but the rest were detected and reported within 2 - 32 hours of the evernt. i thirteen of the fourteen cases, I was able to provide error boxes with a eliaole Qonfidence level. I report here on the ASM instrument, the system to idenitify lew X-ray sources, the ASM localization capability, the current state of the field 01 G1B studies, the thirteen GRB positions, and fourteen GRB light curves. I interpret these observations in the context of the Synchrotron Shock Model for GRB eiss5ion. Thesis Supervisor: Hale V. D. Bradt Title: Professor of Physics Acknowledgments I'd like to thank my advisor, Prof. Hale Bradt, for his support, encouragement, criticism, and confidence. Dr. Al Levine has been with me every step of the way, and I've appreciated his thorough attention to detail and his skill at cutting to the heart of the topic at hand. The most rewarding aspect of this project has been working as part of the ASM team. In addition to providing an opportunity to participate in an exciting scientific endeavor, the group fostered an atmosphere of cooperation, collaboration, and friend- liness. I'd like to thank Hale, Al, Ron Remillard, Ed Morgan, Wei Cui, and Deepto Chakrabarty for creating such a fin and productive working atmosphere. When I first arrived at MI, I shared a small room with three other graduate students, Robert Shirey, Chris Becker, and Charlie Collins. Although we eventually moved to larger quarters and all three of them have since graduated, I could not have made it through this program without their help and camaraderie. Robert Rutledge, Derek Fox, Jefferson Kommers, and Patrick Wojdowski have also been wonderful friends and colleagues. Thanks also to Linqing Wen and Mike Muno for joining the ASM team and contributing to the effort. I have greatly appreciated the support, advice, and assistance of Peggy Berkovitz. I'd like to thank Dale Frail and Shri Kulkarni for giving me the opportunity to travel to exotic places, see kangaroos and learn the basics of radio astronomy. I'd also like to thank Scott Barthelmy, Kevin Hurley, Garrett Jernigan, Luigi Piro, Marco Feroci, and Frank Marshall for their friendly willingness to share data and time to make the ASM more useful as a GRB-chasing tool. Thanks to the Bab5 crew: David Bogartz, Alana and Alysia Parkes, Elizabeth Rogers, Kaj Telenar, and Christine Parker, for all fun evenings of food and friend- ship. Thanks also to my friends through the Beacon Hill Friends House extended community, who are too numerous to name, but are none the less wonderful. Lastly and most importantly, I'd like to thank my mom and dad, for raising me with the curiosity to seek, the confidence to dream, and the passion to know. I Contents 1 Introduction 13 1.1 Overview of this Work .......................... 15 1.2 Terms and Units ............... 16 2 Gamma-Ray Bursts 19 2.1 Discovery and Early Developments ................... 19 2.2 A Paradigm of Galactic Origin ..................... ......... 23 2.3 BATSE .................................. 25 2.4 The BeppoSAXRevolution ........................ 27 2.5 The Future ................................ 30 3 The All Sky Monitor 33 3.1 The Satellite ........................................... 33 3.2 ASM Physical Construction ....................... 36 3.3 ASM Data Modes and Analysis ..................... 39 4 Determination of Error Box Sizes 55 4.1 A Measurement of Error ......................... 55 4.2 Error Distributions ....................................... 56 4.3 A Model for the Error Boxes ....................... 63 6 CONT) ENTS 5 Thirteen GRB Localizations 71 5.1 Archival Searches for GRBs ...................... 72 5.2 Real-Time Responises to GRBs ...................... 76 5.3 Near-Misses and Borderline Cases .................... 82 6 Fireballs and Shocks 87 6.1 The Fireball Model ...................... 89 6.2 External Shocks ....... ...................... 96 6.3 Synchrotron Cooling .... ...................... 102 6.4 Internal Shocks ...... ...................... 111 6.5 Summary .......... ...................... 115 7 Fourteen GRB Light Curves 117 7.1 Data ............ ...................... 119 7.2 The Observations ...... ...................... 120 7.3 Summary ......... ...................... 149 8 Late-Time Radio Afterglow 155 8.1 Introduction ........ ...................... 155 8.2 Observations. ........ ...................... 156 8.3 Results............ ...................... 157 8.4 Discussion and Conclusions ...................... 160 9 Conclusions 163 A Observational Parameters 169 List of Figures 2-1 The IPN Triangulation Method 22 2-2 Isotropy and Homogeneity ........ 24 2-3 The BATSE 4B Catalog of GRB Positions 26 .. 2-4 The BATSE GRB Fluence Distribution . 27 2-5 Positions for GRB 970228 ......... 29 3-1 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer..... · . 34 3-2 The All-Sky Monitor ........ · . 35 3-3 Composition and Orientation of SSCs · . 37 3-4 The FOV Coordinate System · . 41 3-5 Effect of Source Location on Slit Mask . Response . 43 3-6 Example of Single-Anode Fit. · . 44 3-7 A Cross-Correlation Map .... 45 3-8 Evolution of Electrical Position ·. 47 . 3-9 A Pulse-Height Histogram . 52 3-10 Detector Gain Stability ..... · . 53 4-1 Error Histograms for SSC 1 . 60 4-2 Error Histograms for SSC 2 . 61 . 4-3 Error Histograms for SSC 3 . 62 4-4 Error Box Sizes for SSC 1 . 66 4-5 Error Box Sizes for SSC 2 . 67 7 8 LIST OF FIGURES 4-6 Error Box Sizes for SSC 3 .................. 68 5-1 Localizations of GRBs 960416, 960529, 960727, and 961002 74 5-2 Localizations of GRBs 961019, 961029, 961230, and 970815 75 5-3 Localizations of GRBs 970828, 971024, 971214, and 980703 79 5-4 Localizations of GRB 981220 ................. 82 6-1 A Relativistically Expanding Shell .............. 94 6-2 Schematic Diagram of a Shock ................ 97 6-3 Broadband Spectrum of GRB 970508 ............ 109 6-4 An Expanding Shell With Internal Structure ........ 111 7-1 Raw ASM Count Rates for GRB 960416 .......... .... 121 7-2 ASM Light Curve for GRB 960416 compared with BATSE .... 123 7-3 Raw ASM Count Rates for GRB Candidate 960529 .... .... 124 7-4 ASM Light Curve for GRB Candidate 960529 ....... .... 125 7-5 Raw ASM Count Rates for GRBs 960727 and 961002 . .... 126 7-6 ASM Light Curves for GRBs 960727 and 961002 . .... 127 71-7 ASM Light Curve for GRB 961019 compared with BATSE .... 128 7-S ASMI Light Curve for GRB 961029 ........ .... 129 7-9 ASM Light Curve for GRB 961216 compared with BATSE .... 130 7-10 ASM Light Curve for GRB 961230 ........ .... 131 7-11 Raw ASM Count Rates for GRB 970815 ..... .... 133 7-12 ASM and BATSE Light Curves for GRB 970815 . .... 135 7-13 Raw ASM Count Rates for GRB 970828 ..... .... 139 7-14 ASM Light Curve for GRB 970828 in Crab Units .... 140 7-15 ASM Light Curve for GRB 970828 compared with BATSE .... 141 7-16 ASM Light Curve for GRB 971024 compared with BATSE .... 142 7-17 ASM Light Curve for GRB 971214 compared with BATSE .... 143 7-18 ASM Light Curve for GRB 980703 in Crab Units ..... .... 145 LIST OF FIGURES 9 7-19 ASM Light Curve for GRB 980703 compared with BATSE ...... 146 7-20 BATSE Light Curve for GRB 980703 ......... ................. 147 7-21 ASM and BeppoSAXLight Curves for GRB 981220 ......... 148 7-22 Peak Width vs. Energy Band for GRB 960416 ............. 151 8-1 Three Radio Counterpart Candidates ......... ................. 158 10 LIST OF FIGURES List of Tables 2-1 Redshifts Associated with GRBs. ..... .... ......... .30 3-1 Normalized ASM Count Rates for the Crab Nebula 50 3-2 Mean Energy Channel Boundaries .......... 53 4-1 Calibration Sources ................. 57 5-1 Properties of 13 ASM-detected GRBs . ............... 73 5-2 Properties of Single-SSC ASM Error Boxes . 76 5-3 Corners of Multiple-SSC Error Boxes . 78 5-4 Sizes of Error Circles ............ 78 5-5 Dimensions of IPN Annuli ......... .84 5-6 Probability of Misidentifying Weak Bursts . 85 8-1 Properties of X-ray Error Boxes for Six GRBs ..... .... 157 ... 8-2 Source Properties for Radio Afterglow Candidates . .... 159 ... 8-3 Radio Noise in ASM GRB Error Boxes ......... .... 159 ... A-1 Observational Parameters for GRBs ........... .... 170 ... A-2 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 960q416 .... 171 ... A-3 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 960529 .... 171 ... A-4 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 960727 .... 172 ... A-5 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 961002 .... 172 ... A-6 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 961019 .... 172 ... 11 12 LIST OF TABLES A-7 Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 961029 . 173 A-S Sources of Counts in ASM Observations of GRB 961230 ........
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