The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology

Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology

The Use of History

3 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill Ralph Winter and the Strategic Use of History 5 Articles

5 Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology Dwight P. Baker The value of history goes beyond its immediate relevance. 11 Speaking of God in Sanskrit-Derived Vocabularies H. L. Richard Does India’s linguistic mosaic warrant a diversity of terms? 17 A Post—3/11 Paradigm for Mission in Japan Hiroko Yoshimoto et al. Are there indications of a spiritual watershed? 23 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future Steven C. Hawthorne The end of the beginning?

34 Book Reviews 34 Beyond Captivity: Explorations in Indian Christian History and Theology 35 Seeking the Unseen: Spiritual Realities in the Buddhist World

38 In Others’ Words 38 Refugee Catastrophes Historical Perspectives on Mass Migrations Refugee Refl ections Muslims Turning to Christ–An Update 33:1January–March 2016 Save the Date

2016 MISSIOLOGY LECTURES AT FULLER SEMINARY “Dynamics of Contemporary Muslim Societies: Christian Theological and Missiological Implications”

NOVEMBER 3–4, 2016

Register at Fuller.edu/Missiology2016

Order Apostolocity, the next book in the Missiological Engagements Series edited by Fuller’s Amos Yong and Scott Sunquist, at IVPress.com Ralph Winter and the Strategic Use of History January–March 2016 Volume 33:1 orty years ago, Ralph Winter drafted the blueprints for a new mission Editor agency focused on unreached peoples. Yet were it not for his historical Brad Gill F imagination, Winter might never have conceived of the U. S. Center for Editor-at-Large World Mission. He intuitively drew on historical analysis as a tool for mission, Rory Clark Consulting Editors trolling it for insights into the ways God had moved men of the past for His Rick Brown, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, Kingdom purposes, and then welding those insights into practice. For ten years Rebecca Lewis, H. L. Richard, Steve Saint he taught the Historical Development of the Christian Movement at Fuller Copy Editing and Layout Seminary, always demanding that his students approach contemporary mission Darrell Dorr, Elizabeth Gill, Marjorie Clark through historical lenses. Secretary Lois Carey Th is crucial dimension of history in missiology was addressed in Dwight Baker’s Publisher presentation last fall at the EMS/ISFM gathering (p. 5). Baker believes missiol- Frontier Mission Fellowship ogy to be an “interested” discipline,1 one in which mission interests are a justifi - 2016 ISFM Executive Committee able stimulus for our biblical, anthropological and historical study. While a good Len Barlotti, Larry Caldwell, Dave Datema, Darrell Dorr, Brad Gill, Steve Hawthorne, missiologist will guard the authenticity of the past, his mission concerns will David Lewis, Rebecca Lewis, Greg Parsons shape how he ventures into history. Web Site Winter made use of history. You couldn’t work on projects with him without www.ijfm.org hearing frequent historical anecdotes. At meetings he would off er vivid historical interpretations as compelling rationales for his organizational ventures. History Editorial Correspondence 1605 E. Elizabeth Street seemed to give Winter a certain outlook, an optimism that David Bosch so Pasadena, CA 91104 perceptively identifi ed with the historicism of Kenneth Scott Latourette (whose (734) 765-0368, [email protected] volumes Winter assigned to his students at Fuller).2 Bosch fi t Winter’s optimism into a modern Enlightenment paradigm of missiology, and the positivist, pro- Subscriptions One year (four issues) $18.00 gressive spirit of modern times did seem to characterize Winter’s use of the past. Two years (eight issues) $34.00 Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 Winter was actually a Johnny-come-lately to history. Th ose who entered the study Single copies $5.00, multiple copies $4.00 of history through the humanities immediately felt something diff erent about Payment must be enclosed with orders. Winter’s orientation. He was an engineer by training (Caltech), as were many of Please supply us with current address and change of address when necessary. his post-World War II missionary colleagues. Th ey were problem solvers, and the Send all subscription correspondence to: problems they faced in mission were the stimulus for Winter’s historical craft. IJFM 1605 E. Elizabeth Street One can miss important distinctions if Winter is pigeonholed in Bosch’s Pasadena, CA 91104 paradigm. An evangelical historian like Winter had a countercultural view of Tel: (626) 398-2249 Fax: (626) 398-2263 purpose—God’s purpose—which a modern epistemology jettisons from its Email: [email protected] historiography. As an engineer, he may have utilized a scientifi c method to assess causes and eff ects in his study of the past, but what he found he always IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established in 1984 by the International Student Editorial continued on p. 4 Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions,, an outgrowth of the student-level meeting of The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those Edinburgh ‘80. of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s COPYRIGHT ©2016 International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 4 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are interpreted as part of the advance- Th e authors in this issue are conscious Our missiological interests in ment of God’s kingdom. It was God’s of history as they frame their present approaching history are obviously providential design that he expected to mission concerns. Steve Hawthorne varied and selective, but an informed discover when he peered into history. has traced the journey of frontier historical imagination remains a crucial dimension of mission practice. Winter’s Neither should one gloss over Winter’s missiology over a half-century (p. 23). keen appreciation for history, combined integration of anthropology into Originally given as an address to the with his engineer’s mindset—one of history. His doctoral work at Cornell ISFM 2014 on the 40th anniversary of creative problem solving—certainly oriented him more to the study of the 1974 Lausanne Congress on World proved that forty years ago. groups, tribes and social institutions Evangelization, Hawthorne surveys than to individuals. He might have recent history to distinguish the In Him, exemplifi ed the “great man” theory essential features of a missiology that in identifying the pivotal roles of a undergirds a mandate for the frontiers. William Carey or a Saint Patrick, Other authors refl ect the use of history Brad Gill but it was their formation of mis- in our encounter with other religious Senior Editor, IJFM sion institutions that he considered worlds. H. L. Richard surveys the most vital. His mix of engineering choice of Sanskrit terms for God in Endnotes and social science conditioned him 1 Dwight P. Baker, “Missiology as an In- Bible translation in the Hindu world to search the past for structures and terested Discipline,” Int’l Bulletin of Mission- (p. 11). A cadre of Japanese colleagues ary Research, 38, no. 1, (January 2014): 17–20. how they might promote or inhibit 2 addressed the recent SEANET David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission the expansion of God’s kingdom. His (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991), 335. historical elaboration of two structures consultation on the emerging contrast 3 Ralph D. Winter, “Two Structures of God’s Redemptive Mission,” Missiology 2, in God’s redemptive mission was one between a post-tsunami evangelism no. 1 (1974): 121–39. of his seminal contributions to modern and previous evangelical eff orts to mission,3 but it also infl uenced how he reach a Buddhist (and resistant) Japan would design a mission organization if (this portion is from their recent com- given the chance. Forty years ago, the pendium reviewed on page 35). And chance arose and he took it—and it Timothy Schultz’s review of Robin was his deep appreciation for history Boyd (p. 34) off ers a more accurate which helped shape that Pasadena history of contextualization in the agency (now Frontier Ventures). Indian church.

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders; cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology; highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions; encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies; foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and advocate “A Church for Every People.”

Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifi cally concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorifi cation of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, fi eld mission- aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology The Use of History Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology

by Dwight P. Baker

Th e past is a foreign country: they do things diff erently there. — L. E. Hartley, Th e Go-Between

Th e past is never dead. It’s not even past. — William Faulkner, Requiem for a Nun

he image of missiology as a three-legged stool has been a durable one, for the three legs of theology, history, and anthropology give the T fi eld strength and vitality.1 On the one hand, the three fi elds comple- ment each other, each supplying perspectives that the other two lack. On the other hand, the presence of the three fi elds suggests restraint and provides a corrective whenever some monodisciplinarian mounts a hobbyhorse and fl ogs it too hard, wishing to claim overly exalted preeminence for the role of his or her favored discipline. (I wish to state clearly at the outset that in using the three-fi eld model I have no desire to restrict missiology to those three fi elds. Rather, as I sought to spell out in an earlier article, I see theology, history, and anthropology as markers or metonyms for an expansive array of disciplines and fi elds of study upon which missiology can and will draw with profi t. Missiolo- Dwight P. Baker served as associate gy is inherently interdisciplinary. It may be more than tripartite, but it becomes editor of the International Bulletin distorted and less than it ought to be if one of its three core fi elds is elided.2) of Missionary Research (2002–15). Prior to retirement he also served Recent years, however, have seen schools of world mission in the United as program director and then associate director of the Overseas States deliberately rob the missiological stool of one of its legs—despite the Ministries Study Center, New precipitous instability of a stool with two legs that are off center. Some mis- Haven, Connecticut (2002–11). Previously he was director of the sion schools have explicitly downplayed the contribution of anthropology World Christian Foundations study to missiology, motivated, if one understands them correctly, by a desire to program at the U.S. Center for enhance the status of theology.3 Others have more quietly demoted the stand- World Mission, Pasadena, California (1994–2001). He is coeditor, with ing of anthropology by simply omitting to hire missionary anthropologists as Douglas Haywood, of Serving faculty or by permitting the positions of retiring professors to remain vacant. Jesus with Integrity: Ethics and Accountability in Mission (William Now a leading missiologically oriented anthropologist, a friend of mine, Carey Library, 2010), an associate editor of Family Accountability in places before us a comment that questions the value of history for missiology. Missions: Korean and Western Case As a guide for missionary practice, he asks, what does history have to off er Studies (OMSC Publications, 2013), and coeditor, with Robert J. Priest, of comparable to the clear and practical value anthropology supplies? Th e Missionary Family: Witness, Framed that way—as a hostile weigh-in between those who ought to be part- Concerns, Care (William Carey Library, 2014). ners and to be cultivating collegiality, a cause that is not elevated by casting

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:1 Spring 2016•5 6 Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology

aspersions on others—this is surely to” lessons or practical small-scale reaffi rming anthropology’s role, I do not a battle missiology does not need to guidance. What it does do is to provide wish to see a shift to the other side and fi ght. History provides substance, both background for making such decisions. watch history be disenfranchised. In as raw material and as refl ection, in promoting the claims of anthropology, Th e comment by my missiological interaction with which mission theol- let’s not undercut the legitimate contri- friend appeared as a blog posting. Given ogy arises, and it provides part of the butions made by the other two legs. opportunity, he might want to qualify means for critiquing various theologies his comment further or to reconsider the History, of course, needs no defense of mission. Th eology of mission itself framing he gave to it.5 After all, we are from me, and since my degrees are in feeds directly into the self-understand- creatures of history; we are thoroughly other fi elds (anthropology, English ings and role expectations of mission- and inextricably embedded in history, literature, and theological studies), I ary practitioners. So stated, mission and so are the ideas, objects, enterprises, probably would not be the person best history is germane to missionary prac- and endeavors we create, including mis- equipped to come to its defense if it did. tice by indirection. But it is even more siology and the writing of history itself. Instead, after citing the blog in ques- directly germane. Th e practices of and Th e questions we ask, the things we tion, I will suggest several reasons why virtues attributed to the likes of David think important, the apparatus, mental we need, if anything, more extensive and Brainerd and William Carey, or to Da- and physical, with which we cope with more intimate knowledge of history, vid Livingstone and Mary Slessor, or the issues of life arise from and are not less, even if history does not give us to John Mott, Roland Allen, and Jim conditioned by our positioning in time immediately applicable practical advice. Elliot, for that matter, feed directly into and place, that is, historically. We can Not least signifi cant of these reasons, by missionary motivation, self-conception, any means, is that greater knowledge of and practice, at least initially. (As might history, including mission history, should be expected, missionaries, at least older lead to greater missiological humility. A style career or lifetime missionaries, do modicum of acquaintance with mis- grow, change, and mature over their Missionary history sion history can temper our zeal with years in service. See the refl ections of judgment and save us from uttering or senior missionaries to be found in the has the potential to repeating many foolish statements. “My Pilgrimage in Mission” series that appears in the International Bulletin enlarge the conceptual of Missionary Research. Occasionally equipment of Questioning the Value of missionaries change enough to lead History for Missiology them to leave the missionary calling or practitioners. When my friend in early 2015 posed even the Christian faith altogether.4) the question of history’s value for missiology, he did so as a discussion Missionary history in its various forms starter. He commented that he was not has the potential to enlarge the outlook writing “out of strong convictions” on and conceptual equipment of mission- hardly think to escape history, even if we felt that that might be a useful thing to the subject. Rather, he stated that he ary practitioners. It supplies furnish- was putting his “personal impressions” ings for the mind that can sensitize do. We cannot jump out of our skins or extricate ourselves from history. forward so as to provide those “with a and set off sparks of recognition, giving stronger history bent . . . the opportu- missionaries a wider fi eld of vision As noted, I have written elsewhere re- nity to correct [his] biased perceptions and more acute insight. History in garding the contribution anthropology as needed.” Fair enough: he was of- general and mission history specifi cally makes to missiology and of the value fering an observation or a judgment can be of direct value to missionary anthropologists have as faculty members in the process of formation, with the practitioners by helping to shape both in schools of world mission.6 In that request to be shown why he was in er- the missionaries as individuals and article I was writing to affi rm the three- ror, if someone thought that he was. the missionary community into better discipline character of missiology, sug- As is quickly apparent, part of the informed and thereby better equipped gesting that missionaries and students point to be established turns on the missional instruments. To alert and of mission are ill-advised to acquiesce defi nition one gives to the term “mis- probing minds, history can be illumi- in the elision of anthropology—and, siology.” He writes: nating. Th is is true even though, for by extension, of the social sciences— reasons to be discussed below, I concur from missiology. Anthropology is not One of the richest areas of scholarly that history cannot tell missionaries a stepchild but a legitimate partner in research and writing about mission- what to do except in the broadest of the missiological conversation. But in aries comes from historians and mis- terms, for history does not off er “how siological historians. But little of this

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Dwight P. Baker 7

research is explicitly and intentionally oriented towards usable knowledge s an intellectual discipline, missiology is not by contemporary missionaries or a self-contained fi eld. It contin ues reaching people engaged in Christian mis- sion (however one defi nes mission). out more and more wide ly. Indeed, while the Yale-Edinburgh A group meets each year with a focus from our own past, we would no longer of missiology, but so do the feedback on mission history, they explicitly in- know who we are, for we carry our past loops. Th e horizontal feedback loops sist that the papers being presented within us, as indeed do our words and link the three fi elds and represent not be missiological. That is, the for- language. In addition, we would lose an ongoing interaction among them. Th e mat is simply history—not oriented to excellent instrument for humility. vertical feedback loops represent the contemporary practitioners of mis- passage of data from the fi eld so that sion and the “practice of mission” Loss of Grounding and Frame of they can be incorporated into ongoing (which is a defi ning characteristic of Reference missiological refl ection and the fl ow missiology). So while there are cer- In “Missiology as an Interested Dis- of refi nements in theory feeding back tainly some outstanding historians of cipline” I argued for diff erentiating into practices in the fi eld.8 mission who desire their work to be between the expansive fi eld of mission in service of Christian mission (such studies in general and the also broad but As an intellectual discipline, missiology as my hero Dana Robert)–a large more specifi c subfi eld within mission is not a self-contained fi eld. It contin- majority of mission history is not so studies called “missiology.” Missiology ues reaching out more and more wide- intended or designed. And in my own ly. Missiology’s ambition is not limited view any research focusing on much sees itself as committed and as being simply to the role of off ering practical earlier eras of history is less easily in the service of missionary practice. It advice on how missionaries can carry practical and applicable in the pres- is a species of refl ection on missionary ent—which I take as one defi ning goal engagement carried out for the sake out their functions in the fi eld more of missiology. In that sense I take of correcting, improving, enabling, and effi ciently and eff ectively and thereby anthropology (which does of course enhancing missional practices.7 On this attain better results. It also aspires to for most of us include recent history) point my friend and I concur. make its contribution to the indispens- to more naturally serve as practical able component of “understanding,” a handmaid to the practice of Christian But I would want to insist on the component that is fundamental if the mission. Which is not to say that the signifi cance of missiology’s siting; it evaluative and refi ning activities to historical should not be a core part of is situated within the framework of which missiology lays claim are to be every missiologist’s education. mission studies in general. It draws realized. In the search for understand- Th en he asks if anyone might “wish to sustenance from those broader, more ing of mission engagement, mission clarify, using concrete examples, how disinterested studies and is enriched by history is indispensable. Th e quest for my impressions” of history’s “lack of their fi ndings. Th ey provide one avenue understanding links missiology in a practical and applied strengths” are in for critique of missiological formula- common pursuit with mission studies error. Is there, he asks, tions and a guard against overreaching. more broadly conceived. To forgo the quest for understanding as of value in any book by a historian that matches the In the threefold interdisciplinary itself would be a price beyond what practical applicability of Paul Hiebert’s conception of missiology, there is missiologists should be willing to pay. . . . Anthropological Insights for Mission- robust interaction between the fi elds aries [Baker Academic, 1985]? of theology, history, and anthropology. Loss of Our Past Means to Lose But mission—and so missiology—is Who We Are What Might Be Lost dynamic rather than static. Th erefore, We are, in part, our past. Without One way to see what history contrib- I suggested standing the three-legged history, we no longer know who we utes is to consider what might be lost if stool on its head and adding “a fourth are—as individuals, as families and history were turned out into the cold. leg, actually an axis, on the bottom,” communities, as a people, or as the Besides some very good friends, some thereby turning it into a top. To stand people of God. of the “richest areas of scholarly research up, tops must spin. Otherwise they and writing about missionaries,” as my fl op over and lie inert on their sides. Remember the way that the Israelites friend’s blog note mentions, would go Th e fourth leg on the bottom stands in the Hebrew Scriptures continually by the wayside. Th ose are a steep price for missionary practice. To the picture recited their history: to pay. But in the process of jettisoning must be added feedback loops, both A wandering Aramean was my an- history, we would also lose our ground- horizontal and vertical. Th e spinning of cestor; he went down into Egypt ing and frame of reference. Cut off the top represents the dynamic nature and lived there as an alien, few in

33:1 Spring 2016 8 Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology

number, and there he became a choices or expectations. By trying them sets our concerns and our grand “new” great nation, mighty and populous. on for size, we can gain vicarious non- approaches for mission within a larger (Deut. 26:5 NRSV) dangerous practice in assessing moral framework and serves to remind us that Th e Israelites constantly called to tests and challenges, and in weigh- the new thing we are inclined to try has mind God’s mighty acts in their ing possible responses and courses of been tried before. behalf; they spoke over and over again action. We can enter into and become part of an expansive family of heroes One thing that we fi nd when we feel about God’s deliverances of them. By singled out and uniquely beset is the reciting their history, they reminded and some villains—and thereby gain a better idea of whom to emulate. larger truth encased in Paul’s reproof— themselves of who they were. So must or was it an encouragement?—that we if we are not to become psychic Th e point is that history off ers similar nothing has overtaken us that is not and spiritual orphans. Th e self-made opportunities to us. So does litera- common to humankind (1 Cor. 10:13). person, cut off from family and bereft ture. So does living in proximity and We are neither all that special nor all of history, is impoverished indeed. familiar intercourse, to use an older that original, not as individuals and not idiom, with our neighbor. Without We are all aware that physically, we are as an era or epoch. Incidentals and the history we are trapped in the present our past; genetically we are formed of garb with which life is clothed change, or, worse, trapped in ourselves. We are the fl esh and DNA our forebears have but the poles around which our lives all provincials, both temporally and bequeathed to us. But more than that, revolve are perduring. In mission spatially, but history lets us at least we carry within us the inchoate lega- thinking and practice, what about con- strain against that provincialism. We cy—psychic, cultural, and spiritual—of cerns for contextualization, or for not those whose lineage we carry forward. destroying cultures, or for respecting Th at legacy is on our tongues in the the work of the Holy Spirit in shaping ways we pronounce vowels; it is in our the character the church will exhibit way of standing and our stride and the We are all as it is formed in a new community of way we go to the bathroom; it is in our believers? Surely those concerns are hearts in what we value. Th e study of provincials, distinctively modern; surely they are is- history enables us, to some degree, to sues that have newly arisen in our day? stand “over against” those partial and but history lets us Not so. Read the records of our Protes- imperfectly discerned legacies and to strain against that tant missionary forebears of a hundred judge them and, in a limited way, to years ago and of two hundred years turn from them—or to affi rm them, provincialism. ago. Th ey were concerned with the thereby making our heritage our own same issues, even if their language dif- in a richer and fuller sense.9 fered somewhat. In the late sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century, Matteo Ricci in China and the Background and Equipage for Life may not all be able to travel widely, but and for Missional Decisions Roman Catholic hierarchy in Rome through deepening our acquaintance As we study the Bible, still more as we struggled with these issues. Gregory with history—as also with literature— seek to dwell within it and live with the Great in sending Augustine (the our mental horizons and the horizons those whom we fi nd populating it, we of our souls can be expanded. other Augustine; not the writer of the fi nd in it a multiplicity that answers Confessions) as a missionary to Britain to the multiplicity that we fi nd within To a degree, history provides a labora- at the end of the sixth century ad- ourselves. It is not just Walt Whitman tory in which alternate approaches to dressed similar concerns.11 who can say, “I am large, I contain life, to politics, and to mission can be Did the Native American people to multitudes” (“Song of Myself ”).10 So compared. Missiological refl ection on whom John Eliot in seventeenth- are we all; so do we all. what steps we ought to take would be immeasurably impoverished were mis- century “New England” found Part of the gain for those who are sion history to be passed over. himself ministering need to become immersed in reading, studying, and “civilized”? Th at is, did they need to memorizing the Bible from childhood Loss of Humility adopt “our ways” (English ways, in is a mind that is furnished with an Mission history enables us to gain this instance) of organizing life and immense array of instructive persons, perspective on ourselves as persons, knowledge, before they could become characters, and situations that can be certainly, but it also lends clarity to Christ’s followers? Were English ways drawn upon as examples, good and bad, our picture of our individual selves as of framing discussions of spiritual re- when faced with new and demanding instruments of mission. Mission history alities a necessary prelude to religious

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Dwight P. Baker 9 insight? Which comes fi rst: Christian- istory helps us recognize what the real issues ization or civilization? Th ese questions, and issues related to them, were topics are and how to distinguish them from their of formal and extended public literary shifting phenomenological trappings. debate during the formative period H of the modern Protestant missionary might desire. But we are called to be disrupted and ourselves redirected. movement in Britain and the United faithful in engaging in the task, using I suspect that we should always be States at the end of the eighteenth and what is in our hand—and in our hearts wary of attempts to develop, still less opening of the nineteenth centuries. and our minds, the instruments that impose, grand overarching strategies Th ey exercised the minds and pens of we have—in the task before us. We that try to wear a capital “S.” Rufus Anderson and Henry Venn, the do so knowing full well that we will Immersion through history in the preeminent U.S. and British mission never deliver the master stroke that experience and hard-won lessons gar- thinkers and executives of the mid– overpowers our mortal enemy, Satan, nered by others, however, can sharpen nineteenth century. In the fi rst half and his minions. Christ, not us, is the our perception. History can make us of the twentieth century, these topics Champion who has already accom- more alert to crux issues, can alert us found expression in the writings of plished that in our behalf. We are not to opportunities and to traps to watch Roland Allen. Current versions of this likely to be credited with having been out for. It can supply us with a feel for issue roil the waters of missiological the designer of the next great “break- alternative means for addressing the discussion today. through” in mission. We act in the crucial concerns we face in our day and confi dence that though she may plant If we were to forget the distinction our setting. Something similar is true and he or we may water, it is God who between the sciences (thought of of anthropology.12 It is not a be-all and blesses and gives the increase (1 Cor. as cumulative; problem X has been end-all for missiological concerns. It 3:7)—despite the feebleness of our solved and we can move on to a new off ers aid to persons of good will and halting and fragmentary eff orts. puzzle) and the humanities (which provides perspective along the way. It constantly face anew the same is- History, in sum, can help us to recognize can sensitize and raise some caution sues albeit dressed in new clothes and what the real questions and issues are fl ags. It can provide some techniques regrouped in new confi gurations), we and how to distinguish them from their for those willing to study them and might be tempted to marvel at our shifting phenomenological trappings learn to put them into practice, but it own novelty. Here histories such as that so frequently distract our gaze. is not an assured path to insight and Jeff rey Cox’s commendable volume, sensitivity in the fi eld. Training and Th e British Missionary Enterprise since Point of Agreement pre-fi eld cautions are not to be held in 1700, provide an excellent instrument contempt, but they will never make up Th ere is a point at which I concur for humility. A masterful review of its for a failure in heart orientation on the with the charge, cited earlier, that my subject, Cox’s book helps us to see how part of the missionary. One seasoned friend’s blog makes against history: very much would be lost if mission missionary, who by the time we talked history cannot decide questions of history were to be cavalierly dismissed. had earned a doctorate in anthropol- strategy or tell us in a given situation Cox traces the complex interplay across ogy, long ago told me, “Th e most ob- what we should do. It cannot give us three centuries of British missions noxious missionary I ever worked with precise directions for action. Th e past between institutionalism and anti- had a master’s degree in anthropology” never maps directly onto the pres- institutionalism—between the building (at that time not a common attain- ent or vice versa. Situations, times, of mission stations, church structures, ment among missionaries). circumstances, and means diff er too schools, hospitals, and so forth, group- widely. Discernment, thought, applica- At one level, my blogging friend and ing missional ministry and outreach tion, and hard eff ort on our part are I can be said not to disagree at all— around them, versus anti-institutional required. But then, I do not fi nd this which is not the same as to say that we impulses. Th e tension between insti- inability to be a great loss, recom- fully agree. He can grant everything tutionalism and anti-institutionalism mending as I do that the “strategies” that I have said and still pose his “pin remains a constant; the context and we prepare should be small-scale, the butterfl y to the cork board” ques- forms in which it fi nds expression shift. intended as a rough guide to our tion: Where is the book of mission It is humbling to recognize that what current concerns. Even while devis- history that stands on a par with Paul we meet and what we have to off er are ing them we should consider them to Hiebert’s Anthropological Insights for neither so new nor so novel or incisive be provisional and hold them lightly. Missionaries in terms of applicable or destined to be so eff ective as we We should be ready for them to be takeaway and formative advice for

33:1 Spring 2016 10 Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology mission practitioners? I can grant the Endnotes 7 Ibid., 17. 8 import of his rhetorical skewering 1 Earlier versions of this article were Ibid. 9 of history—after all, history is about presented to the Northeast Region of the Compare the observations of Daniel a rather diff erent thing than being Evangelical Missiological Society, First Jeyaraj at the Boston 2010 conference a how-to book—and still contend Baptist Church, Flushing, New York, March on the way that, following conversion to Christianity, members of oppressed castes in that the contributions of history and 28, 2015, and at the annual meeting of the India have found in the Bible an alternate of mission history are considerably Evangelical Missiological Society, GIAL, Dallas, Texas, September 18–20, 2015. group memory that has enabled them to wider and more fundamental than his 2 See Dwight P. Baker, “Missiology as conceive of themselves and their future in 13 posing of the issue seems to allow. an Interested Discipline—and Where Is It new and liberating ways. 10 As for practical eff ect, it is hard to Happening?” International Bulletin of Mis- Walt Whitman, “Song of My- think of something more fundamental sionary Research 38, no 1 (January 2014): self,” v. 51, in his Leaves of Grass, www. conceptually for missionaries or more 17–20. As discussed by Kenneth Nehrbass, gutenberg.org/fi les/1322/1322-h/1322-h. earlier formulations of what missiology is htm#link2H_4_0002. consequential for missionary practice 11 than the distinction church and mis- have at times consisted of quite expansive Gregory the Great, “Adapt Heathen enumerations of subdisciplines called to play Temples,” in Classic Texts in Mission and sion historian Andrew Walls makes a role, e.g., see mappings of the fi eld by Alan World Christianity, ed. Norman E. Th omas between proselytism and conversion, R. Tippett and Arthur F. Glasser; and in (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995), 22. a distinction that grew out of his deep practice, missiologists have incurred debts to 12 See Dwight P. Baker, “Anthropolo- engagement with history.14 It quite many disciplines. Nehrbass himself advocates gists and Missionaries: Some Parts of the simply reorients missionary concepts shifting from a multilegged stool metaphor Picture,” Covenant Quarterly 52, no. 2 (May and practice across the board. to the image of a dynamic river carrying 1994): 13–14. within it the contributions of many tributar- 13 Quite adroitly, my friend has allowed Interestingly, despite the attempt to ies. See his “Does Missiology Have Th ree himself an escape hatch by appending that, drive a wedge between anthropology Legs to Stand On? Th e Upsurge of Inter- of course, students of mission need to learn and history (citing Paul Hiebert as disciplinarity,” Missiology: An International mission history—in passing, as it were. Review 44, no. 1 (January 2016): 50–65. 14 Andrew F. Walls, “Converts or exemplifying anthropology’s superior I strongly concur regarding missiology’s value), it is Hiebert himself who states Proselytes? Th e Crisis over Conversion in expansive interdisciplinarity, but for conve- the Early Church,” International Bulletin that though anthropology can tell nience I retain use of the stool metaphor. of Missionary Research 38, no. 1 (January 3 us how things relate synchronically See the concerns expressed in Michael 2004): 2–6. in the present, for meaning we must A. Rynkiewich, “Do We Need a Postmodern 15 Paul G. Hiebert, Anthropological In- turn to history.15 And his masterwork, Anthropology for Mission in a Postcolonial sights for Missionaries (Grand Rapids: Baker Transforming Worldviews: An Anthro- World?,” Mission Studies: Journal of the Academic, 1985); Anthropological Refl ections International Association for Mission Studies pological Understanding of How People on Missiological Issues (Grand Rapids: Baker 28, no. 2 (2011): 151–69, esp. nn. 2–3. 16 Academic, 1994). Change, is saturated with history. 4 See, for example, Xi Lian, Th e Con- 16 Paul G. Hiebert, Transforming Christian faith, and therefore Chris- version of Missionaries (University Park: Worldviews: An Anthropological Understand- tian mission, is inevitably and inex- Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1997), and ing of How People Change (Grand Rapids: Notto R. Th elle, “Changed by the East: Baker Academic, 2008). tricably bound up in history. And it Notes on Missionary Communication and is so, in a richer and fuller sense than Transformation,” International Bulletin of just that certain cosmically signifi cant Missionary Research 30, no. 3 (July 2006): events—which they are—occurred in 115–21. See also Elmer S. Miller, Nurturing the early decades of the common era. Doubt: From Mennonite Missionary to An- Christian faith is formed by history thropologist in the Argentine Chaco (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1995); and Kenneth and in history and, one can say, for W. Daniels, Why I Believed: Refl ections of history. Th erefore, we do well to be a Former Missionary (Duncanville, TX: informed about history—about that Kenneth W. Daniels, 2009). Michael Lee’s which has formed us and of which recent doctoral dissertation deals with the we are made—as we seek to live and topic of evangelical missionaries who have speak and act responsibly in history left their calling. See Michael Hakmin Lee, for the glory of God, for the further- “From Faith and Advocacy to Unbelief and Defection” (PhD diss., Trinity International ance of his kingdom, for the praise of University, 2015). Jesus Christ, and for the spread of the 5 For this reason I refrain from giving his Good News about the Lord of history, name or information for locating the quotation. redeemer of humankind, savior of the 6 Baker, “Missiology as an Interested world, and coming king. IJFM Discipline,” 17–20.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology The Use of History Speaking of God in Sanskrit-Derived Vocabularies

by H. L. Richard

his paper presents a broad overview of a particular Bible translation issue in India, where most vernacular languages are rich in Sanskrit- T derived terms. Diff erent Bible translations have adopted diff erent Sanskrit terms for key theological words, and this paper will focus on terms used for God in various vernacular Bibles. Th e purpose of the paper is not antiquarian, but to shed light on current translation concerns and in particular questions of best practices in communication in India today. Linguistic ques- tions are, of course, vitally important in every mission fi eld, so this discussion has repercussions far beyond India.

Sanskrit is central to the project of Bible translation in almost all the major languages of India, as it was also central in the development of modern linguistic theory (see Trautmann 1997, 131–132 for example). William Carey (1761–1834) is a central person for discussions of Bible translation in India. Carey, widely recognized as the father of the modern mission movement, lived in Bengal during the heyday of the Asiatic Society (founded in Calcutta in 1784) which promoted the knowledge of Sanskrit texts and Indic traditions.

Carey had learned Bengali during his fi rst six diffi cult years in Bengal (1794–1800) and in 1801 became teacher (later professor, in 1807) of Bengali and Sanskrit at Fort William College in Calcutta (founded in 1800 to pro- vide Indological education to Britons serving in India). Carey produced a Sanskrit grammar in 1806, followed by a translation of the New Testament into Sanskrit (1808) and then the Old Testament (1818). Specifi cs related to H. L. Richard has been involved in Carey’s choices of terms for God will be discussed below. ministry in the Hindu world for three decades and is one of the founders of the Rethinking Forum. He formerly Competing Terms across North and South directed the Institute of Hindu Despite the centrality of Sanskrit, the dominant languages of South India Studies and has published numerous belong to the Dravidian language family. Th e discovery of this Dravidian books and articles on the Christian encounter with Hinduism. linguistic family can be traced to F. W. Ellis in Madras in 1816, but his

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:1 Spring 2016•11 12 Speaking of God in Sanskrit-Derived Vocabularies

theory remained virtually unknown Th us, Tamil Bible translation tells the rehabilitated. In this respect his Catho- until the 1856 publication of Robert story of two Sanskrit-based terms, deva lic predecessors in the South of India Caldwell’s A Comparative Grammar of and ishwar, in reference to God. were far more bold and accommoda- the Dravidian or South Indian Family tive, since they simply added strings of Despite a binary consideration of terms of Languages.1 Since the Dravidian modifi ers to deva, whenever they felt throughout this translation history, this uneasy about it standing alone, so as family of languages borrowed a great paper would suggest that viewing deva to emphasize the transcendence of the deal of terminology from Sanskrit, and ishwar as right or wrong options God of the Christian faith over all the many terms from South Indian Bible is not the proper frame of reference other devas whom the Hindus revere. translations are relevant for this study. for considering this translation matter. (Amaladass and Young 1995, 38—39; Th e fi rst Indian Bible translation William Carey, who is by far the domi- italics in the original) was into Tamil, the most important nant fi gure in translations into North It should be noted that the southern of the Dravidian languages, so this Indian languages,6 rejected the option associations of these two authors un- survey will begin with Sanskrit- of deva and adopted ishwar in reference doubtedly impacted their analysis (as based Tamil terminology. Th e Tamil to God, which has been followed across the more northern associations of the New Testament was completed by most of North India. Amaladass and present author have impacted mine). Bartholomew Ziegenbalg in 1714. Young summarize Carey’s approach: Two word lists of Sanskrit terms are Ziegenbalg seems to have followed the The uniformity of terminology in available that gauge the terminologi- great Roberto de Nobili in referring Carey’s translations of the Bible is far cal diversity for God, and both dem- to God as a neologism saruvēsuran, onstrate the basic North-South split compounding sarva (all) and ishwar between deva and ishwar. In 1957, J. 2 (god). Th is aligns with the standard S. M. Hooper published a compara- usage in North Indian languages, as tive list of Indian terms for signifi - will be discussed below. However, cant Greek theological words. Under Philip Fabricius, in his long-esteemed Th e choice of theos (God) he indicated that seven translation published in 1798 (NT in languages used ishwar or a derivative 1772), abandoned the pattern of de deva or ishwar thereof (Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Nobili and Ziegenbalg and introduced is not just an option of Oriya, Panjabi, Santali, and Sindhi). He parāparan, another Sanskrit-derived likewise indicated that six languages neologism developed from para-apara right or wrong. used deva or a derivative thereof (Gu- (remote-not remote), suggestive of jarati, Kanarese, Malayalam, Marathi, 3 transcendence and immanence. Sinhalese, and Telugu).7 As discussed Th e 1871 Union Version of the Tamil above, Tamil has translations using Bible adopted deva as the fundamental both. Muslim-related languages used word for God.4 Th e earlier translators from always evident on the surface, khudā (Urdu and Pashtu, as well as in had used deva in various compounds for there are numerous inconsisten- some Panjabi and Sindhi versions) and but avoided the term alone as an cies, but the terms he chose to denote English translations used God. Th ese other gods as opposed to the God of inadequate word for God. Th e 1854 comprise the seventeen languages in the Christian faith are invariable in the Hooper’s survey (Hooper 1957, 86–87). Telugu Bible (NT, 1818) also used deva. Dharmapustaka [Carey’s Sanskrit Bi- Th e use of deva is now standard across ble] and elsewhere. Whereas theos in Secondly, in 1904, 1930, and 1965, South India and has also appeared in the Greek New Testament is used both the British and Foreign Bible Society Marathi and Gujarati Bibles; see below in the singular and the plural either in published selections from languages for analysis of this term. To complete affi rmation of the unitary existence of in which they were distributing por- the survey of translations into Tamil, God or in denial of the existence of tions of the Bible. Appendix three of the 1956 Revised Version and 1995 many gods, in the Sanskrit Bible the the 1965 version listed the terms for Common Language Version (Tiru- cognate deva always differentiates God in the various languages. In this false gods from the true God, Iśvara viviliyam) shifted to using a non-San- list deva is indicated as being used in (or in the Old Testament Yihuha for skrit-based Tamil term, kadavul, which the proper name Yahweh or Jehovah). fi fteen languages, including fi ve in did not fi nd favor with most Tamil Iśvara in the Dharmapustaka never oc- Indonesia and the major South Indian Christians (cf. Hooper and Culshaw, curs in the plural. True to his evangelical languages of Kanarese, Malayalam, “the Union Version [deva for God] instincts, Carey could not bring himself Tamil, and Telugu with Sanskrit-based continues to serve a large section of the to believe that the polytheistic conno- Marathi an outlier. Ishwar is indicated Tamil-speaking church,” 1963, 78).5 tations of the term deva could ever be as being used in thirty-four languages,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 13 including a few in Tibetan-related and ranslations with more linguistic sensitivity were tribal languages, as well as in the major North Indian languages of Bengali, rejected in favor of the now-familiar deva, which Gujarati, Hindi, and Panjabi. A further was a marker of Protestant community identity. ten languages are listed for parmesh- T war (param-ishwar, supreme ishwar), Another reason to particularly advocate word “God” by this term. Moreover, including Oriya (British and Foreign the Sanskrit word deva, rather than Bhagwan has sexual overtones. Be- Bible Society 1965, 184, 185, 188). the Tamil kadavul, was that everyone sides these four languages, no other in India could use the same term for North Indian language uses Bhag- It is easy to fi nd fault with both ishwar wan in the Bible. Even in hymns and and deva as terms for the God of the God (Israel 2011, 108). As this paper shows, that did not happen. Once deva prayers, this term is strictly forbidden. Bible. In the case of deva, Hopper’s (Rai 1992, 444) word list and editorial analysis sup- became a distinctly Protestant term in South India, translations with more Tiliander, however, after careful analy- ported Carey’s position, indicating linguistic sensitivity and those using sis of the associations of bhagwān, “devan was considered unworthy, being kadavul (as in the Tamil Revised Ver- concludes that normally used in Hinduism for any mi- sion of 1956 and Common Language nor deity” (Hooper 1957, 86). Tiliander, It is a very expressive term to be used Version of 1995) were rejected in favor in his outstanding study of Hindu and in presenting Christ to Hindus. It also of the now-familiar deva, which was Christian terminologies, comments that deserves a proper place in the Christian seen as a marker of Protestant Chris- the change to deva in the Tamil Union vocabulary. It is too dignifi ed a word tian community identity (113–114). version of 1869 “was in fact a retrogres- to be reserved for the devotees of Vishnu and Buddha alone. (1974, 125) sive step on account of the polytheistic When such controversy and opposing taint attached to it” (1974, 132). views about these terms developed, it Th e eccentric intellectual Nirad C. is no surprise that other terms were Chaudhuri shared a striking perspec- In the case of ishwar, a great historian also considered. As early as the 17th tive on bhagwān as well. of Christianity in India, Julius Richter, century, the Jesuit Roberto de Nobili presented a diff erent perspective as to The One God to which I am referring actually used sivan (Shiva) for some why this term did not appeal to South here is a Hindu form of the Christian time, due to a root meaning of “good- Indian translators. and Islamic. The most common name ness” (Tiliander 1974, 91), and William under which he is referred to is Bhaga- “Isvara,” “lord,” is also common Carey fl irted with the use of om to rep- van. Though he is a personal God, he to all the Indian languages, and resent Yahweh (Amaladass and Young is never thought of or spoken about is found in many compounds, but 1995, 39).9 But these were fl eeting as an anthropomorphic God in a phys- in philosophical terminology it is a experiments that took no root. More ical form. Actually, no physical form is much used technical expression for a substantial suggestions of alternative ever assigned to him, though he is a phase of the lower Brahma in union terms included brahman and bhagwān. full anthropomorphic psychic entity. with Avidya, i.e. it describes God as He is omniscient, omnipotent, and caught in the toils of Maya [illusion, omnipresent. He is personifi ed com- contingent reality]; for Christian pur- Exploring Alternative Terms passion and justice at the same time. poses, therefore, the word is useless. for God The Hindus always turn to him when (Richter 1908, 270) In 1992, Benjamin Rai in an analysis they are in trouble, in all their sor- Hephzibah Israel provides another of words for God in North Indian rows and suffering, but never when perspective on the terminological is- languages suggested three options prosperous. They would say to others, sues in Tamil in her outstanding study for translating God: deva, ishwar (or God will show you mercy, God will Religious Transactions in Colonial param-ishwar), and bhagwān.10 Rai judge your actions, or God will not al- South India: Language, Translation, pointed out that “in North India Chris- low this. No particular, individualized, and the Making of Protestant Iden- tians never use Deva to refer to the anthropomorphic god of the old Hin- tity (2011).8 She shows that a major God of the Bible” (1992, 444). How- du pantheon ever fulfi lled this role with any Hindu. To the other gods of motivation in the Tamil terminology ever, he also asserted that bhagwān as Hinduism, even when thought of as a an alternative is an even worse option. discussions was fi nding a term that supreme god, the Hindu looked with was unfamiliar to Hindus. Deva was Perhaps because of this close associa- some confi dence based on his right to a happy choice because no Hindus tion of the term Bhagwan with Ram ask for divine help, since through wor- used it for the almighty God, thus the and Krishna, none of the Bible trans- ship he was performing his part of the Protestant biblical associations would lators in any of the four languages contract and giving the god his quid be attached to that term (108–110). I am considering has translated the pro quo. But to this God, Bhagavan,

33:1 Spring 2016 14 Speaking of God in Sanskrit-Derived Vocabularies

he appealed when he was wholly continue to be heard. Yet the lesson which became evident in a particular without any resource, yet he did so from this historical review is not that “church language” moulded by trans- with complete faith in his mercy. one or the other was right or wrong. lations of texts from foreign languages as well as by the creativeness of Tamil Nevertheless, this Bhagavan has nev- Rather the lesson is that alternative for ecclesiastical purposes. (1990, 257) er been worshipped, nor has he even choices were made in a complex lin- become an object of regular prayer. guistic environment, and neither choice A similar reality developed from St. Paul said to the Athenians that was ideal. Yet in the end there are William Carey’s pioneering work, as He whom they worshipped as the dynamic Christian bodies using these diagnosed by Sisirkumar Das. Unknown God was being proclaimed alternative terminologies, indicating Bengali Christians are bilingual. They to them by him. To the Hindus the that in one sense it did not matter Unknown God was fully known, but use standard Bengali both spoken and which term was used. Th e context and written in domestic, occupational and never worshipped. In the whole reli- content of the Bible contributed to the gious literature of the Hindus there non-religious situations; but the lan- refi ning of the meaning of these terms guage they hear in sermons and use in is no discussion of the nature of this 12 God. Yet in one sense this undis- in their usage by followers of Christ. religious discourse is in the idiom we cussed God is the only real God of An immediate corollary of this conclu- have called Christian Bengali, the fa- Hindu faith. (Chaudhuri 1996, 149) sion is that there needs to be greater ther of which was Carey. Christian Ben- freedom of expression—more linguis- gali literature is little read outside the Despite Rai’s adamant comments tic diversity—in continuing to speak of religious community in which it was above against bhagwān, an English- God than is present in much of Indian born, but it must be noted that except Hindi glossary of theological terms in- where comprehension fails because cluded bhagwān, although it was oddly of its sectarian content non-Christian listed as an acceptable theological Bengalis are able to understand it. Its term for “Lord” rather than for “God” peculiar style, however, has had little (Clark and John 1969, 47). Interest- infl uence on other streams of prose lit- ingly, for God an acceptable alternative erature, beyond the initial impulse that term in Clark and John’s glossary was Th ere are dynamic Carey’s Bible gave to prose writing in the Bengali language. (Das 1966, 68) paramātman (supreme spirit).11 Christian bodies using Robin Boyd’s expertise was in Guja- Paul and Frances Hiebert present a case these alternative rat, but he generalized this linguistic study in speaking of God in Sanskrit- principle to all of India. derived vocabularies, and the options terminologies. presented are deva and brahman (1987, The Biblical vocabulary with which 155–157). Th e bias of the paper is people are familiar from childhood for deva, as brahman is too abstract a tends to become fi rmly entrenched in philosophical term. But Robin Boyd their minds, and any move to change it is resented. So it comes about that promoted the use of brahman, rightly in each language area Christians are stressing the need to speak in the highest (and other international) Christian thought and speech.13 prone to use a “language of Canaan” of transcendent terms (1975, 233–236). which non-Christians fi nd diffi cult to Yet brahman is hardly used in normal Th e sad reality is that there remains understand and often positively mis- speech, as Hindus are not nearly so a great linguistic gap between Hin- leading. (2014, 160) philosophically inclined as some populist dus and Christians in most of India’s Th is amounts to a conundrum far descriptions suggest. (Note how this languages. To a large extent, this is due beyond the focus of this paper, raising point undermines Richter’s criticism of to narrow views of translation and to multiple questions and challenges. ishwar quoted above. Richter focused on restrictive terminological choices in But a conservative approach to ter- the technical philosophical meaning of vernacular Bible translations. No Indian minology related to God has cer- the term, but this is very diff erent from language has as illustrious a Christian tainly contributed to a situation where its common usage.) Paramātman carries history as Tamil, where geniuses of the Christians in India developed dialects some of the highest philosophical weight likes of Constanzo Beschi and Fabri- that diff er markedly from the heart while also being more commonly used. cius experimented and innovated. Yet in languages of Hindus. A signifi cant concluding his survey of Tamil church start towards better communication of Affi rming Linguistic Diversity history Hugald Grafe pointed out that biblical ideas to Hindus can be made To this day, criticisms of the North In- Interaction between Christianity and by moving beyond the narrow confi nes dia-biased ishwar and/or South-India Tamil culture certainly issued in a sort of deva or ishwar as the only accept- biased deva translations for God of Christian subculture in Tamilnadu, able choices for speaking of God. IJFM

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 15 Endnotes 12 Howard K. Moulton stressed this Christianity in India vol. 4 part 2. point by quoting the Bible Society’s Rules Bangalore: Church History 1 Trautmann indicts Caldwell for not for the Guidance of Translators: “Every Association of India. suffi ciently acknowledging the work of Ellis, care should be taken to select the highest Hiebert, Paul D. and Frances F. contributing to the continued neglect of the term for God that a language aff ords. Th e 1987 Case Studies in Missions. Grand latter (2006, 74–75). Rapids: Baker Book House. 2 teaching of the Bible will by degrees purify Hephzibah Israel suggests the pos- and raise the ideas associated with the word Hooper, J. S. M. sibility that Ziegenbalg chose this term used” (1962, 71, italics in the original). 1957 Greek New Testament Terms in without infl uence from de Nobili based 13 Th e refl ections that led to the Indian Languages: A Comparative on his own understanding of Tamil Saivite Word List. Bangalore: Th e Bible research and writing of this paper were usage (2011, 90). Society of India and Ceylon. spurred by debates about Bible translations 3 Hooper, J. S. M. and Murray Culshaw For a discussion of parāparan and into Muslim languages. Some have sug- 1963 Bible Translation in India, Paki- various theories related to the term see gested that an erroneous term for “father” or stan and Ceylon. Second edition. Tiliander 1974, 127 and Israel 2011, 92ff . “son” could have devastating consequences, London: Oxford University Press. De Nobili had at times used parāparavastu but the story outlined in this paper suggests Israel, Hephzibah and was followed in this by Ziegenbalg; that linguistic diversity and fl exibility are vastu indicates something that is real and 2011 Religious Traditions in Colonial the rule, and such a focus on a single term is South India: Language, Transla- substantial (see Amaladass and Clooney linguistically misguided. 2000, 223–4 and Jeyaraj 2006, 198–207). tion and the Making of Protestant Identity. Palgrave Studies in 4 In Tamil there is a neuter signifi er Cultural and Intellectual History. with the Sanskrit root deva, and the word References Cited Amaladass, Anand and Francis X. Clooney New York: Palgrave Macmillan. is often used in the plural for many lesser 2000 Preaching Wisdom to the Wise: Jeyaraj, Daniel gods. For Protestants, the term was changed Th ree Treatises by Roberto de Nobili, 2006 Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg: Th e to masculine singular, a use only found S. J.; Missionary, Scholar and Saint Father of Modern Protestant Mis- among Tamil Christians. in 17th Century India. St. Louis: sion, an Indian Assessment. Delhi: 5 See below for further comment on Th e Institute of Jesuit Sources. Indian Society for Propagating this. Israel 2011 is a major study of Tamil Amaladass, Anand and Richard Fox Young Christian Knowledge and Guru- Bible translation and gives detailed analysis 1995 Th e Indian Christiad: A Concise An- kul Lutheran Th eological College on this point. thology of Didactic and Devotional and Research Institute, Chennai. 6 Carey’s translations were of poor Literature in Early Church Sanskrit. Moulton, Howard K. quality; I have analyzed this in a sister paper Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 1962 “Th e Names and Attributes of to this one, “Some Observations on William Boyd, Robin H. S. God.” Th e Bible Translator, vol. 13, Carey’s Bible Translations,” forthcoming 1975 An Introduction to Indian Chris- no. 2 (April 1962): 71–80. in the International Bulletin of Mission tian Th eology. Madras: Christian Rai, Benjamin Research. For a broad statement supporting ———. 1992 “What is His Name: Translation this, see Hooper and Culshaw 1963, 20. 2014 Beyond Captivity: Explorations of Divine Names in Some Major North Indian Languages,” Th e 7 I believe it is an error that this list in Indian Christian History and Th eology. Bangalore: Centre for Bible Translator, vol. 43, no. 4 indicates Gujarati using deva; see the Contemporary Christianity. (October 1992): 443–446. contradictory opinion in the list in the British and Foreign Bible Society Richter, Julius next paragraph. In a discussion with the 1965 Th e Gospel in Many Tongues: Spec- 1908 A History of Missions in India. Rev. Nicolas Parmar at the Bible Society of imens of 872 Languages in Which Tr. Sydney H. Moore. New York: India, Gujarat, at Ellis Bridge, Ahmedabad the British and Foreign Bible Fleming H. Revell. on March 13, 2013, Rev. Parmar indicated Society has Published or Circulated Schmitthenner, Peter L. to me that deva was once in Gujarati Bibles Some Portion of the Bible. London: 2001 Telugu Resurgence: C. P. Brown but was subsequently replaced with ishwar. British and Foreign Bible Society. and Cultural Consolidation in 8 See my analytical review of this Chaudhuri, Nirad C. Nineteenth-Century South India. outstanding work at ijfm.org, IJFM 32:4 1996 Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. New Delhi: Manohar. (Winter 2015): 211. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Tiliander, Bror 9. Technically, om is not a word but a Clark, Robert M. and Shantwant John 1974 Christian and Hindu Terminology: mystical or liturgical syllable. It can and has 1969 An English-Hindi Glossary of A Study in Th eir Mutual Relations been invested with meanings reaching liter- Th eological Terms. Revised and with Special Reference to the Tamil ally from nothing to everything. edited by M. R. Robinson and Area. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell. 10 Benjamin Rai, “What is His Name: C. W. David. Bareilly: Th e Hindi Trautmann, Th omas R. Th eological Literature Committee. Translation of Divine Names in Some 1997 Aryans and British India. Berke- ley: University of California Press. Major North Indian Languages,” Th e Bible Das, Sisirkumar Translator, vol. 43 no. 4 (1992): 443–446. 1966 Early Bengali Prose: Carey to ———. 11 Vidyasagar. Calcutta: Bookland 2006 Languages and Nations: Th e Dra- A new Hindi New Testament under Private Ltd. vidian Proof in Colonial Madras. translation is introducing both paramātma Grafe, Hugald New Delhi: Yoda Press. and bhagwān into the text along with other 1990 Tamilnadu in the Nineteenth and designators for God. Twentieth Centuries. History of

33:1 Spring 2016 William Carey Library

Seeking the Unseen (SEANET 12) The Korean Missionary No Solitary Effort Spiritual Realities in the Buddhist World Movement How the CIM Worked to Reach the Tribes of Southwest China Paul H. De Neui, Editor Dynamics and Trends, 1988–2013 Steve Sang-Cheol Moon, Author Neel Roberts, Author

Buddhism claims no god, yet spiritual This book provides the most thorough, No Solitary Effort describes how members realities abound in popular practice. What penetrating analysis of trends in Korean of the China Inland Mission engaged the are these realities? What do they mean to missions to date. Seasoned researcher Steve tribes of Southwest China as part of their the practitioners? How can understanding Sang-Cheol Moon maps the relatively recent comprehensive plan to evangelize all of China rise and explosive growth of the Korean these realities inform Christ-followers seeking from 1865 to 1951. That endeavor required missionary movement, studying the mission to communicate the good news of Jesus in the combined lifelong efforts of numerous force and significant themes in its experience ways that all can understand and relate to? In missionaries, spanned several generations, and over a twenty-five-year period. These articles answer to these and other questions, SEANET was invariably affected by events and decisions and papers supply data on every facet: proudly presents its twelfth volume, Seeking that occurred thousands of miles from where mission fields and ministry foci; finances; age, the Unseen: Spiritual Realities in the Buddhist the actual ministry was taking place. The task marriage, family, and general demographics; World. Christian practitioners from thirteen training and credentials; burnout and attrition; was incomplete when the missionaries were different Buddhist cultures share insights education of missionary children; leadership forced to leave, but the foundations for the gained from their wide ranging experiences trends; and global partnership. Church which were laid have stood. This book and perspectives. From Sri Lanka to Japan, addresses the great challenges to cooperation These chapters do not merely catalogue from China to the Philippines, these women that faced the missionaries. It also reveals statistics—they probe beneath the surface to and men, Asian and Western, present on a the rich rewards that were obtained by the ask hard questions and set priorities for Korean topic that is often missing in mission literature united efforts of committed Christians who missions. Moon explores painful subjects such as today. And for readers seeking personal the 2007 hostage incident involving short-term had no timetable for withdrawal, but only an insight into the growing spiritual complexities workers in Afghanistan, and chronic concerns unwavering commitment to work together of their own place in the postmodern world, like workaholism and missionaries’ retirement. until the task was accomplished. lessons from these authors will guide you with Ultimately, however, he finds much to commend practical principles from engaging, firsthand and celebrate, tracing God’s providence in cultural encounters. making Korea, within the span of a few decades, a dynamic leader in global missions.

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MISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION The Use of History A Post-3/11 Paradigm for Mission in Japan by Hiroko Yoshimoto, Simon Cozens, Mitsuo Fukuda, Yuji Hara, Atsuko Tateishi, Ken Kanakogi, and Toru Watanabe

Editor’s Note: Th is article appeared in the most recent compendium in the SEANET series (12), Seeking the Unseen: Spiritual Realities in the Buddhist World (Pasa- dena, CA: William Carey Library, 2016, pp. 193–204) and is reprinted by permis- sion (see advertisement on p. 16).

arch 11, 2014. We are sitting in a meeting room in northern Ja- pan. Th e room is part of a temporary housing complex for those M who lost everything in the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. Some friends of mine are holding a Bible study, and I think most of the people who have come are there out of gratitude for the aid they received.

After a very dull Bible study where the “teacher” kept on talking, people are randomly chatting over cups of tea. Suddenly one lady says, Oh, by the way, the other day, something very interesting happened to me. I was feeling down, thinking about all the things that I lost in the tsunami. Then this Jesus that you talk about came to me and said, “Those things are gone, so do not worry about them. But in the future, there will be a clear river fl owing for you.” A man shows up at the house of some Christians who moved there right after the disaster and says, “Jesus appeared in my dream and told me to come to you.”

Another man, when he talks about his experience, says that God pulled him out of the water when he got swallowed by the tsunami. As he says the word “God,” he pulls out a necklace that he has on. It has a cross hanging on it. Th e combination of “God” and the cross is extremely unusual in Japan. Obviously, he recognizes that the God who pulled him out of the water has something to do with the cross.

Th e disasters which hit the Tohoku region on March 11, 2011, changed the physical landscape of Japan. But it is becoming clear that they also marked a change in the spiritual landscape of the country. In the past, missionaries had seen very little fruit for their eff orts over many centuries. Now we are beginning to see a new understand- ing of mission emerging in Japan—one which God himself is initiating and leading. Th e authors of this article are a team of Japanese mission leaders, each One pastor who has been planting churches in the area described the change with a diff erent resumé of mission as “a kind of powerful force moving them on.” He refers to the current mis- experience. Th ey worked together to integrate their experiences among the sion practice in Japan as being in a state of “paralysis”— shocked, standing devastated population of post-3/11 still, and unable to move eff ectively. He realizes that God is calling us to have Japan. Th is article is an edited version of their presentation to the SEANET a paradigm shift. We need a paradigm shift to understand what God is doing consortium in Southeast Asia. right now and also to reach Japan at such a time as this.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:1 Spring 2016•17 18 A Post-3/11 Pradigm for Mission in Japan The New Paradigm Christians with the society around them. Th e fi rst three items are what is now Much of the current practice of mission After 3/11, there was a huge outpour- known as “missional church.” But from in Japan has not changed for the past two ing of funds and volunteer work from the perspective of the Japanese church, centuries of Protestant mission. Mission- all around the world to the aff ected this is a complete change of direction aries and pastors have fi rst established region of northeast Japan. Even though from past practice. In particular, the third churches as beachheads of the kingdom, the initial relief operation is over, it will item is revolutionary. Japanese Chris- and set them apart from the society take many years until the Tohoku region tians have generally taken a separationist that they have seen around them. Th ey has fully recovered. Towns and villages approach to the surrounding society and then— deliberately or inadvertently— in the area were eff ectively wiped out. sought to create parallel, “clean” societal positioned their churches as places of cul- Th e church within Japan has also been structures within the church. Now we are ture, learning, and spiritual purity. Th ey challenged to respond. Many Christians beginning to see Christians who under- sought to attract people into churches on have moved into the area on a short- stand their primary ministry as serving the basis of these advantages. Th ose who term or long-term basis, and at least one within existing societal groups to bring came to the churches and wanted to un- church has relocated to Tohoku. gospel transformation to that society. derstand the faith of their “hosts” would Christians have developed long-term In our experience, as Christians have tak- then be trained through Bible study until relationships with communities in en their faith out into their daily lives, we they professed faith themselves. After Tohoku, and they have often found have realized more and more that God that, they would take a generally passive themselves involved in the work of himself, rather than missionaries and pas- role as church members, mostly restricted rebuilding these communities. Rather tors, has been the agent of mission. God’s to the attendance of Sunday services. Spirit has been active in directly stirring We could summarize the mission strate- the hearts of the Japanese people, appear- gy to date under the following six areas: ing to them in dreams and visions, and leading them to himself. When we refer 1. Calling people to gather with us Supernatural to “creating encounters with God,” we do 2. Not being involved in the local encounters with God not just mean directly inviting people to society experience God in a supernatural way; we 3. Building a church separate from have formed are also coming across many people who the local society have already had such experiences and are 4. Creating encounters with the Bible a new paradigm of looking for Christians to provide inter- 5. Missionaries talking about Jesus mission. pretation and understanding of them. 6. Prioritizing an intellectual Th e combination of Christians involved understanding of the gospel in growing the kingdom of God meeting To a certain extent this strategy has not with ordinary Japanese who have been re- been completely unsuccessful. Th ere than attempting to establish a separate, ceiving supernatural encounters with God are around eight thousand Protestant parallel Christian Japan, these individu- has formed a new paradigm for mission. churches established in Japan. Th ree hun- als have felt themselves called to live Th e main activity of Christians working dred thousand people regularly attend out their lives naturally as members within this model is to discern the places Sunday worship (http://church-info.org/ of the kingdom within the existing where God is already at work, and to take html/churchmap.html, site discontin- Japanese society. In doing so, they have part in the mission of God in Japan. ued). However, the Japanese church has been brought into contact with those to generally had an extremely limited im- whom God has already been speaking. Spiritual Sensitivity pact upon the surrounding society (Fu- We could sum up this new paradigm Japan is a highly modernized society, but ruya 2011, 138–39); Christian ministry along the same lines: it would be a mistake to think of it as a has been primarily dependent on profes- secularized society. Only 25 percent of the sional clergy, with little lay involvement 1. Being sent out to where people are Japanese population claims adherence to (Braun 1971, 33). Demographic shifts 2. Taking our place in local society an organized religion (Lewis 2013, 310), have meant that such dependence has 3. Building the kingdom of God but the observance rate of religious ritual by now become unsustainable (Hastings within that society is much higher (Kawano 2005, 2). Belief and Mullins 2006, 19–23). Th e church 4. Creating encounters with God in supernatural power (fortune-telling, population in Japan is in decline. 5. Jesus himself speaking palmistry, spiritual apparitions, and so At the same time, we have seen a new 6. Prioritizing an experiential on) outside of the traditional religions is engagement amongst some Japanese understanding of the gospel widespread (Lewis 2013, 163–90). Many

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Hiroko Yoshimoto, Simon Cozens, Mitsuo Fukuda, Yuji Hara, Atsuko Tateishi, Ken Kanakogi, Toru Watanabe 19 Japanese distrust Western conceptions of lthough Japan is a highly modernized society, “religion” and would think of religion as unnecessary; at the same time, they would it would be a mistake to think of it as a be comfortable with the idea of being secularized society. connected with “heaven” (ten), as shown A in the use of words such as tenmei (fate), did not need to witness to her. Instead, Following Up tenshoku (vocation), and tensei (nature). It she appealed to him: “I know that Jesus When someone initially claims to have is commonly said that it is hard to express is with you because I can see his aura on seen a vision of Jesus, we should not the concept of a monotheistic God in you.” Her spiritual sensitivity allowed her necessarily accept this uncritically. First Japanese, but Otentosama (“Mr. Heaven”) to discern the Spirit of Christ within the ask what he looked like and what he has this connotation and was used in Christian. Together, they experienced said. Many of my Muslim friends who early Japanese Christianity as a transla- Jesus’ power over the spirits as described have seen Jesus in visions and dreams tion of “god.” Rather than the Western in the Gospels. After her baptism, she all say something in common. Th ey say God-sin-salvation approach, an ap- did not see the spirits again. that there was a sweet aroma. Th ose in propriate form of evangelism to spiritual Japan who have seen Jesus do not use Japanese draws out the latent religiosity In fact, those very portions of the Bi- ble which can feel uncomfortable and the words “sweet aroma,” but they talk and the ancient veneration of “heaven” of light and hope that they experienced. inherent in Japanese people and presents embarrassing within Western forms Jesus Christ as the object of their faith. of Christianity—casting out demons, Th is is the fi rst test. It is possible possession, visions, and miracles—can that whoever they saw was not Jesus. Recently fi ve young mothers began have direct, practical application to Remember, the angel of darkness also a Bible study. Instead of taking them spiritually sensitive Japanese. would like to speak to people. If we through the doctrines of Christianity or know what Jesus is like, we should be However, spiritual experiences and direct the life of Jesus, the facilitator began by able to recognize whether what these asking how many of them had experi- communication with God can be dif- people saw was Jesus or not. If this fi gure enced God at some point in their lives. fi cult to share with other Christians. Th e was dark and condemning, that is diff er- All of them put up their hands. Th e dominant form of Christianity in Japan ent from the Jesus I know. Jesus would study proceeded by then showing them is modernistic and rationalistic, and condemn sins, but even when he does from the Bible the nature of the God suff ers from the “fl aw of the excluded that, there is a sense of love and grace. who had already been talking to them. middle” (Hiebert 1982, 43). Missionar- ies have been uncomfortable and fearful Affi rm and confi rm. I do believe that it On a separate occasion, one lady in Kyo- of the spiritual side of Japanese life, and is important to say to them that it is very to had a son who attended a Christian have wanted to ensure that converts natural for Jesus to show up and speak to kindergarten. As well as telling her the stayed away from such things, so have us. Also, if it does seem that it was Jesus, Bible stories he had heard in school, he spread a form of Christianity that is I say something like, “Th at sounds like also told her about his dreams where he characterized by disengagement from something Jesus would say.” If it did not had talked with Jesus. He told her that and distrust of the spiritual realm. So seem to be Jesus, it is important to say he remembers being with Jesus before the most likely response that Christians something like, “Hmm . . . I am not sure if his birth. Th e lady herself had also heard would give toward people who have seen that was Jesus,” and explain what he is like from God when preparing the house Jesus would be either to ignore or not pay in my life and in the Bible. Th is is helping for a family funeral. She did not need too much attention to the claim. Th ey the person grow in discernment, as well as to become “converted” to Christianity; might say, “Well, you have to be careful providing more testimony to them. she and her family had already met with with such things. So let’s just study the Jesus. As she began to read the Bible, Ask again what he said and ask how he Bible together.” If appropriate follow- she said, “I feel like this is what I always or she responded to that. Interestingly, up is not given, new converts who have believed and what I always knew.” many of those who have seen Jesus in started off by experiencing Jesus will visions and dreams have had a change Another lady had been heavily involved soon switch to simply reading about Je- in their behaviour and in their lives be- with the New Age movement and in- sus. When people just “read about Jesus” cause of their experience of Jesus. One troduced herself as a spirit medium. Th e and try to live a Christian life, this tends man, after seeing a vision of the cross, spirits she saw were apparently benign, to become just a religion or morality. started speaking to Jesus about every- but annoying. She wanted to be free How many purely “religious” and “moral” thing—simply because “he answers.” from them, but had seen them her whole people do we have in churches! Hence, life and did not know what to do. When within this new paradigm of mission, an If the person has not done what Jesus a Christian moved next door to her, he appropriate follow-up process is essential. had said, encourage him to do it.

33:1 Spring 2016 20 A Post-3/11 Pradigm for Mission in Japan Encourage the person to keep on walk- not be travelling on a highway. As I Fellowship ing with Jesus. “Walking with Jesus” drove along a regular road, I came to An eff ective missional movement needs is simply continuing to dialogue with a point where the road split into two to continue to reach outwards. When it directions. I had no idea which one he Jesus. Encourage the person to keep turns in upon itself, it dies. In the past, talking to him and to listen to what he would be on, and making a wrong deci- sion would cost me several more hours. the typical response of Christians to- says and do what he tells him to do. ward a person who has shown interest in At this point, I was very surprised to Mr. C is a community leader. He is an Christ was to fi rst invite him to church fi nd myself saying, “Jesus, where is incredible servant and is very much or events sponsored by the church. Th e my grandson?” It was very strange, idea was that the person would meet trusted by the people of his communi- because I am Japanese and I am not a other Christians and become touched by ty. He came in contact with Christians Christian at all. A Japanese would ask after the disasters, and that is how we Buddha for help in times like this. But the love and the kindness of Christians. met. We spent time together, fi rst just right after I said that to Jesus, I found Th ey would have a nice meal at the hanging out. One day, he said that he myself choosing the road that most church. Slowly they would get pulled had a migraine headache. One of us people probably would not take. into the Bible study group and the other programs at the church. Unfortunately, prayed for him. We left. But as I drove on, I saw my grandson the initial experiences of fellowshiping riding his bicycle. Because Jesus helped On our next visit, Mr. C said, “Oh, by with Jesus would gradually be replaced me fi nd my grandson, I was sure that the way, I got healed.” Th at was the sig- by Christian activities. God becomes nal for us; we went on to encourage him he would be able to talk to me. (Per- sonal conversation with author) replaced by Christianity, meeting Jesus to ask Jesus some questions. We simply with church meetings. said that he loves talking to us. Would you like to hear what he wants to say to At the same time, we cannot deny the you? (At this point, I was afraid that we importance of fellowship with fellow were getting too weird. Th ankfully, my One man, believers. How do we make sure that friend was not afraid at all.) the movement continues to reach after seeing outwards, and yet also allow for believ- We suggested three questions to ask Jesus: a vision of the cross, ers to encourage and strengthen one “What do you think about me? What another? As this paradigm is still devel- do you want me to do today? Is there started speaking to Jesus oping and we are still discovering how anything I need to apologize for?” To simply because to work eff ectively within it, we can my surprise, Mr. C did not hesitate at all. only off er some tentative suggestions. After spending a few minutes, we asked “he answers.” him what he heard. As he told us what he One approach is to introduce someone heard, we felt that it was surely Jesus who who has heard from God to one per- spoke these words. Within some of the son who understands this new para- house churches in Japan, these kinds of digm. One person will continue to ask Th is is a testimony of a man who would “questions for Jesus” are a simple form of him what he has been hearing from daily devotion. Th ey encourage people to not normally be considered a “believer,” Jesus and how he has been responding. connect directly to God and receive their yet he was already communicating Th ey will pray together. Meet and pray answers from him (Fukuda 2012, 31). with Jesus. We asked him if he read the with only one person? Is that enough? Bible. When we did, he got a little tense. We would dare to say yes, if this one As we asked him if he felt awkward at Maybe this was a very uncomfortable person has the new paradigm. Because all doing this, he started to tell us what question for him. But then he said that one of the characteristics of those who had happened a couple of days before. some of his friends sometimes include experience Jesus supernaturally is that I got a call from my grandson who lives a Bible verse when they write to him. they cannot keep their mouths shut. in a city about two hours away by car. He When he liked the verse, he would write had some struggles, and he left his home it out on a big piece of paper and post it Mr. M is a local politician and mayor of and he wanted to come see me. He left on his wall, pondering upon it day to day. his village. He saw a vision of the cross his home by bicycle and got stuck along Sometimes he wanted more and he went at one of the events that Christians the way. I asked him where he was, but to his Christian friends and asked them hosted. I asked him if he had seen vi- he did not know. He asked me to come to show him where those verses were in sions before. He said that he had. When fi nd him. It was night, so I decided to the Bible. Th is is one example of the hun- I asked him about his visions in the past wait until morning to go look for him. ger that we see in those unbelievers who he said, “In my dream, I saw Buddha on Early next morning, I drove out to have experienced Jesus supernaturally. my left shoulder and other gods on my go fi nd him. I knew that he would right shoulder.” I asked what that meant

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Hiroko Yoshimoto, Simon Cozens, Mitsuo Fukuda, Yuji Hara, Atsuko Tateishi, Ken Kanakogi, Toru Watanabe 21 to him. He said, “I thought that my life heir conversion may not necessarily involve is going to be all right.” praying a sinner’s prayer—it may involve Th en we asked him to describe the latest vision he saw. hearing the voice of Jesus and choosing to obey. As I was watching a pastor speak at T still have Buddha on my left shoulder necessarily involve praying a sinner’s this event, all of a sudden, I saw two and the other gods on my right, but prayer—it may involve hearing the voice groups of clouds. They caught my at- now Jesus is on top.” of Jesus and choosing to obey. tention and I kept looking. I noticed there were two crosses in the clouds. I In his traditional Japanese house, he has Th ese people will not renounce their started shouting, “Look! Cross! Cross!” a big Buddhist altar, and statues and idols because a missionary has per- The pastor on the stage did not know pictures of other gods. Ebisu, the god suaded them to do so; they will do so what I was talking about. I thought of fi shermen, is prominent. A Western, because God has won their hearts and that everyone else was seeing the same modernist approach would be to con- fulfi lled their needs to the point that old thing, but the other people thought vince this man to renounce all his idols, practices are no longer needed. Th ey will that I had gone crazy. Finally, I climbed break his connection with the temple not share their faith with others out of a up on the stage and tried to grab the sense of obedience to the Great Com- crosses, but then they disappeared. and shrine, and destroy his religious past. Doing so would cut him off from mission; they will do so because their We asked him why he tried to grab the his family, his communities, and the cul- experience of Jesus is so real to them that crosses. He thought that they would ture of his nation, which would make it they would dearly love for those around bless him. After this he was given a con- very diffi cult for him to reach outwards them to partake in it. Th ey will not read cise Bible, and he now reads it every day, with his new found faith. It also often the Bible because they know that this is ponders on it, and writes down what he requires a forceful act of persuasion on what Christians are expected to do; they has learned in his notebook. When he the part of the Christian worker. In the will do so simply because the Person leads a town business meeting, he speaks end, it is unclear whether he would be they have met is so wonderful that they from the Bible. “Th ere is so much good taking these steps to please God or to want to get to know him more. IJFM stuff in it!” he says. No one has taught please the person witnessing to him. him to do a “devotional,” and no one has taught him to share his faith, but he In the case of Mr. M, however, it References Braun, N. does it naturally because he simply loves seemed like we didn’t have to force any- thing on him. He and his wife started 1971 Laity mobilized: Refl ections on it. Th ose who come to faith through church growth in Japan and other a direct experience of God still need talking to Jesus about everything after lands. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. encouragement and training in how to the vision. Th ey now talk to Jesus when Fukuda, M. read the Bible and to share their testi- they get in a car to drive and when they 2012 Upwards, outwards, inwards: Passing are not feeling well. When they worry on the baton of discipleship. Glouces- monies of how God has met with them. ter, England: Wide Margin Books. At the same time, they have a greater about something, they talk to Jesus. Jesus has started to displace the other Furuya, Y. than usual enthusiasm to discover more 2011 Nihon no kirisutokyō wa hon- about the God that has met with them. gods in a gentle and natural way. mono ka? [Is Japanese Christianity real?]. Tokyo: Kyōbunkan. And because their experience of Jesus is Conclusion Hastings, T. J., and M. R. Mullins so real, these people are not shy to talk 2006 “Th e congregational leadership God has begun a new season in Japan, about it. Th ey take it for granted that crisis facing the Japanese church.” where people start walking with Jesus Jesus gets involved with our lives. Th is is International Bulletin of Mission- in totally diff erent ways than we have ary Research 30, no. 1: 18–23. defi nitely contagious. Th e people around known or taught in the past. He is at Hiebert, P. G. will naturally want to experience the work in mission, in ways that we cannot 1982 “Th e fl aw of the excluded middle.” same wonderful Person. When they are Missiology: An International anticipate and where we can only strive in need, they will think of speaking to Review 10, no. 1: 35–47. to catch up. For these people who are ex- Jesus, because of what they heard from Kawano, S. periencing God directly, evangelism may their friend. So before long there is a fel- 2005 Ritual practice in modern Japan: not necessarily be a matter of sharing a Ordering place, people, and action. lowship of believers of a new paradigm. doctrine of salvation or explaining a set of Honolulu: University of Hawaii After Mr. M’s vision of the cross, we beliefs. Instead, it is a matter of proclaim- Press. Lewis, D. went back to his past vision and asked ing to them the “unknown god” that they 2013 Th e unseen face of Japan. 2nd Ed. him how he interprets it now that he may already be worshiping (Acts 17:23). Gloucester, England: Wide Mar- has seen this recent one. He said, “I Th eir experience of conversion may not gin Books.

33:1 Spring 2016

The Use of History Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

by Steven C. Hawthorne

Editor’s Note: Th is article is a condensed version of an address delivered to the 2014 meeting of the ISFM in Atlanta, GA, on the 40th anniversary of the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization.

orty years ago, in his Lausanne ’74 address, Ralph Winter introduced a diff erent paradigm of mission. What is most often remembered F about that address was the focus on people groups instead of on countries. I would contend, however, that Winter off ered more than a simple attention shift from nation-states to peoples. In his address and in the follow- ing few years, Winter brought three diff erent perceptive ideas together and fused them in a way that soon became a single, operative paradigm. We rightly refer to this paradigm as “frontier missiology.” Four decades later it is fi tting for us to refl ect on how this way of seeing and doing mission has fared. I think if we are able to identify the essential core of Winter’s paradigm, we can better consider how frontier missiology might be refi ned, deepened, and furthered.

I will attempt to do three things: First, I will describe the emergence of frontier missiology as a convergence of three distinctive ideas. Th en, I will identify a few developments of the frontier missiology paradigm, some of them of dubious worth, but others that indicate its abiding value. Finally, I will point toward some promis- ing ways to continue developing and deepening essential frontier missiology.

The Emergence of Frontier Missiology: A Fusion of Three Ideas Th e headwaters of what would become known as frontier missiology were

Steven C. Hawthorne is the co-editor, fl owing long before the Lausanne Congress. For example, in 1972, a along with Ralph D. Winter, of the “Consultation of Frontier Missions,” was held with signifi cant participation. book and the course called Perspectives on the World Christian Movement. He Th e report of that gathering, called Th e Gospel and Frontier Peoples, edited by worked for years doing fi eld research R. Pierce Beaver, shows that terms such as “unreached peoples” and “frontier among unreached peoples in world class cities. His PhD from the School missions” were in use well before Lausanne (Beaver 1972, 4). of Intercultural Studies at Fuller Seminary focused on biblical theology Earlier yet, Donald McGavran had begun to give shape to what we now call of mission. He now serves with a min- frontier missiology. His emphasis on church growth was resolutely focused on istry called WayMakers to encourage observable and measurable outcomes of evangelism—most notably, that evange- sustained mission and prayer mobili- zation eff orts in non-Western settings. lized people were those who were incorporated into ongoing Christian fellowship.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:1 Spring 2016•23 24 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

Th e fruition, or outcome of evangelism, missionaries might ever be able to do. complexity and diffi culty of evangeliz- was always to be growing churches. Th e most eff ective agent of evangeliza- ing the remaining peoples. With such an outlook on what the work tion was a movement of same-culture of evangelism accomplishes, it became churches.2 In 1974 Winter described The Hope of Evangelization: possible to think of doing suffi cient them as “strong, ongoing, vigorously Envisioning the Task Finished evangelism to fulfi ll a global task instead evangelizing denominations.” Sometime Winter’s 1973 article, “Seeing the Task of merely doing more evangelism. in the 1980s the term “church planting Graphically,” was actually a treatise movements” came into use. Th ese kind on how to see the task globally. At the Th is goal-oriented way of thinking of church movements were so likely to entrance to the Lausanne Congress a found its way into the name given to sustain robust, relevant evangelism that population clock steadily ticked upward, the Lausanne Congress.1 It was “Th e the eventual evangelization of an entire counting how many more individuals International Congress on World people could be recognized as eff ectively needed to be evangelized. Winter re- Evangelization” instead of repeating accomplished by their presence. ferred to it (Parsons 2015, 160–161), but the name of the earlier 1966 “World this clock actually became an anachro- Congress on Evangelism” in Berlin. The Scope of Evangelization: nism in his way of thinking. While every Years later Winter would say, Every People soul matters, what mattered far more Strategically, Lausanne changed one Winter fused the idea of church were the peoples, regardless of how many key word from Berlin: the World movements as the agent of evangelism persons there might be. In Winter’s Congress on Evangelism of 1966 be- with a diff erent way of framing the mind another kind of clock was ticking came the . . . International Congress relentlessly. We might call it a “kairos on World Evangelization in 1974– clock” or a “kairometer”—one that mea- the word evangelism being a never- sures the movement of history toward its ending activity, and evangelization culmination. And that is the third idea, a being intended to be a project to be forward-moving dynamism of hope that completed. Here in embryo, was the impels mission toward fulfi llment. concept of closure. (Parsons 2015, 181) In Winter’s mind At Lausanne ’74 McGavran used his another kind of clock Aiming to plant churches in ethnic plenary address at Lausanne to declare contexts was not really a new idea to evangelism as a goal-focused endeavor: was ticking those touched by the church growth movement. I think that the most The goal of world evangelism is not relentlessly. forceful new element of frontier mis- merely “a church of Jesus Christ” in siology was Winter’s confi dence that every nation. To state the task that the entire global task must and will be way is to misunderstand it. The true fi nished within history. goal is to multiply, in every piece of the magnifi cent mosaic, truly Chris- I’m not the only one who found this the tian churches which fi t that piece, are scope of world evangelization: Instead most inspiring and motivating dimension closely adapted to its culture, and rec- of directing evangelism ventures of what Ralph Winter was setting forth. ognized by its non-Christians as “our toward countries or individuals, the He was saying, “After all these centuries, kind of show.” (McGavran 1975, 101) task was best defi ned as accomplishing here is where we now stand. Look now at Th e basic elements of frontier mis- evangelization within and throughout what lies ahead—we are almost fi nished!” siology had been introduced before every people group. Winter declared Winter’s way of spinning out a great Lausanne, but at that Congress and in that the goal was “a strong, powerfully story was a tremendously signifi cant part the years that followed, Winter fused evangelizing church in every tribe and of the whole approach to frontier mis- three ideas into an operative paradigm. tongue” (Winter 1975, 216). Not only sion: an all-encompassing, multi-millen- was this task something that could be nial story in which everyone felt that they The Agent of Evangelization: fi nished; aiming at anything less would were living in a larger, longer endeavor Evangelizing, Same-Culture Churches be tantamount to leaving entire peo- than the immediacies around them. Moving beyond well-worn discussions ples without eff ective gospel witness. of the day about the role of foreign It was never suggested that frontier missionaries amidst national workers, mission was merely a tactical proce- Developments, Both Dubious Winter claimed that local people—not dure, or “a people group approach” that and Defi nitive just evangelists, but local church move- would off er a quicker, slicker method- In the years that followed Lausanne, ments—were capable of doing a more ology. Defi ning the task in terms of Winter clarifi ed and restated these powerful kind of evangelism than foreign people groups tended to highlight the basic strands of frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Steven C. Hawthorne 25

One of the most succinct articulations be contained, tamed, organized, and which sounded simplistic, as if of frontier missiology was the watch- executed with managerial skills, fea- people groups were bounded, discrete, word, fi rst introduced in 1980 at the sible goals, and measurable objectives. changeless, and non-overlapping. In World Consultation on Frontier Mis- In my view, the epithet, “managerial his portrayal of the “magnifi cent mo- sions, held in Edinburgh: “A Church missiology,” may have been an accu- saic” of humanity, McGavran tended for Every People by the Year 2000.” rate description of some of the earliest to talk about each piece as discrete,

In the watchword we see all three ideas (see top of left column): A Church: The agency of a culturally-appropriate movement of churches. For Every People: The global scope, defi ning the task as reaching every people group. By the Year 2000: The hope of fi nishing the task, culminating a great, rolling story.

Th e strategic simplicity of frontier mis- eff orts to present the idea of people but other leaders (especially those siology in the late 1970s and early 1980s groups. Ed Dayton, head of MARC, who were stewards of lists of peoples) was vulnerable to misperception and often described his eff orts as help- acknowledged greater complexity, misrepresentation. Some critics saw it all ing to bring management expertise including signifi cant subsets, asso- as simplistic, jingoistic, and little more to accomplishing the goals of global ciations, clusters, and networks. Th e than shallow pragmatism and sloganeer- mission. Conceding that some early forces of globalization, migration, and ing. But in practice, mission leaders and articulations of frontier missiology urbanization obviously scrambled any scholars tested the strategic simplicity of may have been overly pragmatic can notion of detached, distinct, never- the ideas amidst the complexity of fi eld only help us to fi nd the best frame- changing people groups. Yet, no matter realities from Morocco to Malaysia. work that is as biblical as it is fruitful. how many nuances are factored into the defi ning of peoples, the mispercep- Winter and others made attempts to 2. Misunderstandings of Prioritization tion persists that frontier missiologists clarify and add nuance to frontier mis- At Lausanne ’74 Ralph Winter assume that their lists of “Unreached siology so that it would prove itself in described cross-cultural evangelism People Groups” (UPGs) are all discrete fi eld operations and not merely serve among the peoples yet without church ethnic units, to be uniformly checked as a provocative challenge in mission movements as the “highest priority.” off the lists when reached. conferences or as a pitch for missionary Yet to many of that time, and still today, recruitment. In the subsequent swirl of mission is always a matter of respond- 4. Mistakes in Mobilization discussions there were a few fumbles ing to the most urgent, pressing needs. Some attempts to popularize frontier and foibles—a few dubious develop- Every missionary was then presumably missiology introduced confusion in ments that we can now recognize as responding to the most critical needs defi nition as well as confl icting lists such with the benefi t of hindsight. that they knew. Th us, there was predict- and terms. It became tiresome in the able pushback on the claim of priority: early 1980s to hear jokes about fi nding Problematic Issues “hidden” peoples. Initially, MARC’s Of the many miscues and missteps, People in Mexico City are going to list of peoples was an open-source several served to challenge and to hell, too! We’ve got needs all over kind of “wiki” ethnography to which clarify frontier missiology. the world, so what gives you the privilege of calling your “unreached almost anyone could suggest un- 1. Undercurrents of Colonialism and peoples” the greatest need? Why are reached people groups, introducing “Managerial Missiology” those lost people a higher priority? considerable confusion. An oft-men- tioned example of a vaguely defi ned To some in the global south, the prac- Th is still takes place today when group was “night nurses in St. Louis.” tice of identifying and listing “target” unreached peoples are presented as A people group or not? distinctive people groups seemed to desperately needy peoples. Unreached be animated by a “divide and conquer” people groups are not the needi- 5. Reverting to Geography colonial mentality. Many dismissed est peoples. Th ey are the remaining Luis Bush and the 2000 and the notions of the “can do” Americans ad peoples in the global task. Beyond Movement used the “10/40 (Ralph Winter, Pete Wagner, Ed Day- Window” to campaign for closure. ton, Ted Engstrom, and others) who 3. Discrete Ethnic Units Many observers presumed that every appeared to some non-Western leaders At Lausanne ’74 McGavran’s own advocate of frontier missiology was that they thought God’s mission could term for peoples was “ethnic units,”

33:1 Spring 2016 26 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

also an exponent of the 10/40 Window. (the “go ye” verses) and universals (texts other examples, but without question, Yet Ralph Winter never advocated on “all” or “every” nation, the “ends of frontier missiology has found biblical the 10/40 Window. He thought the the earth,” and others). But biblical footing and framing that is far more concept was a setback because it em- scholarship in the 1970s and 1980s substantive than what was in use forty phasized geography over ethnicity. It inclined evangelicals to follow methods years ago. shifted the focus back from “who” (the of biblical theology that featured key peoples) to “where” (the countries). themes such as the kingdom of God 2. Comprehensible: Easily Understood and the glory of God as seen unfolding and Passed On 6. The Timeline Toward AD 2000 throughout the scriptures. Th e fundamental framework of frontier For a time, the concerted eff ort to pre- mission has shown itself to be some- cipitate collaborative action by the year Evangelicals gave heed to John Stott’s thing that makes sense to Christians 2000 seemed to work well to exploit call at Lausanne ’74 to explore and to all over the world. In recent decades, millenarian enthusiasm. Th ose who use the entire Bible as the best frame- specialized marketing, mushrooming were present at the Edinburgh event work for mission (Stott 1975). In the migration, and identity politics have in 1980 will remember that the year past forty years, there have been several magnifi ed the commercial and political 2000 seemed to be a generation away. In contributions towards a rich biblical importance of distinctive peoples and fact, the Edinburgh watchword was an theology of mission, some of them social communities. Ethnic and socio- intentional way to restate the Student specifi cally focused on frontier mission. economic identities are more readily Volunteer Movement rallying cry of For example, the Abrahamic covenant recognized as critical to gospel com- “the evangelization of the world in this to bring blessing to all nations had munication. And the related increase in generation.” Yet as the 1990s progressed, numbers of churches worldwide which it became clear, even to the most zealous honor distinctives in culture—language, mission leaders, that even if there were the arts, and music— is likewise more suddenly tens of thousands of new mis- widely comprehended and valued. sionaries, there would not be time for To “fi nish” the task Yes, there are subtleties, but they are not them to pursue wise entry strategies of hard to clarify. For example, to “fi nish” prolonged language and culture learning. refers to the end of the task actually refers to the end of the Th e clock was ticking with more people the beginning of beginning of sustained gospel move- groups on the unreached list than there ments. Th e term “unreached” is often were days remaining in the millennium. gospel movements. misunderstood as meaning that people Accusations of sloganeering began to hit have yet to hear the name of Jesus. with full force. Most seasoned practitio- Th e term actually has more to do with ners of frontier mission quietly backed the absence of a following of Jesus in away from trying to orchestrate closure specifi c peoples. We’ve seen that such by ad 2000 or any other date. Th e ex- been examined by John Stott in the points of confusion are not diffi cult to perience may have caused some to lose 1970s. Christopher Wright contin- straighten out. Frontier mission makes interest in pursuing a goal of closure. ued and deepened those ideas in the as much sense now as it did decades ago. On the other hand, pressing beyond the 1990s (Wright 2006, 194–264). Walter artifi cial millennial fi nish line actually Kaiser’s early work on the Abrahamic 3. Proven by Sustained and Fruitful Efforts tempered the resolve of many to pursue promise as the mandate for mission3 In the past forty years thousands of frontier mission with a persistent, un- encouraged Ralph Winter to anchor mission eff orts have been directed hurried urgency. frontier mission in God’s promise toward unreached people groups. Some endeavors have been under- Proving the Paradigm to Abraham that his people were to become a blessing for all peoples. way for decades. Some have borne Even while these diffi culties were much fruit while others have seen few unfolding there were other defi nitive John Piper’s biblical theology of the people following Christ. But still these developments that have tested, clari- glory of God has become widely eff orts keep going. We have witnessed fi ed, and proven the paradigm. known, particularly in his book, Let a steady increase of maturity and the Nations Be Glad! (Piper 1993). It practical wisdom, forged in the fi res of 1. Increasing Biblical and Theological Depth was developed with careful exegetical opposition and hardship. For many evangelicals in the 1970s, an substance and theological depth, but adequate biblical “basis” for mission with the practice and purpose of fron- Of course there have been many had been largely limited to a catalog tier mission always in view. Th ere are failures, and even more diversions: of verses in two categories: imperatives workers start to work with a particular

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Steven C. Hawthorne 27 unreached people, but instead soon fi nd here are two candidate missiologies that are most themselves helping the youth group at a long-established church, or something often proposed as alternatives to frontier mission: like that. But for all the setbacks, we urban missiology and diaspora missiology. have seen amazing perseverance by T workers and the churches that send Likewise, with diaspora missiology, century. Dozens of leaders from many them. If frontier mission were just slo- which begins with the abiding continu- parts of the world had noticed this ganeering, many more workers would ities of ethnic and communal identities. exclusion long before the event. have quit long ago. But people are I’ve heard diaspora missiology called Th e focus of one group was “Hidden sticking with it with remarkable verve. “frontier mission on steroids” because and Forgotten People.” Th at particular of its emphasis on tracking the scope group was supposed to focus on people To Supersede or To Simplify and mobility of peoples and how the with disabilities as well as people de- Frontier Missiology? same families can hold to a multiplicity scribed as those who had “never heard Some have proposed alternative of identities. Th ese communal identities the name of Jesus.” Disabled people missiologies to replace or supersede serve as the same bridges of God long are of course often overlooked and frontier missiology because they view highlighted in frontier missiology. frontier missiology as dated idea from well deserving of a full discussion. But instead, consultation planners insisted a bygone era. Considering alternative The Enduring Necessity of Frontier that any discussion about unreached missiologies has moved me to respect- Missiology people groups would have to be a piece fully disagree. Frontier missiology is One of the most signifi cant tests of of a broad conversation about ministry not outdated, certainly not in the sense frontier missiology took place on the to disabled persons. that it needs to be surpassed. I fi nd occasion of the 30th anniversary of the that other missiologies do not com- Lausanne ’74 consultation. Th is 2004 Several leaders, not wanting to dimin- pete, but actually complement, and are Forum for World Evangelization, held in ish the importance of ministry to empowered by, frontier missiology. Pattaya, Th ailand, and sponsored by the disabled people, and at the same time, Lausanne Committee, gathered more adamantly passionate about com- Alternatives Express and Extend Frontier than 1500 participants from 130 coun- pleting the task among all peoples, Mission tries in thirty-one mini-consultations, organized a way for those focused on Th ere are two candidate missiolo- each one focusing on “critical issues unreached people groups to meet sepa- gies that are most often proposed as confronting the church in the 21st rately. No rooms were available in the alternatives to frontier mission: urban century” (Claydon 2005, vii). Several of venue for this unoffi cial thirty-second missiology and diaspora missiology. the thirty-one “Issue Groups” were in- issue group, so chairs were brought to When I’ve quizzed and read urban deed focused on broad topics related to a lightly-traffi cked, top-fl oor escalator missiologists, asking them to tell me mission, such as globalization, gender, landing. Dozens of leaders found their what urban missiology is all about, I religious nationalism, bioethics, and way to this improvised consultation. In usually hear something like, more. Other “Issue Groups” focused order to participate, most of them had on mission activities such as media and You have to get right into the city. to opt out of their expected places in technology, the arts, orality, theologi- You’ve got to exegete your city. other issue groups. cal education, and prayer. Still other And that means fi nding out who is groups focused on particular kinds of More than fi fty people participated, there. Explore the different relation- most of them from non-Western ships. Find out what makes the net- people, among them children, Muslims, “at risk” people, Jewish people, people lands. An agenda was planned and works work. Discover the systems pursued with robust and invigorating and cycles. Study the socio-political with disabilities, and a few more. discussions. Th e group called itself tapestries and mosaics of different Among the many groups covering “Ministry among Least Reached groupings. Find out who is excluded this wide array of topics there was no People Groups.” It was decided by the or segmented from everyone else. group expressly focused on unreached Forum organizers, with some conster- Such responses reveal the overlap people groups. I was told that this nation, that a report about unreached with frontier missiology, including was by design by the organizers of people groups could be off ered to the the emphasis on distinctive cultures, the forum. When I asked one of the general assembly, as every other issue subgroupings, and communication net- leaders why such a signifi cant aspect group did. But its report would have to works. In both frontier and urban ap- of the Lausanne movement had been share time with Group 6, which had proaches, our task is to ensure that no purposely omitted, he said something come to call itself “Ministry Among set or network of people is overlooked. about wanting to be ready for the 21st People with Disabilities.”4

33:1 Spring 2016 28 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

I hasten to say that after the 2004 to identify the core ideas of an “es- to continue or to copy. Th e diffi culty Forum, the Lausanne Committee sential frontier missiology.” Th e word with this model is that mission swiftly leadership consistently recognized un- “essential” reminds us to look for what becomes a mode of compassionate ac- reached and unengaged peoples as an is germane, vital, and fruitful in diverse tivism. Th e goals of this way of mission uppermost concern of many in world settings. I will describe these core are easily co-opted to advance diff erent evangelization. Th e Cape Town Com- ideas by pointing toward some helpful ideals or ideologies. Instead, we need mitment clearly highlights this priority. ways forward. a robust missio Dei formulation that I may have mistakenly recalled some of calls for more than a mere emulation of I propose that we refi ne and cultivate the details, but I mention this event as Jesus’ example, but one that summons an essential frontier missiology that a telling demonstration of the endur- us to an actual collaboration with the features three elements: (1) a missio ing reality of frontier missiology. In living, risen Christ as he accomplishes Dei framework that is teleological the eyes of some academic and church his purpose. but also relational; (2) a more ample leaders, even those who were dedicated theology of ethnicity; and (3) a “Chr- I like Richard Bauckham’s little book to world mission as leaders in the Lau- istotelic,” embodied, transformative sanne movement, the day of focusing Bible and Mission, in which he traces ecclesiology. Th ese are the same three on people groups in mission had long a triple trajectory in the Scriptures: components that I claimed were fused passed. By contrast, it was actually non- blessing, revelation (or glory), and then by Ralph Winter 40 years ago, but we Western leaders and fi eld practitioners God’s kingdom (Bauckham 2003, will examine them in reverse order. who insisted instead that fi nishing the 27). Th ese three strands are coher- task among least-reached peoples was ent, intertwining trajectories running of enduring importance. For many it throughout the Bible. Together they still remains the highest priority. describe God’s pursuit of bringing blessing among all nations, worship of Not the Sunset of Frontier Mission all peoples, and Christ’s lordship in all Th erefore, let frontier mission thinkers A truly the earth. Bauckham notes that this and practitioners embrace and empower “teleological” account narrative framework is a “non-modern partnership with other missiologies. In metanarrative” in which there is not my view, frontier missiology has proven of the missio Dei the domination of many by a privi- its durative value. It is not going away. off ers a God-wrought leged few. Rather, the one who gains If something were going to replace it, I ascendancy is one made worthy by think we would have seen it by now. vision of history. his suff ering for all (Bauckham 2003, 90). Th is distinction is critical for a We have good reason to refi ne, simplify post-modern context, where frontier and deepen our thinking and practice of mission can very easily seem to be frontier mission. Now more than ever. a religious conquest of all peoples. Why? If we are able to identify and culti- A Missio Dei Framework, Confi dence to pursue his mission can vate what is essential, it will make frontier Teleological and Relational be sustained with a full-blown biblical missiology more, not less, useful in diverse By “teleological” I mean purposive. A theology that focuses on the singular contexts of the ever-changing world. truly teleological account of the missio glory of the Lamb who was slain. At this anniversary we stand at an Dei provides a God-wrought, all-en- important threshold. Th e testing and compassing vision of history. It is really A Relational Purpose tempering of frontier missiology in the a vision of God himself pursuing His I’ve already mentioned John Piper’s past decades should embolden us to purpose relentlessly through succeeding work, recognized for highlighting the refi ne, deepen, and refresh the practice generations to the present day, and as glory of God in mission. He is rightly of frontier mission and the theology promised, to the culmination of the age. known for his single-sentence theol- that drives it. I would dare to say that ogy of mission, which is as beautifully we stand at the sunrise, not the sunset, A Teleological or Purposive Framework teleological as it can be: “Missions exists of frontier mission. Th e most common formulations of because worship doesn’t” (Piper 1993, missio Dei feature remembrances of 17). Piper has helped us immensely the former deeds of God—his people- by exhuming the Puritan theology of Toward an Essential Frontier saving, justice-bringing, or peace- God’s glory that at one time was the Missiology: A Flourishing Finish making activities. Th ese are regarded central theological idea driving mission To better extend, simplify, and as patterns of service, exemplifi ed in in pre-revolutionary, colonial America. strengthen frontier missiology, I want Jesus, that the church is now expected Shortly after William Carey’s Enquiry

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Steven C. Hawthorne 29 popularized the Matthew 28 commis- he God-oriented vantage point recognizes the sion, the doxological ideas of Jonathan Edwards came to have diminished distinctive worth of each of the peoples, and infl uence.5 In recent years, Piper, along yet celebrates the beauty of all peoples. with many others, has revived Puritan 6 T theology and helped inspire widespread Abraham rejoiced to see My day, and more than merely equal. Th ey are pre- passionate zeal for the glory of God. he saw it and was glad” (John 8:56). cious in the sight of God. Th ere is more to doxology and mission Th e poetic structure of these sentences, with the double parallel of seeing and Beyond Equality: Before God than just God’s glory being known. In his plenary address at Lausanne ’74, Ultimately, God purposes to be loved. rejoicing, was framed in a chiastic structure. Th at structure calls attention Donald McGavran pointed out a way He cannot be loved unless he is toward a more adequate theology of known. God’s purpose is marvelously to the signifi cance of the day of Christ. When he said, “My day,” was Jesus ethnicity for frontier missiology. He relational. He has purchased people quoted a verse of scripture in which we from every tribe and tongue to obey, referring to his three years of ministry? Or was he referring to present days, see the peoples gathering to God as serve, worship, and love him. worshipers, each of the tribes, tongues, when his people co-labor with the res- and kinship groups exhibiting the Such an approach to the missio Dei urrected Lord? Or was he speaking of redeemed glories of their distinctive gives us a far better way of seeing and the end of the age when he will return? cultures. McGavran said, pursuing closure. Instead of ticking Yes. I think it’s all the day of Christ. off line items on a list of UPGs, it can God has no favorites among cultures. be our ambition to anticipate the joy Four thousand years ago Abraham He accepts them all. We read in Rev- of the Father to have his full family saw the coming day of Christ. He elation 21:26 that the “wealth and restored to him, some from every tribe was counting stars, but in that night the splendor of the nations” shall be and tongue. Closure then becomes a sky he saw the day of Christ, a day brought into the Holy City. Kings of pursuit of relational fullness with God when multiplied millions from all the the earth bring in all their splendor. instead of merely a reduction of our peoples of the earth would belong to In stream all the beautiful cultures of list of people groups to zero. Mission the faith family. Th ese would become mankind; hour after hour, day after day, the glories of the nations march is ultimately not our project to fi nish, the long-promised blessing amidst all in. (McGavran 1975, 96) but his purpose to fulfi ll. peoples. Th e vision stirred him, moving his emotions with joy. He saw the day Although McGavran is certainly cor- Cameron Townsend said that the and said, “Bring it.” He and Sarah died rect about God having “no favorites parable of the lost sheep (Matthew without receiving the promise, but the among cultures,” I think we could 18:12–14) guided the diffi cult deci- account says that they “welcomed” that agree that God does have “favorites” sions he made to launch Wycliff e day “from a distance” (Hebrews 11:13). in this sense: God considers each of Bible Translators. It’s interesting that If they could see the fulfi llment of the the peoples to be his favorite people. Jesus begins this parable by asking, promise from 4,000 years, perhaps I have three daughters. I have some- “What do you think?” Surely he wants we can lift our eyes and fi nd ourselves times said that each one of them is us to have the parable aff ect our think- moved with the same faith-fi lled joy. my favorite daughter. How is that ing. If a man with 100 sheep fi nds that possible? Each of my three daughters I think that jealousy for God’s glory, one of them has gone astray, he does is uniquely lovely and wise. Each of ablaze with the visionary joy of not say, “Well, I’ll take one percent them can demonstrate family values, less. It’s an acceptable loss. We can hope, can capture the hearts of entire extend honor, and show the beauty of allow for a little shrinkage.” No. In the generations and give them stamina to love in ways that are unique. Any par- parable he leaves the 99 and goes for pursue costly work. ent can see why I can say that they are that one. Perhaps in frontier mission each my favorite daughter. the only numbers we really need are A More Ample Theology of Ethnicity 99 and 1. If there is still any people yet Th e multi-culturalism of our day Considering how parents prize the to be gathered back to God, then the propounds the idea that all peoples unique love they receive from each of seek-and-save mission continues. are of equal worth. Within the limited their children can help us appreciate bounds of secular worldviews, which is God’s delight in the redeemed glories of The Enduring Joy of Fulfi llment Vision to say, devoid of a supreme deity who every culture and people. Such a God- Jesus spoke of the joy of anticipating perceives and appraises all things, there oriented vantage point off ers a way to the fulfi llment of God’s promise when can be nothing better than simple recognize the distinctive worth of each he declared to some Jews, “Your father equality. But in truth, the peoples are of the peoples, and yet also to celebrate

33:1 Spring 2016 30 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

the beauty of all of the peoples together, capable of a “more powerful” evangelism. as a living organism, the church is es- who have somehow been formed into A good many frontier mission think- sentially the risen Jesus himself, joined one worshiping people in Christ. ers and practitioners have tended to see with those who obey him in faith churches in a utilitarian light, viewing together. As communities of people All Nations and All Generations the church as a means of mission, but obey Jesus together, they become, by We see a similar perspective in Ephesians not its goal. I think, however, we are his Spirit, an embodiment of Jesus. 2 and 3. Writing to Gentile churches in now seeing some helpful developments Seeing the multiplying life of Christ Ephesus, Paul begins 3:1 with “For this that point toward richer, simpler theory abound amidst the simplest communi- reason,” pointing to what he has said in and practice concerning churches. chapter 2 about one global household ties has given some church planters of God’s people (2:19), worshiping God Th e church is the instrument by which greater confi dence in the suffi ciency together as one great, global house of Christ accomplishes the goal of God’s of the word of God and the Spirit of worship (2:20–22). In 3:14 Paul repeats mission. But the church is also the God. Christ himself guides and grows the phrase, “For this reason,” and then goal itself. It can be both goal and in- his churches in pioneer settings with- says, “I bow my knees before the Father strument because Christ himself is the out the immediate oversight of foreign from whom every family in heaven and living reality and end-accomplishing workers. We’ve recognized that such on earth derives its name.” Th e Greek force of the church. organic, simple life can be astounding- ly fertile so that cascading, multiplying term used for family in this text is patria, I use the newly coined word “Christo- movements fl ourish. a term emphasizing lineages or group- telic” to describe a growing reality—the ings with generational depth.7 Without question one of the most signifi cant developments in recent years Paul considers the fatherhood of God is the recognition of the phenomenon of as a far greater matter than the adop- church planting movements (CPM), or, tion of individuals as his children. Each as many describe them, disciple making one of the families that have any kind of Movemental movements (DMM). As people obey generational depth is known to him. He ecclesiology the word of God by the Spirit of Christ has named each one. Th is means that in communities, new followers help oth- each of them has a particular history, fl ips the sequence ers to obediently follow Christ. Move- destiny, identity, and value. Each one of ments often thrive and multiply rapidly. them is precious. No wonder the great of evangelism and As we learn more about these move- prayer concludes with glory abounding discipleship. ments, our ideas of church, evangelism, to God, not only “in the church,” but and discipleship are shifting. Some are also “in Christ” in a way that encom- groping for new terms for what we may passes “all generations” (3:21). Th is may come to call “movemental” ecclesiology. be something beyond what “we ask or think” (3:20), but we have more work to global church—that Christ himself will Many mission leaders have to admit do—to inquire and to ponder—in rec- bring to maturity and cause to fulfi ll its that they have been surprised by the ognizing how God works to culminate purpose. Th e term “Christotelic” is com- reversal of the sequence of evangelism the ethno-history of every people. If he posed of the suffi x “-telic,” derived from and discipleship. It has been custom- is the God of all nations, he must also the Greek word telos meaning end, goal, ary for evangelicals to see evangelism be the God of all generations. or purpose. Th e term Christotelic has as coming fi rst, resulting in newly born the intended dual meaning that Christ is again believers. Standard practice after A Christotelic, Embodied, evangelism has been to follow up with Transformative Ecclesiology himself the goal, while at the same time, he is the one who accomplishes the full- what is often called discipleship, with Frontier mission is ostensibly focused on ness of God’s purpose. Once again, Mc- the goal of bringing about maturity the presence or absence of church move- Gavran probably pointed us in a good and obedience to Christ. Movemental ments. Th us, churches are of highest im- direction by referring to people move- ecclesiology fl ips the sequence. Th e portance. And yet there are signifi cant ments as “Christ-ward movements.” initial stage of discipling helps people gaps and weaknesses in frontier ecclesi- to read or hear the scriptures in such a ology. Church growth teaching tended “Movemental” Ecclesiology: The way that they are challenged to begin to emphasize the evangelistic potential Embodiment of the Risen Jesus obeying Christ. As people learn to of churches. In his Lausanne address, Many church planters consider obey the word of God, many soon Winter persuasively claimed that near- churches as living entities that thrive come to experience the joy of trust- neighbor, same-culture churches were and bear fruit by multiplying. Seen ing and walking with Jesus along with

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Steven C. Hawthorne 31 others. Having encountered Christ in he biblical promises and stories of blessing may a living way, it is not long before they confi rm their repentance and confes- be the most ample biblical theology we will sion of faith. Instead of evangelizing fi nd for what we mean by transformation. to produce disciples, we are discipling T to accomplish evangelization amidst a family members. But God does not before God. To form the needed theol- community of people. require people to repudiate family ties ogy of a worshiping people, we need to and customs in order to follow Christ. re-examine many themes and texts. For A People of Blessing in the Midst of Every People Followers of Christ continue in the example, there have been many taking Frontier missiology has groped for a same ethnic and cultural identity of a fresh look at Acts 15 to help navigate way to show the immense value of mis- their birth. And yet they are diff erent, contextualization issues. pursuing justice and righteousness siological breakthrough in every people. At the council in Jerusalem, James’ (Genesis 18:18–19), praying and la- Why are these new church movements statement in Acts 15:14–18 provides boring for the good of their neighbors, of such paramount importance? What a narrative framework, defi ned by expecting that God will bring forth should we expect in reached peoples? biblical history and prophecy, in which miraculous measures of transforming What will happen in an evangelized to understand the work of God in blessing amidst their communities. world? What will all the newly planted the turning of Gentiles to serve the churches in every people group actually I’m convinced the biblical promises Lord. James claims that what God do? What are they for? and stories of blessing provide the best had done with Peter, and therefore It does not satisfy to respond to such biblical theology for what we mean also with Paul, was the beginning of questions with talk about making by transformation. Th e biblical idea of a fulfi llment of a long-awaited cluster Jesus come back. As thrilled as anyone blessing touches every realm of life: of prophecies having to do with a later 10 should be to anticipate Christ’s return, economics, art, industry, agriculture, exodus, and a greater house. ecology, and more beside. Blessing we are people of promise who, like “God fi rst concerned Himself about refers to God’s intended goodness—a Abraham, rejoice to see that Christ’s taking from among the Gentiles a God-desired fullness and a fruitful- day has dawned. Already we have people for His name” (Acts 15:14). Th e ness. For example, we see such blessing seen every kind of human fl ourishing exodus motif would have been clear to and transformation when the book of when missionaries have been free to everyone by the expression that God Genesis reaches its crescendo, where work (Woodberry 2009). Th ere should had “concerned Himself ” (Greek: from Abraham’s great-grandson Joseph be even greater anticipation for what episkeptomai). Th is language is almost brings “great deliverance” and tangible churches might bring about as they are identical to God’s announcement blessing to a large part of the earth encouraged to become the fulfi llment that he was initiating a deliverance (Genesis 41:53–57, 45:7).8 of God’s promise to Abraham: “In from Egypt, “I am indeed concerned your seed all the nations of the earth Th e promise of blessing can embolden (episkeptomai in the Septuagint) about shall be blessed” (Genesis 22:18). us to pursue a wide and abounding you and what has been done to you in I’ve said elsewhere that mission that brings about both good Egypt” (Exodus 3:16, see also 4:31). By for the nations and glory to God. using the word “fi rst” James was an- God intends that Christ-following We may fi nd ourselves delighting in nouncing that they were at the begin- communities become His long-prom- so-called “regular” mission9 as much ning, or the fi rst stages, of a fulfi llment ised blessing, bringing forth tangible or more than the instrumental stage of of an anticipated season of history. realities of righteousness, peace and frontier mission. If anything, such hope sustained evangelism for His glory. James declares that in the mission strengthens our resolve to accomplish As God’s people pursue this aspect work of Peter and Paul, God had the strategic priority of church move- of mission they seek to abound in begun to accomplish a new exodus by ments in every people since the incep- good deeds in every dimension of the formation of a worshiping people tion of such movements is altogether life, society and the created order. (Greek: laos) constituted by persons necessary to bring forth the ongoing (Hawthorne 2015, 1) from diverse peoples (Greek: ethne) for blessing and fruit of Christ’s Lordship. Th e Abrahamic promise can provide his name, or his greater glory. Th en, in Christ-following communities with A People of Worship Formed from verses 15 through 18 comes a litany of a rich identity as God’s people in All Peoples allusions and quotations of four or fi ve the midst of all peoples. Of course, We need an ecclesiology that celebrates diff erent prophets, particularly Amos following Christ often stretches or every local expression of church to 9:11–12, that together describe the breaks relationships, even with close be part of a global people of worship raising up of a new house of worship.

33:1 Spring 2016 32 Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future

Some scholars see one of the allusions and sanctifying them so that they be- more participated. Kent Parks and Werner as Jeremiah 16:12, which states that come a spectacle of God-loving glory Jahnke were recognized as conveners and God-honoring Gentiles will some- in the earth. Let us consider him. key authors of the report (Claydon 2005, day “be built up in the midst of My 340-396). As I understand it, the Ethne to Th e living God has exalted him to be Ethne network, largely led by non- people” (Bauckham 1995). Lord and Christ of his kingdom. He Westerners, found momentum in the rela- In this light, God was gathering is head of the church his body. He is tionships confi rmed at the 2004 event. 5 peoples to become part of his people, the long-awaited seed of Abraham, Historian Pierce Beaver has noted giving them a way to worship God as causing the nations to fl ourish with that “the glory of God” was “the prime fac- tor which moved the missionaries” in early blessing. He is the greater Son of holy, having been cleansed by the Holy American, colonial-era mission endeavors Spirit himself (Acts 15:8–9) rather David, now building a house made (Beaver 1962, 217). Before the turn of the than by the strictures of proselytiza- without hands, of which the latter 19th century, the dominant motivation in tion (15:1, 5). glory will surpass any before. Let us American mission was gloria Dei. Beaver consider him as we labor among the claims that key fi gures such as Cotton Th e model Paul declares in the letter nations. Let us consider him as we Mather, John Eliot, David Brainerd, and to the Romans is virtually the same: work to deepen, to strengthen, and Jonathan Edwards all found primary moti- that there would be a mutual reception, to reconfi gure our missiology. Any- vation and theology of mission centered on among Jews and Gentiles as worship- the glory of God with hope for the coming thing of worth will come from him, be ers together, not as becoming the Kingdom. But suddenly, soon after 1810 enacted through him, and will come to “gloria Dei as a motive vanishes almost same ethnicity, but honoring cultural him again in relational glory. IJFM diff erences and ethnic identities. Th e overnight . . . and the all-compelling motive” became “obedience to Christ’s Great Com- crescendo of Paul’s argument is that Endnotes mission” (Beaver 1968, 139–141). people of diff erent ethnicity and styles 6 Piper is well aware that a mission 1 In private conversation, Winter told of obedience would receive each other theology that centralizes the glory of God me that the word choice in naming the just as they had already been received revives some of the best Puritan convictions event refl ected the infl uence of some of the by God as worshipers: “Th erefore, re- of Jonathan Edwards. See Piper’s God’s faculty of Fuller’s School of World Mission. ceive one another, just as Christ also re- 2 Passion for His Glory: Living the Vision of Winter’s assertion about the evan- Jonathan Edwards (1998). ceived us to the glory of God” (Romans gelistic effi cacy of local churches was built 7 What named lineages does Paul see to 15:7). Paul supports the great hope that on dozens of church growth studies done be in heaven? It is highly unlikely that the “with one accord you may with one by others that had been supervised by the lineages “in heaven” are angelic. It is possible voice glorify the God and Father of our School of World Mission faculty. that they are peoples or tribes that have 3 Ralph Winter learned of Walter Lord Jesus Christ” (15:6) with another become extinct or in some way have been Kaiser’s ideas about the Abrahamic promise litany of prophecies (15:9–13). We lost among the peoples dwelling on earth. in the late 1970s, which led to the inclusion would do well to follow the example 8 of Kaiser’s 1981 article in the Perspectives See the article I co-authored with of the early church to fi nd our identity volume (Kaiser, 1981, 25–34). As early as Sarita Gallagher, “Blessing as Transforma- as God’s worshiping people in a great 1977 Kaiser had published the beginnings tion” in Perspectives on the World Christian narrative defi ned by the unfolding of what he would call “epangelical theol- Movement: A Reader, Fourth Edition and story and hope of the scriptures. ogy” (after the Greek word for “promise,” also Mission Frontiers, http://www.mis- epaggelia) in which the Abrahamic covenant sionfrontiers.org/issue/article/blessing-as- Centralizing the Son of God in Our Mission is of primary importance: “Th e scope of the transformation. Scripture calls us to “consider Jesus, seventy nations listed in Genesis 10, when 9 Ralph Winter came up with the term the Apostle and High Priest of our taken with the promise of Genesis 12:3 “regular” missions to describe cross-cultural confession” (Hebrews 3:1). We learn that in Abraham’s seed ‘all the nations of endeavors among people groups that had the earth [viz., those just listed in Genesis already experienced a missiological break- that our credal affi rmation of truth, 10] shall be blessed,’ constitutes the original through. In these cases, the work that we our “confession” of faith and hope, missionary mandate itself ” (Kaiser 1977, could consider “frontier” missions is complete. should fi rst of all extol the risen Son as 98–99). See also “Th e Christian and the 10 Th ere is a vast literature about the the magnifi cent Apostle, “faithful” to Old Testament” published in 1998 by Wil- expectation of a “new exodus” among Jewish build and to preside over “the house of liam Carey Library, and the simpler, shorter people at the time of Christ. God” (3:2–6). He is the Apostle who work, “Mission in the Old Testament: Israel forms a people from and within every as a Light to the Nations,” published in References 2000 by Baker Books. people. Only by his faithfulness do his Bauckham, Richard 4 Th e disabilities group became “Group people become apostolic in the midst 1995 “James and the Jerusalem 6B” which meant the unreached peoples Church.” In Th e Book of Acts in of their communities. Th is one is also mini-consultation became “Group 6A.” its Palestinian Setting, edited by our High Priest, even now gathering Fifty people are listed as participating Richard Bauckham. Grand Rap- worshipers from every nation, serving in the frontier mission group, but many ids, MI: William B. Eerdmans.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Steven C. Hawthorne 33

———. Hawthorne, Steven C. Piper, John 2003 Bible and Mission: Christian Wit- 2015 “Mobilizing God’s People for 1993 Let the Nations be Glad!: Th e Su- ness in a Postmodern World. Grand God’s Mission.” https://gal- premacy of God in Missions. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. lery.mailchimp.com/fb05be- Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Beaver, R. Pierce ad1e74e27d8c99e4461/fi les/ Piper, John and Jonathan Edwards 1962 “American Missionary Motivation Mobilization2_1GMCnotes.pdf. 1998 God’s Passion for His Glory: Living Before the Revolution.” Church Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. the Vision of Jonathan Edwards. History 31, no. 2: 216–226. 1977 “Davidic Promise and the Inclu- Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. sion of the Gentiles (Amos 9:9–15 ———. Stott, John R. W. and Acts 15:13–18): A Test 1975 “Th e Biblical Basis of Evangeliza- 1968 “Missionary Motivation Th rough Passage for Th eological Systems.” Th ree Centuries.” In Reinterpreta- tion” In Let the Earth Hear His Voice, Journal of the Evangelical Th eologi- edited by J. D. Douglas, 65–78. Min- tion in American Church History, cal Society 20, no. 2: 97–111. edited by Jerald C. Brauer. Chi- neapolis: World Wide Publications. cago: University of Chicago Press. ———. Winter, Ralph D. 1981 “Israel’s Missionary Call.” In ———, ed. 1975 “Th e Highest Priority: Cross Perspectives on the World Chris- 1972 “Th e Gospel and Frontier Peoples: Cultural Evangelism” In Let the tian Movement: A Reader, 1st ed., Earth Hear His Voice, edited by J. A Report of a Consultation.” Pasa- edited by Ralph D. Winter and dena, CA: William Carey Library. D. Douglas, 213–225. Minneapo- Steven C. Hawthorne. Pasadena, lis: World Wide Publications. Claydon David, ed. CA: William Carey Library. 2005 “A New Vision, A New Heart, Woodberry, Robert D. McGavran, Donald 2009 “Th e Social Impact of Christian A Renewed Call,” Lausanne 1975 “Th e Dimensions of World Evan- Occasional Papers from the 2004 Missions” In Perspectives on the gelization” In Let the Earth Hear World Christian Movement: A Forum, Vol. 1. Pasadena, CA: His Voice: International Congress William Carey Library. Reader, 4th ed., edited by Ralph on World Evangelization, Lau- D. Winter and Steven C. Haw- Gallagher, Sarita, and Steven C. Hawthorne zanne, Switzerland, edited by J. thorne, 286–290. Pasadena, CA: 2009 “Blessing as Transformation” In D. Douglas, 94–115. Minneapolis: William Carey Library. Perspectives on the World Christian World Wide Publications. Movement: A Reader. 4th ed., edit- Wright, Christopher J. H. Parsons, Greg H., ed. 2006 Th e Mission of God: Unlocking the ed by Ralph D. Winter and Steven 2015 Lausanne ’74: Ralph D. Winter’s C. Hawthorne, 34-41. Pasadena, Bible’s Grand Narrative. Downers Writings, with Responses. Pasa- Grove, IL: IVP Academic. CA: William Carey Library. dena: CA: William Carey Library.

33:1 Spring 2016 34 Book Reviews

that Indians were at the forefront of church growth in India and were not the British Raj equivalent of the despised Reviews New Testament tax collector. Finally, it could be said that the real value of this book is Boyd’s open-minded approach to signifi cant and meaningful contextualization of the gospel of Jesus Christ into Indian Beyond Captivity: Explorations in Indian Christian History and even Hindu forms. At the same time, Boyd shows how and Theology, Studies in Gospel Interface with Indian the controversies surrounding so-called “insider movements” Context, by Robin Boyd (Bangalore, India: Centre for versus “Christian conversion” are nothing new: contextu- Contemporary Christianity, 2014, pp. 342) alization was and actually still is at the heart of the gospel movement in India. Th e examples off ered are taken from the —Reviewed by Timothy Shultz literature that was created for the Church in Gujarat, where Boyd served. Clearly, there was a felt need for creating good literature that would support multiple points of view as eyond Captivity by Reverend Robin ministry focus ebbed and fl owed for more than a century. B Boyd is an important book for sev- eral reasons. It is fi rst and foremost a col- Th ere were three basic types of literature that supported lection of Boyd’s own essays written over three diff erent philosophies of ministry. Contextualized a span of more than 50 years, at a time literature that supported what we would today call “insider” when the “missionary era” was ostensibly approaches included: Marks of a True Guru—a description coming to a close in India. Th is vantage of how people can judge what a true guru was like; point allows the reader to see inside Nakalanka Avatar (Spotless Incarnation)—a collection of Boyd’s thoughts—someone who was an experienced and Hindu bhajans (or devotional songs) sung in local fairs that capable western missionary—about his own role within seemed to speak of an incarnation to come which sounded a the Indian Church. Boyd’s emphasis is clear: it is all about lot like Jesus Christ; and Hriday Gita (Song of the Heart)—a Jesus Christ. A large part of the book actually addresses gospel presentation done in a Hindu-cultural style. how Indian people conceive of the person and work of Th ere was also literature that supported a philosophy of Jesus Christ. In this way, Boyd makes the point that the ministry focused more on a Christian conversion-based gospel in India is about Jesus Christ and is not simply a approach in the form of various translated catechisms, Christendom-based religion complete with its own theol- dictionaries, theological works, and nearly every other type ogy, history, ritual, and apologetic. of Christian literature extant in Christendom. Th e majority Secondly, Boyd goes to great lengths to describe the posi- of literature supported this ministry approach. tive contributions made by the missionary community to Th e area of music is one clear example of the simultane- the creation and growth of the Gujarat Church—a signifi - ous practice of these fi rst two very diff erent approaches cant part of the Church in India. Th is point of view about to discipleship ministry. Th e Dharmgita (Religious Songs) missionary work in the Indian colonial context is strikingly and Kavyarpan (Off ering of Poems) were both created in diff erent from the typical, widespread “western missionary roughly the same decade. Dharmagita was a collection of as agent of oppression” interpretation. Th e revelation— translated hymns done in English metre while Kavyarpan almost always either forgotten, misunderstood, or taken was a version of the Psalms rendered in Indian metre. Th ere for granted—is that missionaries did more than create were numerous other works for worship in each style done churches, build hospitals, and found schools. Missionaries by both missionaries and Gujarati believers in Christ over in India contributed to the very idea of modern education many years. Boyd indicates that both approaches were (and its functioning categories), including an emphasis on eff ective within the emerging Church. a science-based medicine within Indian civilization, not to Another category of literature supported what seemed to mention biblical study, which is truly noteworthy. be a third approach, namely a contextualized conversion Th irdly, Boyd reveals how Indians themselves participated approach, or a more Gujarat-based conversion. A set of brilliantly in the ministry of the gospel. Th is also runs coun- commentaries was eventually written to support Gujarati ter to the academic “legend”—which has been accepted as pastors who led Gujarati churches “on the ground.” Th ese fact—that manipulative missionaries planted and har- commentaries were not translated from European or North vested rice Christians among the poorer classes of India. American books but were designed to support localized, and Boyd’s work, taken together with the writings of Robert at least to some extent, contextualized local church ministry Frykenberg, Daniel Jeyaraj, and John C. B. Webster, show in Gujarat. Th ere were also poems and songs created which

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 35 oth Indian and non-Indian Christian leaders express frustration and strident disagreement over the recent trend of western missiologists importing an Binappropriate emphasis on contextualized discipleship designed for Hindus. were Christian versions of the Gujarati garba dance tradition. new questions from a pluralistic world of religions to engage Th e impression this variety of literature gives is of diff ering their theological attention. With the growing global dias- philosophies of ministry being held in tension over time. pora of peoples spilling over into Western communities, the common churchgoer is demanding a theologically sound way In conclusion, this valuable book provides a necessary to relate to those of other faiths. With particular sensitivity corrective to a widely held point of view about contextu- to the spiritual dynamics of this inter-religious encounter, alization and discipleship in the India mission context. mission theologians are increasingly pushing the Holy Spirit Many Christian leaders, both Indian and non-Indian, (pneumatology) into the foreground of missiological con- express frustration and strident disagreement over what cern. Witness, for example, Velli Matti Karkkainen’s treat- they believe to be the recent trend of western missiologists ment of the Buddhist-Christian encounter and his attempt importing into India an inappropriate emphasis on contex- to reorient our traditional theological categories towards “the tualized discipleship designed for Hindus. Beyond Captivity spirit-fi lled cosmos” and “the search for correlates between examines evidence two centuries old, from the very outset the Holy Spirit and conception of spirit in Buddhist tradi- of the missionary era in early 19th century western India. tions.”1 Amos Yong, another theologian of Pentecostal tradi- Here, in the literature designed by Indians and Western tion, has written prolifi cally on the potential fruitfulness of a missionaries for the emerging Gujarati church, we discover pneumatological missiology that is sensitive to the Buddhist- that contextual worship, Hindu vocabulary and concepts to Christian interface.2 And one hears of mission historians describe elements of gospel-centered Christian discipleship like Scott Sunquist recognizing the vital role of the Holy were struggled over and sometimes used. Hindu-friendly Spirit as the person of the Trinity who should lead our initial discipleship in India is nothing new. Boyd never says if encounter with other religious worlds.3 there were any personal agenda or missiological confl ict surrounding any of these points of view. If that is true, it Amidst this rising tide of theological interest appears the speaks very well of both these (apparently) gracious non- need for a more practical orientation in approaching the Indians and Gujarati Christians. spiritual dynamics of Buddhist faith. SEANET takes on these complex spiritual realities, bridging theological and practical concerns of ministry. Contributors to this new compendium maintain this blend as they seek to dis- Seeking the Unseen: Spiritual Realities in the Buddhist cern how ministry will advance in a historically resistant World, SEANET Series 12, edited by Paul de Neui (Pasadena, Buddhist world. Th e editor, Paul de Neui, has arranged the CA: William Carey Library, 2016, pp. 319) articles into three sections: biblical, cultural and strategic. Th at said, all of the authors seem to work from the ground —Reviewed by Brad Gill up, with that sense for the diffi cult conundrums which per- petuate and frustrate the transmission of the gospel in street level ministry. While the spiritual worldview of the Buddhist he recent missiological emphasis on receives consistent treatment, the reader fi nds himself oscil- T grassroots theology in our witness lating between Buddhist religious concepts and practical to the religious worlds of Asia will gain spiritual needs throughout the book. Th e overall balance of further momentum with the publication these 20 contributors makes this required reading for the of SEANET’s most recent compendium, mission candidate just entering the Buddhist world. Seeking the Unseen: Spiritual Realities in Th ree prominent perspectives forge this book into a manual the Buddhist World. Th is annual con- for the apprentice in Buddhist ministry. First, it provides a sortium, whose focus on the Buddhist global lens on a range of Buddhist contexts. Local context world has served up a steady diet of themes and publica- matters, and the contribution from a variety of settings tions over the past couple of decades, has now added a gives this book a global authenticity. Certain themes repeat very strategic and practical anthology to our developing as you move from context to context, but each will wrinkle theology of religions. according to a local or national culture. Besides the mul- Missiology is benefi ting from a shift towards more global tiple voices from Japan and Th ailand, the tour continues theologies. Systematic theologians are turning from the through Mongolia (Smith), Vietnam (Nguyen), Sri Lanka conventional questions in our Western canon and allowing (Somaratna, Caldera), Burma (Nyunt), and the Chinese

33:1 Spring 2016 36 Book Reviews y studying the diff usion of a scientifi c worldview, Koning was trying to assess what happens to the Th ai Buddhist sense of reality (cosmology) B under the impact of globalization. world (Lim, Burnett). Th e diff erent streams of Th eravada In an anthology like this one, the strategic insight of a and Mahayana Buddhism, as well as the interface between certain author will impress an individual reader, and this the Great Tradition and the folk expressions, are intertwined was certainly the case with this reviewer. SEANET as a in local spiritual permutations as the reader moves through network faces the unique challenges of reaching a Buddhist the book. Yes, Buddhism is a daunting complexity, but this world, but at one point I clearly sensed the strategic impor- book gives the reader a feel for certain spiritual facets in the tance of their linking with a broader missiological com- prism of this transcultural faith. It can appear simultaneously munity. Alan Johnson, who still continues his long tenure incomprehensible and comprehensible—which perhaps is in Th ailand even while commuting annually to the USA for par for the course when ministering in a Buddhist context. his teaching post, makes a seminal contribution to attri- tion studies in his article. Johnson addresses the common Secondly, the reader is exposed to diff erent theoretical and experience of Buddhists who experience a profound power spiritual vantage points. Many of the writers take a distinct encounter (signs, wonders, healing, provision) but who methodological approach with its own set of theoretical grids eventually fall away from the church. But instead of focus- and models. A view of these religious realities is off ered from ing on a more intensive study of his Th ai Buddhist setting, a more classical functionalist lens (Smith), but also from an he applies research out of Africa to this problem, and this archetypal and symbolic lens (Burnett). Several contributors comparative study of Africa and Asia allows him to suggest chose to study Buddhist perspectives through a particular a theory. He asserts that the transcultural Buddhist world of ritual: the almsgiving ceremony in Sri Lanka (Somaratna); Asia will more easily reabsorb and reinterpret the discour- Nat (spirit) worship in Burma (Nyant); ancestor venera- aged convert; this is contextually distinct from the primal tion in Vietnam (Nguyen); and the rituals of blessing and religious world of Africa, where power encounters seem destruction surrounding a Buddhist monastery (Burnett). to have led to more sustained people movements and less To understand how Buddhist spirituality infl uences Asian attrition. Maybe Johnson’s insight benefi ts from his com- cultural practices, Silzer used the social theory of Douglas mute between two worlds, but his research indicates that all and Lingenfelter to identify how strong community values grassroots animistic worlds are not the same. It hints at why form a Buddhist concept of self. Koning’s research, on the ministry amidst Buddhist spiritual realities has a long the other hand, focused more on cultural change. She history of frustration. In my judgment, that insight alone is probed the impact of globalization and what she called the worth the price of the book. IJFM “reframing of spiritual realities in scientifi c terms.” In par- ticular, by studying the diff usion of a scientifi c worldview, Endnotes she was trying to assess what happens to the Th ai Buddhist 1 Velli-Matti Karkkainen, Spirit and Salvation (Eerdmans: sense of reality (cosmology). She describes the resulting Grand Rapids, 2016), see especially pp. 159–172 ambivalence and tendency to moralize a once taken-for- 2 Amos Yong, Pneumatology and the Buddhist-Christian Dia- granted spiritual domain. Th e combination of these meth- logue (Leiden: Brill Academic, 2012) 3 ods and theoretical vantage points gives the reader a broad Scott Sunquist, Understanding Christian Mission (Baker outlook on how to strategically approach any one local Academic: Grand Rapids, MI, 2013): 259-268. His entire chapter is accessible online at ijfm.org, http://ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/31_1_ Buddhist context. PDFs/IJFM_31_1-Sunquist.pdf. Th irdly, a decidedly strategic orientation permeates the book. Th e fi nal section is dedicated to strategy, and ranges from the role of the “alongsider” in Th ailand (Lambert) to the personal supernatural experiences of a post-tsunami Japan (reprinted in this IJFM issue, see p. 17). Peter Nyant gives a brilliant apologetic for Jesus as the Great Ancestor when dealing with the Nat (spirit) worship surrounding ancestor veneration. But as diff erent as these strategic per- spectives are, the cumulative force is to recommend greater discernment amidst Buddhist spiritual realities. Beyond the analytical and practical methodologies one senses the vital place of prayer, spiritual power and discernment.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Carey Library

Engaging Islamic Traditions Challenging Islamic Traditions Wealth, Women, & God Using the Hadith in Christian Ministry Searching Questions about the Hadith How to Flourish Spiritually and to Muslims from a Christian Perspective Economically in Tough Places Bernie Power, Author Bernie Power, Author Miriam Adeney | Sadiri Joy Tira, Authors

The Hadith have long been neglected by The Hadith are Islam’s most influential texts The Arabian Gulf—the wealthiest country in the Christians, yet they may hold the key to after the Qur’an. They outline in detail what world is located here, as is the world’s busiest reaching Muslims with the good news of the Qur’an often leaves unsaid. The Hadith airport. Not many citizens are Christians. Jesus Christ. In this ground-breaking book, are a foundation for Islamic law and theology Not much religious conversion is allowed. Yet the earliest traditions of Islam are assessed and a key to understanding the worldview of through migrant women, some of the most from a biblical perspective. Insights into the Islam and why many Muslims do the things powerless people in the great sweep of human Islamic worldview and potential springboards they do. This book subjects the Hadith to a labor exchanges today, God’s grace is at work. to Christian truth are uncovered along the way. critical analysis from a biblical perspective. In this book you will find: For those contextualizing the gospel to Muslim In a scholarly and respectful way, it exposes • Primary research not available anywhere friends and colleagues, this book seeks for significant inconsistencies within these ancient else, narrated in a highly readable style concord and connection with Muslim thinking, documents and highlights potential problems • Globalization, diasporas, and massive while maintaining a clear commitment to with the Muslim-Christian interface. culture change Jesus Christ and his gospel. • Jesus women—maids, nurses, pastors— experiencing rape, jail, and the opportunity to mentor hundreds • A guide for group Bible study and reflection at the end of each chapter

These Gulf women’s stories, like those in the Bible, teach lessons that apply to us in many countries.

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MISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION 38 In Others’ Words

Refugee Refl ections In Others’ Words Extraordinary times call for extraordinary eff orts. Don’t miss Tim Staff ord’s “Cities of Refuge” in the May/June Editor’s Note: In this department, we highlight resources outside 2016 issue of Books & Culture, which was entirely devoted of the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, to immigration and refugees. For nearly three weeks, Staf- blogs, videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to ford and his photographer traversed the hardest hit areas the length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title of Europe (Germany, Austria, Croatia, Serbia, and Greece) of the resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase. interviewing refugees directly. Th ese fi rsthand accounts are Finally, please note that this January–March 2016 issue is partly beautifully written, poignant, and hard to put down. Th e composed of material created later in 2016. We apologize in issue includes two book reviews of note about refugees: Da- advance for any inconvenience caused by such anachronisms. vid Neff ’s account of Nicholas Terpstra’s Religious Refugees in the Early Modern World and D. L. Mayfi eld’s “Do We Refugee Catastrophes Really Welcome Refugees?” Neff highlights some of Terps- Th e death rate of refugees and immigrants attempt- tra’s research that relates to mass migrations in history: ing to cross the Mediterranean has soared dramatically Terpstra reports that the cities that received religious refu- in 2016. During the week of June 10 alone, an estimat- gees and found paths to peaceful co-existence (though not ed 700 to 1000 people have perished at sea. Th e charts and toleration in the modern sense) prospered . . . Cities that were graphs in the UNHCR’s Refugees/Migrants Emergency devoted to purity . . . closed their doors to refugees who were report tell 2016’s sobering story. Response—Mediterranean not like them, and thus became monocultural and “were left In addition, the North Africa-Italy route (with a majority with smaller populations and economies.” The United States, coming from Africa) is chillingly more dangerous, mak- France, Germany, and England are all struggling with questions ing the odds of dying a staggering 1 in 23 compared to of cultural and (to a lesser extent) religious identity as fl oods the still unacceptable 1 in 81 for the Mediterranean as a of migrants from the world’s hot spots knock on their doors. whole. For graphs showing the country of origin, click on Mayfi eld reviews the book Making Refuge: Somali Bantu the tab “Transit routes” at this link: http://migration.iom. Refugees and Lewiston, Maine by anthropologist Catherine int/europe/. Lastly, we recommend “Looking for a Home,” Besteman who did some of her early fi eld work in Somalia. a special report on refugees and migrants in the May 28th, More evaluations like this one by experienced professionals 2016 issue of Th e Economist. are defi nitely needed. Historical Perspectives on Mass Migrations Finally, Tae Sung’s “Th e Study of World Religions in a Time For a distinctly secular but historical vantage point on of Crisis” (also in this same issue) is a perceptive interview today’s mass migrations, see Robert Kaplan’s “How Islam with Jack Miles, editor of Th e Norton Anthology of World Created Europe” in the May 28, 2016 issue of Th e Atlantic. Religions (2015). In an aside, Miles notes that rising sea Kaplan’s provocative analysis has already sparked controversy. levels will send millions of Muslim climate-change refugees The Continent has absorbed other groups before, of course . . . streaming into Hindu India. How will a BJP-run Indian But those peoples adopted Christianity and later formed poli- government (infl uenced by Hindu fundamentalism) respond? ties . . . that were able to fi t, however bloodily, inside the evolv- Will there be a repeat of massive Muslim-Hindu religious ing European state system . . . Today, hundreds of thousands violence like what happened in the Partition in 1947? of Muslims who have no desire to be Christian are fi ltering into economically stagnant European states, threatening to Muslims Turning to Christ–An Update undermine the fragile social peace. Th e UK’s leading Christian magazine, Premier Christianity, has published an article by David Garrison in its June Ironically, in a June 5, 2016 post, author Rod Dreher of 2016 issue entitled “Muslims Turning to Christ: A Global Th e American Conservative quotes extensively from both Phenomenon.” Th is short article is studded with personal Th e Guardian and Th e Daily Beast to the eff ect that vignettes from all around the world, culled from his fi rst- thousands of Muslim refugees in Europe are actually rate interviews of believers from a Muslim background. converting to Christianity. He ends by saying, Garrison, a trained historian (University of Chicago), was Curiouser and curiouser. Who knows what God has planned asked to research these movements fi ve years ago. After for Europe. Wouldn’t it be astonishing if the revival of Chris- three years of extensive travels (250,000 miles) and research, tianity there came through converted Muslim refugees, who he published A Wind in the House of Islam—still very much remembered the kindness Christians showed them? a groundbreaking book two years out. IJFM International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology IJFM & Perspectives 39

& Related Perspectives Lesson and Section Whether you’re a Perspectives instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth in IJFM. For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divideded iintonto fofourur sectisections:on Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C) and Strategic (S). DiDisclaimer:scs laimer: The table below showshowss where the content of a given article might fi t; it does not iimimplymplp y enendorsementndorsement of a particular aarticle by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake of spaspace,ce, the tabletable only includes lessonsless related to the articles in a given IJFM issue. To learn Christian Community more aboaboutut tthehee PPerspectiveserspectives course, iincluding a list of classes, visit www.perspectives.org.

Articles in IJFM 33:1 Lesson 6: The Expansion of the World Christian Movement (H) Lesson 7: Eras of Mission History (H) Lesson 8: Pioneers of the World Christian Movement (H) Lesson 9: The Task Remaining (H) Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C) Lesson 12: Development (S) Lesson 14: Pioneer Church Planting (S)

Aspects of the Role of History in Missiology Dwight P. Baker (pp. 5–10) XXX

Speaking of God in Sanskrit-Derived Vocabularies H. L. Richard (pp. 11–15) X X X

A Post-3/11 Paradigm for Mission in Japan Hiroko Yoshimoto et al. (pp. 17–21) XXX

Essential Frontier Missiology: Its Emergence and Flourishing Future XX X Steven C. Hawthorne (pp. 23–33)

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33:1 Spring 2016 in conjunction with

ISFM Int’l Society for Frontier Missiology

MISSIONS and the 2016 LOCAL CHURCH October 14–16, 2016 • Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Campus, Dallas, TX Th ese are days of resurgent religious identity and tumultuous migrations. A new generation is arising passionately committed to worship, intercession, and justice. More than ever, local churches—especially Global South local churches—will be keen players in the reaching of these complex frontiers. Th e ISFM sessions will examine the essential missiological concepts required for local church participation in breakthroughs on today’s remaining frontiers.

Full conference details coming, see www.emsweb.org.