K.M.Joshi Department of Economics, Krishnakumarsinhji University, Bhavnagar India is Complex………….  1.2 Billion people  29 States and 6 Union Territories set upon linguistic basis  22 (Modern) Indian languages coexist; 1576 other mother tongues  3592 Newspapers in 35 different languages  Radio broadcasts in 146 Languages and Dialects  Education in the concurrent list of Constitution- both Centre and State have a stake

K.M.Joshi 2 Higher Education Institutions in India TYPES OF UNIVERSITIES

UNIVERSITIES

STATE CENTRAL DEEMED

GOVERNMENT PRIVATE GOVERNMENT PRIVATE

K.M.Joshi 3 Structure of Higher Education Institutions and the Degrees  Three types of Universities: . Central Universities, . State Universities & . ‘Deemed Universities’.  Central Universities - Act of Parliament  State Universities - State Legislation  Deemed Universities - Gazette Notifications of Central Government.

K.M.Joshi 4 Structure contd…

 The universities are of unitary type with single or even multiple campuses or of affiliating type.

 The concept of an affiliating university is unique to South Asia where a university affiliates colleges. These colleges conduct teaching- learning under the academic supervision of the university to which they are affiliated. The colleges do not award their own degrees, but award the degree of the university to which they are affiliated.

 Universities and Colleges- Government, Private aided and Private unaided. K.M.Joshi 5

K.M.Joshi 7 K.M.Joshi 8 K.M.Joshi 9 K.M.Joshi 10 K.M.Joshi 11 Region Wise % of Institutions

K.M.Joshi 12 K.M.Joshi 13 K.M.Joshi 14 Faculty Wise Enrolment - 2005 and 2011 3% 2% 1% Arts 1% 7% Science 46% 2005 20% Commerce/Management

Education 20% 1% 2% 4% Engineering/Technology 18% 36% Medicine 4% 2011 Agriculture 17% 18% Others

K.M.Joshi 15 K.M.Joshi 16 Household Expenditure on Higher Education Other Expenses 6% Uniform 4% Private Coaching Tuition & other fees 10% 41%

Stationery 11%

Transportation 12% Books 16%

K.M.Joshi 17 GER- Future Projections

K.M.Joshi 18 Demand Influencing Factors  Economic Development- Urbanization etc.  Social Status  Equity- State Policies  Quality

K.M.Joshi 19 Trends in Urbanization in India (1961-2011) Levels of Urbanization- 2011 Unemployment Rate In India -Year 2011-2012 – Top 15 States (Ranked with lowest unemployment rate on top)

Rank State Unemployment Rate

1 Mizoram 0.3

2 Daman & Diu 0.6

3 Gujarat 0.9

4 Chattisgarh 1

5 Himachal Pradesh 1.3

6 Rajasthan 1.4

7 Meghalya 1.5

8 Punjab 1.6

9 Madhya Pradesh 2.1

10 Tamil Nadu 2.1

11 Uttar Pradesh 2.2

12 Karnataka 2.4

13 Odisha 2.4

14 2.5

15 Maharashtra 2.6  Unemploment rising with rise in education ladder  Overall unemployment in higher education around 9.9  Graduate Unemployment around 9.6  Postgraduate Unemployment around 10.3  Unemployment level higher in States with higher GER.

K.M.Joshi 23 Emergence of Private Institutions- Demand Resultant  By the 1980s, improvements in basic education and Indian society’s growing aspirations had resulted in a huge capacity gap in higher education.  The changing structure of the economy demanded new skills which the public institutions were not able to provide.  Growing fiscal deficit and reforms laid foundation for private higher education.  Most of the private institutions were colleges in the initial period, followed by deemed Universities and then Private Universities.

K.M.Joshi 24

 Many of these institutions set up by various religious and linguistic minorities enjoy certain privileges under law.  Private institutions are usually established and operated under the provisions of charitable societies or trusts. There are genuine not for- profit private institutions, many even funded by the government (private aided institutions) or supported by charitable and religious trusts.  A large number of private institutions run self-financing programmes that meet all of their expenses from tuition revenue, reinvesting any surpluses in programmes and facilities.  In contrast to these not-for-profits, a significant number of private institutions are run as business enterprises, many among them owned by powerful families

K.M.Joshi 25 Institutions and Enrolment

K.M.Joshi 26 Public and Private Institutions- Professional Programme

K.M.Joshi 27 Growth of State Private Universities

K.M.Joshi 28 Public and Private Deemed Universities

K.M.Joshi 29 Distance Education

K.M.Joshi 30 Quality Issues

 48% of universities and 69% of colleges have infrastructure deficiencies.  Poor academic standards: The system is plagued with outdated curricula and ill- equipped libraries  As of March 2011, only 161 universities and 4,371 colleges had been accredited by NAAC

K.M.Joshi 31 Access and Equity  Indian society is highly stratified on the basis of - Economic lines, Social Groupings, Urban- Rural divide and Gender  The GER for indigenous people is found to be 13.1 for males and 7.5 for females, and the aggregate GER of ST students it is 10.3. Disparities across tribal regions visible. States like Jharkhand have 5.1 %.  Scheduled Castes the second largest socially deprived group too has low access.

K.M.Joshi 32 Access and Equity  Other social backward groups too reveal low GER.  Gender disparity in access existing in majority of the states. The disparity is more visible amongst the disadvantaged groups.  High drop out and low completion rates amongst these segment of population.  Access to higher education is constrained by poverty, lack of resources, high opportunity cost, inadequate infrastructure, and low emphasis on education. K.M.Joshi 33 Gender Parity Index- All India

All Categories

INDIA 0,74 Uttarakhand 1,64 Uttar Pradesh 0,79 0,71 Tamil Nadu 0,83 Sikkim 0,86 Rajasthan 0,64 Punjab 1,03 Odisha 0,36 Manipur 0,76 Maharashtra 0,67 Madhya Pradesh 0,79 Kerala 1,18 Karnataka 0,82 Jharkhand 0,51 Jammu & Kashmir 0,94 Himachal Pradesh 1,07 Gujarat 0,72 Chhattisgarh 0,66 Bihar 0,53 Assam 0,54 Andhra Pradesh 0,58

K.M.Joshi 34 Region Wise GER

K.M.Joshi 35 Government Policies for Enhancing Access 22.5% quota/seats reserved for Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe students. An additional quota of 27% for other backward castes in federal educational institutions. It means 49.5% seats reserved for the marginalized social groups. Effective caste based seats crosses 65 %. Many States of India already have reservation above 50% since long.

K.M.Joshi 36 Government Policies for Enhancing Access Various study reveals that relatively better off segment among the marginalized social group gain largely because of this quota. Admission and equality criteria gets distorted on a larger pattern. No government capable of reducing the quota because of political reasons. Other financial assistance schemes insufficient. Is this an appropriate affirmative action?

K.M.Joshi 37 Accreditation & Assessment Scenario

 NAAC has not been able to cover even 40 % of the institutions.  The accreditation of NAAC has focused on institutional accreditation rather than programme evaluation.  It looks difficult that just one agency like NAAC will be able to address the quality assurance issues in India.  Accreditation is voluntary but many State governments have made it mandatory for all institutions.

K.M.Joshi 38 The Story so far………  State government withdrawing from higher education – Funding and Sustainability  Quality assurance outcome not influential in selection of institutions and demand  Private institutions proliferation- Absence of Control and Regulation  Private higher education – Urban agglomeration and Disparity in Quality  State policies for enhancing the demand for deprived group not effective  Unemployment more in urbanized regions and those with high GER in higher education  State run institutions in deplorable state

K.M.Joshi 39 The story so far………

 Private higher education has enhanced the access and participation.  Increase in the professional courses. A shift of students from traditional to professional programme.  Private providers less interested in running traditional courses.  Pure and natural science losing talented students. This will hamper the basic science research in future.  Except few majority of the providers function for profit motive.  Similarly the quality of programmes not of acceptable level. K.M.Joshi 40