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ETHIOPIA sential to this debate because it is argued that people might not have domesticated this small if Cultivation and Consumption of Teff Near Eastern crops were already available in the re- in Gojjam Highlands: Implication for gion (Barnett 1999; Lyons and D’ Andrea 2003; Understanding the Beginning of Phillipson 1993). Teff has that are 1-1.5 mm in Food Production in length and 2500-3000 seeds constitute a gram. Raily cited in Alemseged (2006:4) also states, “the weight Gedef Abawa Firew of 150 of teff is almost a of ”. Its small size and use in un-charred form may hinder its Gedef Abawa Firew preservation and recovery in archaeological contexts Bahir Dar University (Barnett 1999; Phillipson and Reynolds 1996). This History Department paper investigates cultivation and consumption of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia teff in order to provide an understanding of the be- [email protected] ginning of . I conducted an ethnographic study in Gojjam (Figure 1), a province primarily bounded by the Blue Abstract Nile Gorge and the Lake Tana Basin (Muse 1993). The region was isolated from foreign influence until The origin of agriculture in Ethiopia has often the first quarter of the 20th century AD (Gebru 1991). been attributed to external influences. However, some It is inhabited by Ahmara, Agew, Shinasha, Gumuz, clues now suggest its probable indigenous origin. Oromo, and Woyto peoples, who either adhere to This study investigates major activities associated Christianity, Islam or to other traditional religious with the cultivation and consumption of the indig- beliefs (Dombrowski 1971:46, 67). The area is the major enous cereal teff in the Gojjam highlands of north grain producing region where teff is highly valued western Ethiopia. A comparison is made also with the and widely cultivated (Galperits 1981; Westphal 1975). main activities involved in the cultivation and con- According to current administrative boundary, sites sumption of other growing in the region. Un- in the study area are located within the Amhara and like most other crops, the activities associated with Benshangul Gumuz Regional States. The data is col- exploitation of teff are rather unique. Although teff is lected from eight rural villages occupied by Semitic laborious to cultivate, it is generally the most pre- speaking Amhara, Cushitic Agew and Omotic-speak- ferred staple and widespread food crop. Its utiliza- ing Shinasha. The specific sites are Dagmawi (2995 tion is embedded in different cultural and ritual prac- masl), Kencher (2480 masl), Diwaro (2420 masl), Wad tices which is absent among crops introduced from Iyesus (2015 masl), Gashena (2590 masl), Ambiki (2094 outside. The study suggests that well-established masl), Mekuy (1664masl) and Laymenti (1760masl). cultural and ritualized activities based on the cultiva- Eighty households were observed and interviewed tion and exploitation of indigenous crops might have between July 2008 and February 2009. preceded the arrival of crops from the Near East. The paper also shows that local context and specific de- tails of crop cultivation and consumption are impor- Cultivation of Teff tant in understanding agricultural origins in a spe- Studies show that the cultivation of teff is the cific area. most labourious of the cereals. On average, teff culti- vation requires eight ploughings. Repeated plough- Introduction ing destroys weeds, breaks and softens the soil, and increases the water-holding capacity of the soil. Un- Ethiopia is considered as one probable centre less teff fields hold enough water before sowing, the for in the world (Harlan 1969, yield will decline significantly. Before broadcasting 1971, 1993; Melaku 1991). Nevertheless the local or the seed, teff fields are often trampled by cattle. The external origins of agriculture are still debated gaps between rows are also levelled, and grasses (Bellwood 2005; Hildebrand 2003; Neumann 2005). and other plant residues are removed. If teff fields are Research on teff (Eragrotise tef) is considered es- not trampled, the tiny teff seeds will be buried under

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Figure 1: Location of the study area.

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the soil and weeds will dominate the crop within two After the plastered threshing floor is well dried, or three days after sowing. However, trampling on threshing proceeds by trampling the teff using muz- waterlogged lands will bury the soil under the sur- zled oxen. Threshing teff is very tiresome and me- face water, and for this reason waterlogged fields are ticulous work that may take a number of days. Fol- not trampled. The Shinasha, who used to cultivate lowing the removal of large straws by forks and a teff using a slash and burn system, rarely trample wooden brush, farmers ‘plough’ the threshed grain their teff fields. in rows using their feet in order to expose the smaller straw at the surface. This straw is then removed and Although teff germinates in a few days, teff the grain is collected for further winnowing. Since cultivation needs critical care at this time because the hull of teff is tiny, cleaning and separating hulls the rain easily washes away the seeds. On water- from the seed takes diligence. The process involves logged areas, contrary to other grains, teff germi- further winnowing by hand or by using a wooden nates without decay because it grows with shallow table spoon and winnowing brush so that the tiny roots. For this reason, teff is frequently sown in wa- residues can be separated by wind. The bigger terlogged areas. Teff is cultivated once a year. De- residues and soil particles are then removed slowly pending on local ecology and the type of teff sown, with a winnowing brush. Lighter residues are removed its sowing period varies from early July to the end of using either a basket or leather fan and a winnowing August. Unlike other crops, sowing of teff is accom- brush. A person picks up the grain in a basket and panied by group labour, and food and drink is pro- gently drops it in a circular motion. This helps to vided including slaughtering of fattened sheep or remove the smaller chaff. In spite of such meticulous chickens. Teff fields are rotated with different crops activity and care, teff generally produces a low yield but for agronomic reason, it is never rotated with compared to other crops. Yet, as farmers in the study wheat. Since virgin grassland fields are suitable for area explained, teff is more resistant to and teff, they are preferable for teff cultivation. Weeding provides a better yield than other crops particularly teff is more difficult than for other crops due to the in time of rain shortages. Teff is also nutritious and it painstaking task of separating the thin teff is used for different ritual purposes. In addition, teff from the weeds. straw is the most preferred for cattle and for plastering walls, grain storage granaries and other Harvesting, Threshing and Storage of household utensils. Teff Large granaries are usually reserved for stor- Harvesting time varies from mid-November to ing teff. Apart from Laymenti, teff grains are stored late January. The red and early maturing cultivars are inside the house because of the high demand for teff harvested earlier than other varieties and earlier in and its ability to resist pests. Because the main house non-water-logged than in water-logged areas. Har- is used for , it encourages pest damage on vesting is performed with group labour accompanied pulses and other grains. Therefore, farmers prefer to by the ceremonial offering of food, drink and with store grains (except teff and finger ) outside the singing. The harvested teff is left in the field usually house. Teff and finger millet have long storage dura- for two or three days in order to dry and to prevent tion whereas other crops may not be stored safely decay. The drying process also eases threshing. for even a year. Teff can be stored safely for about Threshing of teff involves cooperative work and dif- eight years on average, and teff’s storage in the ferent socio-cultural activities. With the exception of house is attributed to this quality. Teff is stored in finger millet, these practices are rare in the threshing granaries made of sun dried mud rings, which are of other cereals. A circular threshing floor is prepared fitted one over the other. Teff straw is used as a plas- next to the pile of harvested teff. The threshing floor tering mixture with the clay paste. A large container is plastered with cattle dung mixed with water. Straw (gota) may have ten sun dried rings while the smaller from previously threshed teff is placed on the floor one (gushgusha) may have two or three rings. Each and trampled by people or by cattle. To reduce the ring of the gota and gushgusha has a breast like loss of this tiny seed, residues of other cereals are feature that serves as a mark in fitting one ring on top rarely used to prepare teff threshing floors. of the other. Terminology for features of the granary rings, e.g. tut (breast), enat (mother) and for the bot-

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Figure 2: Gota and gushgush (sun-dried mud rings).

tom ring liji (literary child) indicate a symbolic rela- grain is then threshed at home, baked into kitta, and tionship between the granary and the female body served to the family. The assumption behind this (Figure 2). practice is that the family should taste the new har- vest before the evil spirit tastes it. It is also meant to inaugurate the new harvest. Similarly, in Laymenti, Socio-Cultural and Ritual Practices some amount of teff is left at the centre of the field Associated with the Cultivation of Teff that is to be harvested separately, baked into chimbo In Ambiki, teff fields are trampled on the sev- and served to the family. In some areas at threshing enth or the ninth day of the final ploughing to ensure time, a mixture of medicinal plants Lepidium sativum increased yield. Thick rolled from teff cooked and Ruta chalepensis is sprayed over the threshing on an open hearth will be served in the meantime. It is floor and the teff, and remains there until the yield is believed that the bread can ‘smell’ the field and in- collected. It is believed that this protects the teff from creases the yield. Similarly, in Gashena, both flat and being taken away by evil spirit through mysterious thick bread from teff is presented to those who work means. Thus farmers frequently spray the medicine in the teff field, but it is the teff field which is served during winnowing. Before threshing starts in first. A piece of this food is thus thrown onto the Laymenti, a cock is slaughtered on the teff threshing field. Sheep or chickens may also be slaughtered. In floor. People believe that unless the teff threshing Kencher and Ambiki, teff harvesting begins after some floor is served with food, it will not provide a good teff was harvested from the centre of the field. This yield. As a consequence, different food stuffs and beer are served. A person passing near to the thresh-

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ing floor is forced to taste these foods. In Laymenti, local bread such as kitta, chibito, ingoncha, and chimbo, beer, and from teff and , anebabero. is large, thin flat bread made from coffee (which is believed to ‘smell’ the evil spirit), fermented batter. Kitta is unleavened or slightly leav- and goat or chicken are offered while threshing teff ened flat bread similar in size to injera, but it is thicker and finger millet. People coming to the threshing area than injera. Chibito is unleavened kitta that is rolled should help in the labour. According to their tradi- like a ball. Ingocha is mostly leavened thick bread tion, their labour contribution is believed to have but it is small in size. Anebabro is two leavened kitta, been adopted from their God. They claimed that such placed one on top of the other during baking. Chimbo actions are blessed and therefore increase the yield. is similar to injera and kitta, but it is much thicker In Kencher, kitta from teff, pounded noog and beer and smaller. Kitta, chibito, ingocha and anebabero are served during threshing of teff. Roasted is are infrequently prepared; kitta and anebabero are also served in areas where barley is available. In often used in social gatherings and feasts. Kitta, Gashena and Ambiki, three chibito, three local chibito, and anebabero are prepared from teff (cooked on an open hearth) and abizi (flat bread only. Injera among the Amhara and Agew, and chimbo thicker than injera) prepared from teff; pounded noog, among the Shinasha, are consumed the most fre- and coffee are provided after winnowing. This is a quently and are the preferred breads prepared from ritual practice only for teff threshing. To protect the teff. Although injera can be baked from barley, sor- yield from the evil spirit, a portion of each of these ghum and finger millet; teff is often added to ease the foods is thrown on the threshing floor before they baking process because it makes the batter ferment are tasted by people. In Ambiki and Mekuy, food is within a short period. As women argued, compared offered also in the threshing of finger millet. Except in to other cereals, teff batter can be baked into injera Laymenti, threshed cleaned piles of teff grain are cov- even when it is not fermented. Therefore, its addition ered with a white sheet of cloth and injera and beer to other cereals eases the tasks or technicalities re- are placed on top and served. One injera on the win- lated to baking. It also increases the quality of the nowing fan and two cups filled with beer are also injera. For this reason, people buy or acquire teff in placed near the cleaned teff. The owner pours an exchange. amount of beer on the threshing floor, and then tastes All of these bread types are baked using ce- the injera and the beer before the grain is collected. A ramic griddles, but I will focus on the preparation of ritual practice distinct for teff, is the placement of the staple breads: injera and chimbo. In preparing objects and a winnowing brush on the cleaned injera from teff, the grains are cleaned, sieved, grain. In Ambiki and Gashena, after teff and finger ground, and sieved again. Water is added to the flour millet are threshed, hair from the tail of the oxen used to make a batter. It is then kneaded and fermented. in their threshing are cut and tied up with the leaves The fermented batter is diluted with water and the of the abalo tree and kept with the grain. In Kencher, yeast (the thin fluid) gradually floats on the batter it is women who measure the cleaned teff, but in and is removed manually through decantation. The Gashena and Ambiki women do not enter the thresh- batter is again diluted with water and eventually ing floor before the yield is measured. Menstruating baked into injera. Teff batter may be fermented for a women, and women who have recently given birth, week, but it can also be kneaded and baked even cannot enter the threshing floor. Talking while the within a day. Fermenting the batter adds flavour, vol- teff is being measured is a taboo. In Laymenti, the ume, texture and softness. Due to its quick fermenta- owner sleeps on top of the cleaned teff grain. While tion quality, teff flour is generally easier to prepare he is sleeping on it, some grain is taken, prepared into injera. Besides, it can be stored for some days into beer and served to the family. It is perceived by and it is palatable and comfortable for digestion, and the farmers that unless such practices are done, the it is even described as the “patient’s diet.” To ease yield will be taken away by evil spirits in various hand grinding, teff grain may be slightly heated first ways. on the ceramic griddle. Barley is a non-indigenous crop that is used as Consumption of Teff an ingredient for making injera in some of the study Across the study area in Gojjam, teff is used to area. Hence, its preparation into the griddle baked prepare porridge, gruel, beer, injera, chimbo and other (injera) needs close examination. In

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Figure 3: Infirfir (fermented coarse grained barley powder).

preparing injera from barley, the grain is slightly barley. Women argue that unless barley batter is fer- heated on a griddle, pounded, winnowed, and ground mented, it is hard to bake it into injera. But barley and sieved. The coarser flour will be ground again batter requires more time to ferment (from two weeks but some amount is used as malt. Malt is made with up to a month) even with the addition of this ferment- the coarse grained barley flour mixed with hot water ing ingredient. Although longer duration of fermen- and fermented for about a week (Figure 3). Fine bar- tation eases baking, it makes the barley injera too ley flour is kneaded with the coarser malted flour and sour. Flour from teff or other cereals, or fine barley left at least for two weeks to ferment. It is then diluted flour is added to minimize bitterness, to ease baking with hot water and added to teff, finger millet or sor- and to soften the injera. Consequently, in the study ghum flour. This mixture is again left to ferment for area, barley injera is difficult to eat and it is hardly about 12 hours. The yeast floating on the top of the ever made into bread. batter is manually decanted or poured out. Finally, Unlike injera, the batter for kitta, chibito, the batter is diluted with water and baked into injera. ingocha and anebabero does not require fermenta- However, using malt is unknown in the predominantly tion for more than twelve hours. Chimbo, the typical teff and finger millet using areas of my study area. Shinasha bread, does not need fermentation for more Even barley consuming areas of Gojjam do not use than two days. It can be baked within a day and is malt when they bake injera from teff alone. The use always prepared at breakfast, lunch and dinner. of malt to make injera from barley or in barley con- Chimbo can be made from teff alone or in combina- suming areas is related to the fermentation quality of tion with finger millet and sorghum.

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Ritual Uses of Teff are served to prevent people from another lightening strike. The person whose property is affected by the Among the Amhara and Agew, unfermented thunder does no work on that day of the week for the thin flat bread made from teff with pounded noog is rest of his life. In Laymenti during burials, chimbo served to the family to ensure a successful transition from teff, finger millet or sorghum is thrown at a road from winter to summer. Unfermented and unleavened junction to prevent the re-occurrence of death. After teff ingocha from the Meskel Ceremony is believed burial, chimbo and injera are presented to the mourn- to be a good medicine for abdominal pain. Slightly ers. In Gashena, when a cow gives birth, porridge fermented beer from red teff or finger millet is served from teff and milk of that cow is served to the family as well. However, before anybody tastes the beer, a and the neighbourhood. The calf tastes the porridge drop is poured onto the pillar of the house. In first and then parts of its body are painted with the Dagmawi, where teff is not cultivated, red teff por- mixture. Although barley is dominant in the area, farm- ridge is eaten after taking the traditional medicine for ers sow teff for this ceremony. Porridge from teff is tapeworm. It is believed to have a strong healing served also to bridal couples at the marriage feast. power. When an epidemic occurs, unleavened kitta Serving porridge prepared from teff to all participants or chibito from red teff with pounded noog, porridge is a sign of wealth and status. At a special marriage and yesat ingocha (bread cooked on an open hearth) feast, beer is served to the bride and injera is shared are thrown at the junction of a road. Roasted barley among the people attending the feast. Unfermented may be offered as well. People believe that teff por- teff kitta is also used in the church every Sunday. ridge placed on the main road will protect people and Even people who do not cultivate teff serve teff kitta cattle against epidemics. In Laymenti, people pre- at church. However, for the Holy Communion, only a pare another ceremony to protect against epidemics special wheat cultivar is presented because, as the two weeks later by offering chimbo and bordie (local priests explained, it is mentioned in the Bible. The drink) from red teff and sorghum are offered at the term injera also symbolizes livelihood, good fate, and same location. After a benediction by three elders, a wealth. piece of chimbo and part of the bordie is flashed on the surface as a provision for the ancestor spirits, and then everyone tastes the food. This keeps the Discussion of the Results spirit of the ancestor happy so that it protects the For millennia, the had regular people from the epidemic. Red teff kitta is commonly contact with the people of the Nile Valley and the prepared when a person feels sick. In some areas, Red Sea world (Clark 1988; Fattovich 1988, 1993, 1996; unfermented thin flat bread teff is served in a lavish Mitchell 2005; Moulins et al. 2003). The region also coffee ceremony on the first day of the month in served as a crossroads for early crop dispersal be- order to ensure the successful transition to the next tween Africa and Asia (Blench 2003; Fuller 2003; month. Haaland 1999, 2007). For this reason it is difficult to Red teff porridge is also offered when a woman underestimate the role of external influence on the gives birth. Among the Shinasha, such porridge is origins of Ethiopian agriculture, although there is no prepared strictly from red teff and men are not al- archaeobotanical evidence to prove it (Agazi 1997; lowed to taste it. In Ambiki, if the labour at delivery is Brandt 1984, 1997; Butler et al. 1999; D’ Andrea et extended, the woman is painted with fermented bat- al.1999). This paper suggests that agriculture may ter from her forehead to the nose. This is believed to have begun independently in Ethiopia. The data ease delivery and protect the mother from evil spirits. shows that teff is cultivated in different elevations, Unleavened thick teff bread baked on an open fire is agro-climatic zones, and diverse soil types that are served for the same purpose. In Ambiki, when light- unfavourable for other cereals. Other major crops ening strikes red teff porridge is prepared at that spot. such as wheat and barley are not widely cultivated in After a blessing by the elders, a piece of porridge is the Gojjam highlands even in areas suitable for their thrown at the spot where lightening strikes, and then cultivation. In addition, wheat, one of the major crops the porridge and red teff bordie are served to the (Harlan 1997), is not commonly cultivated in barley people attending the ceremony. In Laymenti, bordie, growing areas of Gojjam. This seems to be related to chimbo from red teff and sorghum, and pounded noog cultural choice. Norman et al. (1995:99) states that

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food preference, more than climate and soil, dictate most labourious and time consuming crop to proc- cereal cultivation. The intense labour and meticu- ess and it produces the smallest crop yield. Teff is lous care involved in teff cultivation and processing, the most suitable and preferred crop for preparing despite its low yield, can also be factors that support ceramic griddle-baked food stuffs in Gojjam. Moreo- its cultivation before the introduction of crops from ver, its cultivation and consumption is accompanied outside of Africa. As Leach (1999) states, people fail by various social and ritual practices that are absent to adopt even domesticated crops if they demand for introduced crops. All of these factors may indi- more labour. Hunter and gatherers concentrate first cate the value of teff to distinct and ancient subsist- on favourite foods or those having high return. De- ence strategies. The use of introduced cereals for mand for increased yield may thus lead to domestica- ceramic griddle-baked injera also indicates their in- tion (Diamond 1997). In the study area, it is teff which corporation into the local culinary tradition. The role is more labourious but low yielding. Hence, it is un- of external influence in igniting agriculture in Ethio- likely that people adopted teff after the introduction pia can thus be challenged or questioned, although of less labourious and more productive crops from more research has to be conducted within this field outside of the region. Ehret (1979) suggests that a before final conclusions can be drawn. late Pleistocene food crisis ultimately resulted in the domestication of indigenous crops in Ethiopia. Cli- matic instabilities are evident in the Horn of Africa Acknowledgments since the early Holocene (Barnett 1999). Crops with This paper is part of my MPhil Thesis submit- constant yields in unreliable environmental condi- ted to the University of Bergen in June 2009. I would tions might be selected for cultivation (Hastorf 1999; therefore like to express my deep gratitude to my WillCox 1999). The storability and drought resistant supervisor Randi Haaland and Terje Oestigaard for qualities of teff might have encouraged teff cultiva- their valuable comments, guidance and discussions. tion during such episodes. The various rituals most essentially related to the cultivation of teff strengthen this assumption. The important cultural and ritual Bibliography values associated with teff (even in areas of Gojjam Agazi, N. that hardly cultivate it) in comparison with those as- sociated with introduced crops, imply that there is an 1997 Temben’s place in the Neolithic of northern old established tradition or cultural system that is Ethiopia. In K. Fukui, E. Kurimoto, and M. based on indigenous crops. The relative ease of us- Shigeta, editors, Ethiopia in Broader Per- ing teff to prepare a variety of foods and its versatile spective, Proceedings of the XIIIth Inter- use, also support its early cultivation. national Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Japan. Kyoto: Shokado Book Sellers, pp. 389-98. Conclusion Studies of Ethiopian prehistoric agriculture fo- cus mainly on external influences as the main stimu- Alemseged, B. lus for its origin. These studies are also restricted to 2006 The Agordat Material, and its Im- northern Ethiopia and Eritrea (Butler et al.1999), and plication for Early Food Production and there is insufficient data that investigates local cul- Regional Contact. M.A. Thesis, Univer- tural, social and ecological factors that might link the sity of Bergen. origin of agriculture to other parts of the country. Examining crop exploitation in a specific setting may be essential to understanding the issue because Barnett, T. Ethiopia has many native crops, diverse environments and cultural groups (Endashaw 1997). This study 1999 The Emergence of Food Production in shows that, as compared to the cultivation and con- Ethiopia. Oxford: BAR International Series, sumption of most other crops, teff exhibits some con- No.763 trasting and unique qualities and processes. It is the

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