381 AB 540. See Assembly Bill 540 Abject Status, of 1.5 Generation

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-04159-2 - Constructing Immigrant “Illegality”: Critiques, Experiences, and Responses Edited by Cecilia Menjívar and Daniel Kanstroom Index More information

Index

AB 540. See Assembly Bill 540 HB 56 in, 272 , 292 , 303 abject status, of 1.5 generation, 94 immigration enforcement in, 272–4 Abrego, Leisy, 375 Alamo, Carlos, 140n1 ACCESS. See Agreements of Ambach v. Norwick , 357 Cooperation in Communities to American Immigration Lawyers Enhance Safety and Security Association, 306 Achieve Act, 97–8 amnesty activism, immigrant in comprehensive immigration under DREAM Act, 175–6 reform, 58 illegality and, organized resistance immigration enforcement and, 184 as, 126–9 anarchists, 41 through legal service organizations, anchor babies, 84–5 , 98–100 127 Andiola, Erika, 173 McCain and, 225 Angle, Sharron, 92 of 1.5 generation, 149–50 Annunciation House, 126 for undocumented young adults, Anti-Defamation League (ADL), 283 162 , 172–4 antiimmigrant groups. ADL. See Anti-Defamation League See also Proposition 187 AEDPA. See Antiterrorism and in Alabama, 273–5 Effective Death Penalty Act experiences of illegality and, 155 age. See also children, immigrant in Georgia, 290 experience for historical philosophy of, 374n42 comprehension of legal status and, immigration as national threat, 227 192 antiimmigrant ordinances Agreements of Cooperation in economic costs as pretext for, 357–9 Communities to Enhance racism as factor in, 355 , 357 Safety and Security at state level, 355–7 (ACCESS), 10–11 Antiterrorism and Effective Alabama Death Penalty Act (AEDPA), antiimmigration law in, 273–5 14–15 , 52–3 FBOs in, 272–4 border enforcement under, 116n1

381

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382 Index

Antiterrorism and Effective Death border crossings Penalty Act (AEDPA) (cont.) nonrights bearers, 122 local law enforcement and, 301 risks of, 113 LPRs under, 205 self-conception from, 122 Oklahoma City bombing and, 14 border enforcement undocumented young adults under AEDPA, 116n1 under, 165 BNHR and, 127–9 Arizona border mechanism model for, 117 immigration enforcement in, 273 , bureaucratic ideology and, 303 , 354–5 , 358–9 68 , 73–4 Legal Workers Arizona Act, 358 CBP and, 70 , 73 , 113–14 Arizona v. United States , 303 , 332 coercive, 12 Armenta, Amada, 302 crimmigration, 115 Arnold, Kathleen, 120 deterrence hypothesis for, 114 Aronoff, Gideon, 283 as entrapment, 123 , 125 Arpaio, Joe, 362 , 370 , 370n33 escalation of, from 1993–present, Assembly Bill 540 (AB 540), 112–16 , 116n1 167 , 237n2 expansion of, 12 assimilation, 230 expedited removal as, 124 asylum, 3 exploitable labor forces and, claims for, 339–40 116–18 attrition-through-enforcement model, future research on, 130–1 274, 329–35 goal of employers, 117 after IIRIRA, 116n1 bad immigrants, 234 illegality and, 120–4 Baez, Joan, 253 inside space and, 118–19 Bailey, Adrian, 250 interior social control from, 12 Beason-Hammon Taxpayer and Joint Task Force North for, 113 Citizen Protection Act (HB 56), Latino agents in, 74 272 , 303 militarization of, 113 , 165 repeal of, 292 near El Paso, Texas, 112 Benmayor, Rina, 251 after 9/11 terrorist attacks, 116 Bernal v. Fainter , 356 after North American Free Trade Bernstein, Joshua, 230 Agreement, 114 BIA. See Board of Immigration Appeals Operation Streamline, 115 Bilbray, Brian, 102 outside space and, 118–19 birthright citizenship, under perfectionism of closure, 129–30 Fourteenth Amendment, political support for, 118 85 , 100–5 political symbolism of, 118 congressional challenges to, 102 with Prevention through Deterrence public opinion on, 104 operation, 71 state challenges to, 103–5 purpose of, 116–18 Birthright Citizenship Act, 102 responses to boundary BNHR. See Border Network for violations, 119 Human Rights with SBInet, 112 Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA), state-centered, 120 339–40 structural violence with, 123

Index 383

timing of, 116–17 Bush, George W., 281 , 362 at U.S.-Mexico border, 63 comprehensive immigration reform border mechanism model, 117 and, 57 , 289 , 370 Border Network for Human Rights deportations under, 329 (BNHR), 127–9 Bustamante, Jorge, 117 Border Patrol, 63 Butler, Judith, 94 congressional deployment of, 299 core values of, 70 Cabell v. Chavez-Salido , 357 Latino agents in, 74 , 80 Cain, Herman, 92 media applications for, 78 California, experiences of illegality in, Border Patrol Search and Rescue 154 . See also Proposition 187 (BORSTAR), 71 Assembly Bill 540 and, 167 Border Protection, Antiterrorism California Dream Act, 95 and Illegal Immigration Control undocumented young adults Act, 55–6 under, 168 border region. See U.S.-Mexico border California Dream Network, 231 , 233 Border under Siege , 74 immigrant rights movement BORSTAR. See Border Patrol Search and, 238 and Rescue infrastructure for, 238–40 Bosniak, Linda, 220 organizational structure of, 237 Bracero Program, 41–2 young adults and, 240 deportation regimes and, 183 Camarota, Steven, 287 end of, 44 cancellation of removal, 3–4 , 345 Brewer, Jan, 97 , 283 , 370 . case studies, of LPRs, 207–18 See also Arizona castes, among illegal people, 2 , 127 Brown, Jerry, 95 Categorically Unequal (Massey), 75 Brown, Michael, 305–6 CBP. See Customs and Border Buchanan, Pat, 91–2 Protection burden of proof, of illegality, 2 Center for Community Change bureaucratic ideology, 64–74 (CCC), 230 , 237 challenges of, 69 Center for Human Immigrant Rights as coercive, 65–9 of Los Angeles (CHIRLA), 237–8 corporate culture and, 68 in immigrant rights movement, 238 enforcement agencies in, 68 , 73–4 young adults and, 240 ethnic dimensions of, 65 Chapman, Leonard F., Jr., 86 future research on, 79–80 Chavez, Leo, 67 , 98 , 122 , 375 hierarchy in, 66 Chertoff, Michael, 362 illegality and, 65 children, immigrant experience for in larger society, 77–9 awareness of legal status, 198 moral authority and, 70–3 deportation fears for, 190 , 198–9 organization as part of, 68 exclusion for, 194 racial dimensions of, 65 fear of law enforcement as, 190 scope of, 67–9 future research on, 199–200 social orders of society, 65 of illegality, 153 , 193–8 structuration theory and, 65 in Ohio, 193–5 U.S. immigration policy and, 69 peer awareness for, 196 Bush, George H. W., 329 Rule of Law and, 332

384 Index

children, immigrant experience for under Bush, G. W., 57 , 289 , 370 (cont.) deportation under, 58 social interactions as part of, 196 labor capital and, 58 teasing as part of, 194 Obama and, 57 Chinese Exclusion Laws, 344–5 undocumented workers and, 58 CHIRLA. See Center for Human Connor, Bull, 273 Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles Constitution, U.S. See also Fourteenth Christian responses, to immigration Amendment enforcement, 275–83 as immigration loophole, 335 ambivalence in, 285–7 Rule of Law and, 335 Christians for Comprehensive constitutional protections, for Immigration Reform, 281 undocumented young Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day adults, 166–8 Saints (CLDS), 286–7 Corsaro, Bill, 199 citizenship. See also birthright Coutin, Susan B., 93 , 249 citizenship, under Fourteenth coyotes. See migrant smugglers Amendment criminal activity congressional challenges to, 102 crimmigration and, 115 cultural, 219 deportation after, 10 , 16 under Fourteenth Amendment, under IIRIRA, 15n24 85 , 100–5 criminal alien category, 10 LPRs and, 204 under IIRIRA, 51–2 as mechanism of exclusion, 204 redefi nition of, 16 as national enterprise, 12 crimmigration, 115 righteousness of, 73 Cuban Adjustment Act, 4 , 345 social, 219 cultural citizenship, 219 territorial rights and, 204 , 219–20 among Latinos, 251–4 Citizenship without Consent: Illegal Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Aliens in the American Polity 70 , 73 , 113–14 (Schuck and Smith), 101–2 funding increases for, 330 Civil War, U.S., Fourteenth Amendment after, 101 DACA program. See Deferred Action CLDS. See Church of Jesus Christ of for Childhood Arrivals program Latter-Day Saints Davis, Kenneth, 305 Cockcroft, James, 40 “A Day without an Immigrant,” 56 coercive border enforcement, 12 Deferred Action for Childhood wage theft and, 76 , 76n5 Arrivals (DACA) program, 11 , Coleman, Mathew, 302 84 , 96–8 “The Coming Anarchy” (Kaplan), legal status of, 11n12 88 Obama and, 276 communities, mixed-status, 143–5 1.5 generation under, 96–8 community gardens. See urban De Genova, Nicholas, 275 , community gardens 300 , 364 comprehensive immigration Department of Homeland Security reform, 56–8 (DHS) adjustment of status in, 57 CBP and, 70 , 73 , 113–14 amnesty as part of, 58 funding increases for, 330

Index 385

ideological themes for, 69–77 family separation fears and, 189–91 INS absorbed into, 53–4 , 248 future research on, 199–200 deportation during Great Depression, 183 absolute right of United States misunderstandings of to, 72–3 immigration, 191–3 under Bush, G. H. W., 329 national context for, 182–5 under Bush, G. W., 329 after 9/11 terrorist attacks, 182–5 case studies of, 207–18 unintended consequences of, children’s fears of, 190 , 198–9 189–93 as civil issue, 206 detention under comprehensive immigration average daily population of, 16 reform, 58 average length of, 17n26 by country of origin, 17 condition of facilities, 17n27 after criminal activity, 10 , 16 under ICE, 16–17 , 181 under DREAM Act, 96 immigration enforcement due process protections, 340 and, 16–17 to El Salvador, 17 deterrence hypothesis, 114 expedited removal and, 124 Development, Relief, and Education of families, 10 for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act forced, 41 activism under, 175–6 as form of exclusion, 17 California Dream Act, 95 , 168 to Guatemala, 17 case study for, 95–6 to Honduras, 17 Democratic support for, 232 under IIRIRA, 16 , 52 , 78 deportation under, 96 under Immigration Act of early advocates of, 225–6 1990, 206 exhibition of Americanness judicial review of, 205–7 and, 231 as legal application and fetish, 38 FBOs and, 276 of LPRs, 203 , 205–18 function of, 95 to Mexico, 17 , 40–1 , 46 Napolitano support for, 232 from New Jersey, 197–8 under Obama, 96 under Obama, 329 Obama statement about, 232 from Ohio, 198 1.5 generation under, 94–7 , 148–50 through Operation Secure passage of, 95 Communities, 141 as passage to legalization, 150 rates of, 8 , 166n3 , 171 as path to legalization, 150 under Reagan, 330 positive results of, 150 retroactive, 52n52 qualifi cations for, 95 self-deportation, 12 Republican support for, 232–3 suspension of, 3 self-identifi cation under, 12 through 287(g) programs, 141 social mobilization as result of, 264 Deportation Nation (Kanstroom), 249 Tancredo and, 173 deportation regimes, Mexican themes for, 232 migration and years without passage of, 95 apprehension rates, 183 DHS. See Department of Homeland Bracero Program, 183 Security children as fearful of, 190 Dobbs, Lou, 99–100

386 Index

DREAM Act. See Development, entrapment, border enforcement as, Relief, and Education for Alien 123 , 125 Minors Act Epp, Charles, 304 Dreby, Joanna, 375 ethnic ideology, 65 drug cartels, 184 Europe, immigrant struggles in, 242 due process, in Rule of Law, 340–2 Evangelical Latinos, 282 Durbin, Richard, 230 Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), 280–1 education, U.S. system. E-Verify, 331 , 360 See also Development, Relief, and exclusion Education for Alien Minors Act children’s immigrant experience GED programs, 211 and, 194 under IRCA, 168 citizenship as mechanism of, 204 for 1.5 generation, 93 deportation as ultimate form of, 17 Plyler v. Doe and, 167–8 , 173 in experience of illegality, 142 , 157 Proposition 187 and, 168 expedited removal, 124 restrictions on, illegality and, 7 experiences of illegality. social stratifi cation in, See also children, immigrant 167–8 , 178–9 experience for undocumented young adults in, antiimmigrant groups and, 155 163–4 , 167 in California, 154 ELCA. See Evangelical Lutheran for children, 153 , 193–8 Church in America exclusion as part of, 142 , 157 El Paso, Texas for families, 153–4 , 156 Annunciation House, 126 future research on, 157–8 border enforcement near, 112 gender infl uences on, 150–4 Joint Task Force North near, 113 generational infl uences on, 145–50 El Salvador local context for, 154–6 deportation rates back to, 17 for mixed-status families, 156 immigration from, 6 as positive force, 151 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for faith-based organizations (FBOs), Defense, 54 immigration responses and employers in Alabama, 272–4 under IRCA, 49–50 , 359–62 ambivalence of, 285–7 labor recruitment by, through attrition though enforcement model undocumented immigration, 42 for, 274 wage theft and, 76 , 76n5 Beason-Hammon Taxpayer and empowerment Citizen Protection Act and, 272 classes, in urban community as challengers of illegality, 276–7 gardens, 264–5 Christian responses, 275–83 illegality and, for women, 262–6 Christians for Comprehensive social capital from, 265 Immigration Reform, 281 enforcement. See border enforcement DREAM Act and, 276 enforcement fi rst philosophy, 16 ELCA and, 280–1 Enhanced Border Security and Visa Evangelical Protestant organizations Entry Reform Act, 54 and, 281–2

Index 387

future research for, 292–3 birthright citizenship under, Jewish responses, 283–5 85 , 100–5 Muslim responses, 283–5 after Civil War, 101 New Sanctuary Movement and, jus soli principle, 100–1 277–8 , 277n8 repeal of, 84–5 for Roman Catholics, 287 Rule of Law and, 334 Rule of Law for, 329n1 France, immigrant struggles in, 242 surveys for, 287–90 Franklin Community Garden, 254–8 transformative power of encounter meals at, 261 and, 290–2 Fugitive Operation Teams (FOTs), 71 USCCB, 278 fugitives, defi nition of, 71n1 WCC and, 276–7 Falcón, Sylvanna, 140n1 Gallegly, Elton, 102 families. See also children, immigrant Galtung, Johan, 123n2 experience for Garcia, Juana, 369 anchor babies in, 84–5 The Garden , 251 deportation of, 10 GED programs. See general education experiences of illegality for, development programs 153–4 , 156 gender, experiences of illegality mixed-status, 76–7 and, 150–4 under Rule of Law, 336–7 contextual infl uences on, 151 separation of, through deportation generational infl uences on, 152 regimes, 189–91 IRCA and, 151 sponsoring for relatives, 100 for 1.5 generation, 152 undocumented, 9–10 as positive challenge, 152 Family Educational Rights and positive results of, 152 Privacy Act, 171 in private spaces, 150–1 FBOs. See faith-based organizations in public spaces, 150–1 females. See women, experiences of General Board of Church and illegality for Society of the United Methodist fertility rates. See also population Church, 275 growth, Mexican general education development (GED) immigration and programs, 211 in Mexico, 86–9 generations, experiences of illegality fi rst-generation immigrants, by, 145–50 experiences of illegality for fi rst-generation for, 145–6 immigrants, 145–6 Fix, Michael, 106 by gender, 152 Flores, William, 251 Georgetti, Ken, 361 Folie v. Connelie , 357 Georgia, antiimmigration groups in, forced deportation, 41 290 Foreign Policy (Huntington), 89 Goffmann, Erving, 233 forensic illegality, 1–2 Golash-Boza, Tanya, 249 , 375 FOTs. See Fugitive Operation Teams Gold, Jonathan, 253 Foucault, Michel, 8 Gómez, Andrea, 173 governmentality concept, 64 Gomez-Barris, Macarena, 250 Fourteenth Amendment Gonzales, Roberto, 193 , 375

388 Index

good immigrants, 234 housing, restrictions on, illegality as governmentality, 64 infl uence on, 7 Graham, Lindsey, 100 Huckabee, Mike, 233 Graham v. Richardson , 356 Human Rights First, 338 Graves, Michael, 369 Human Rights Watch, 10 , 335–6 , 342 Great Britain, immigration Huntington, Samuel, 67 , 89 enforcement in, 6 on reconquest narrative, 91 Great Depression Hutchison, Kay Bailey, 97–8 deportation regimes during, for Mexican migration, 183 ICE. See Immigration and Customs immigration enforcement Enforcement during, 77–8 ideologies Greve, Michael, 301 bureaucratic, 64–74 , 77–80 Griffi ths, In re , 356 construction of, 64 Grodzins, Martin, 301 for DHS, 69–77 Guatemala, deportation rates back ethnic, 65 to, 17 hegemonic, 64–5 Gutierrez, Luis, 230 of immigration enforcement, 69–77 negative labeling and, 67–8 Haitian Refugee Immigration Fairness racial, 65 Act, 4 state-produced, 66 Hammond, Bette, 88 IIRIRA. See Illegal Immigration Hammond, Mickey, 273 Reform and Immigrant Hannah, Darryl, 253 Responsibility Act Hart-Celler Immigration Act, 38 illegal alien Mexican immigration under, 45 criminal category, 10 , 16 Hazelton, Pennsylvania, 353–4 as delegitimizing concept, 75–6 HB 47, 287 early U.S. pioneers as, 40n1 HB 56. See Beason-Hammon as euphemism, 1 Taxpayer and Citizen multiplicity of meanings for, 1 Protection Act illegal immigrants, 4n6 , 73 , 247 Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, 283 Illegal Immigration Reform and hegemonic ideologies, 64–5 Immigrant Responsibility Act helplessness, from illegality, 144–5 (IIRIRA) Herbert, Steve, 305–6 criminal activity and, 15n24 Heredia, Luisa Laura, 375 criminal aliens under, 51–2 Heyman, Josiah McC., 76 , 364 deportation rates under, 16 , 52 , 78 Hing, Bill Ong, 288n20 development of, 51–3 Hirschman, Charles, 282 escalation of border enforcement Hochschild, Jennifer, 101 after, 116n1 Hoffman Plastics Compound, Inc. v. expansion of criminal defi nitions NLRB , 335 under, 206 , 248 Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette, federal/state partnership models 284 , 374 under, 18 Honduras, deportation rates back funding increases under, for to, 17 enforcement, 18–19 honorary whites, 79 local law enforcement and, 301

Index 389

LPRs under, 205 justifi cation of, 111 nonviolent offenses under, lack of solidarity from, 142–3 reclassifi cation of, 51 as legal concept, 1–2 , 4n4 Oklahoma City bombing and, 14 life cycle stages and, 7 retroactive deportation under, 52n2 long-term, 267 Rule of Law and, 337 LPRs and, 203 undocumented young adults under, media infl uences on, 140 , 142–3 165 after 9/11 terrorist attacks, 140 illegal people for 1.5 generation, 93 , 146–50 castes among, 2 , 127 organized resistance to, 126–9 as shadow population, 3 performance of, 111 illegality. See also experiences of as personal devaluation, 146 illegality racialization of, 166 average length of residency social activities infl uenced by, 7 and, 249 social cleavages from, 7 binary categories of, 247 social critique and, 262–6 border enforcement and, 120–4 social differences from, 192 bureaucratic ideology and, 65 spatial acts of strategic causes of, 111 visibility, 250 conclusive proof of, 2 as stigma, 146 construction of, for Mexican subjective experience of, 94 migration, 39–47 subordinate status from, 127–8 context of, 248 technical complexities of, 3 contours of, 247–51 transition to, for undocumented defi nition of, 140 young adults, 163 , 168–73 developmental outcomes from, 7 urgency of, 247–51 as economic barrier, 153–4 variations in experiences, 6–7 education restrictions and, 7 Immigrant Act of 1965, 248 exclusion from, 142 , 157 immigrant illegality female empowerment and, 262–6 bearers of, 5 for fi rst-generation construction of, 4 immigrants, 145–6 ideological effects of, 43 forensic, 1–2 laws as infl uence in creation of, 13 functions of, 246 production of, 5 future research on, 59–60 immigrant rights movement. generational infl uences on, 145–50 See also Development, Relief, and helplessness from, 144–5 Education for Alien Minors Act housing restrictions and, 7 assimilation for, 230 , 235 immigration equated with, 191 attributes of immigrants in, 229 for in-betweens, 163–4 , 176–8 backstage performances in, 233–4 inclusion through, 47–8 California Dream Network insecurity as result of, 142 and, 238 interiorized mode of being and, 6 CHIRLA and, 237–8 internalization of, 141–5 consistency of message within, intersectionalities perspective 229–35 for, 250 disciplined messengers within, isolation from, 250 235–40

390 Index

immigrant rights movement (cont.) academic literature on, 6 front-stage performances in, 233–4 in Alabama, 272–4 future comparative research amnesty programs and, 184 for, 242–3 in Arizona, 273 , 303 , 354–5 good compared to bad immigrants asylum claims, 339–40 and, 234 Christian responses to, 275–83 hostility in, 227–9 during Cold War, 46 immigrants rights associations detention as part of, 16–17 in, 230–1 enforcement fi rst philosophy, 16 mobilization of, 262–6 expansion of, budget for, 13n13 national belongings as part of, 235 federal primacy over, establishment national identifi cation and, 230 of, 303 power dynamic in, 227–9 in Great Britain, 6 Proposition 187 and, 230 during Great Depression, 77–8 public representation of self ideological themes of, 69–77 in, 228–9 illegality equated with, 191 in public sphere, 227 inclusiveness of, 45 RIFA and, 237–8 in Israel, 6 staying on message in, 226 Jewish responses to, 283–5 storytelling as part of, 238 mass incarcerations and, 6 UWD and, 236–8 mistrust in Latino communities as voice as part of, 226–9 , 235–40 result of, 20n35 in xenophobic environments, 228 Muslim responses to, 283–5 Immigrant Youth Justice League, 94 under Obama, 370–3 Immigration Act of 1990, 50–1 penal severity and, 6 deportations under, 206 public opinion on, 328 U.S. Border Patrol under, 50 punitive, 249 Immigration and Customs quotas under, 48 Enforcement (ICE). See also local redesign of, 47–8 law enforcement, of immigration Secure Fence Act and, 56 apprehension rates under, 71 smart enforcement strategy, 11 detention under, 16–17 , 181 sponsoring and, 100 fugitive defi nition for, 71n1 beyond U.S. borders, 12 funding increases for, 330 during War on Terror, 53–6 Latino agents in, 74 , 80 immigration law, in United States. Memoranda of Agreement and, 20 See also specifi c laws ; specifi c new programs under, 10–11 legislation after 9/11, 147 as crisis management, 43 nonrenewal of agreements under, 18 legal foundations of, 17 undocumented young adults racism as infl uence on, 17 and, 165–6 Immigration and Nationalities Act immigration enforcement, U.S. (1952), 45 See also deportation ; local law Immigration and Nationality Act enforcement, of immigration ; (1996), 18 Rule of Law ; smart enforcement Immigration and Naturalization strategy ; U.S. Border Patrol ; Service (INS) specifi c laws ; specifi c legislation absorption into DHS, 53–4 , 248

Index 391

funding increases for, 330 Joint Task Force North, for border Mexican immigration and, 45 enforcement, 113 racial profi ling by, 49 judicial review reorganization of, 248 of deportation orders, 205–7 immigration reform Rule of Law and, 340–2 under Bush, G. W., 57 , 289 jus soli principle, 100–1 comprehensive, 56–8 Justice for Immigrants campaign, under Hart-Celler Immigration Act 291 of 1965, 38 institutionalized racism and, Kanstroom, Daniel, 182 , 249 , 301 362–70 Kaplan, Robert D., 88 palliative sanctuaries compared Kennedy, John F., 364 to, 266 Kennedy, Ted, 364 under Rule of Law, 37 Kerwin, Donald, 354–5 Immigration Reform (1996), 52 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 273 Immigration Reform and Control Act King, Steve, 102–3 (IRCA) Know-Nothing Party, 278 educational access under, 168 Koopmans, Ruud, 242 employer sanctions under, 359–62 Ku Klux Klan, 274 gender experiences of illegality Kyl, Jon, 97–8 and, 151 Reagan and, 49–50 , 248 labeling. See negative labeling Rule of Law and, 151 labor capital, 58 imprisonment. See mass incarceration labor forces, through migration in-betweens, illegality for, border enforcement and, 116–18 163–4 , 176–8 as capital, 58 INS. See Immigration and for males, experiences of illegality Naturalization Service and, 150 inside space, 118–19 state-enforced traffi cking, 130 institutionalized racism, 362–70 superexploitation of, 121–2 , 126 interiorized mode of being, 6 labor recruitment, immigration and Irazabal, Clara, 250 employer preferences, 42 IRCA. See Immigration Reform and from Mexico, 40 Control Act public charges and, 41 Islamic Circle of North superexploitation of, 121–2 , 126 America, 284 of undocumented migrants, 42 Islamic Society of North America wage theft and, 76 , 76n5 (ISNA), 284 Lacey, Matt, 273 ISNA. See Islamic Society of North Latin American migration. See specifi c America nations Israel, immigration in, 6 Latino communities identifi cation with white Jewish responses, to immigration mainstream for, 79 enforcement, 283–5 immigration enforcement and, John Paul II (Pope), 278 mistrust as result of, 20n35 Johnson, Kevin, 363n29 Latino cultural citizenship, 251–4 Johnson, Lyndon, 364 claims of space in, 251

392 Index

Latino Cultural Citizenship: Claiming accountability for, 314 Identity, Space and Rights , 251 AEDPA and, 301 Latino sheriffs, 319 ambiguity in, 305 Latino Threat Narrative, 67 , 86 , 92 attitudinal approach, 315 local law enforcement and, 299 children as fearful of, 190 Law, Sylvia, 368n32 community outreach and, 313 Lee, Mike, 102 cooperative federalism and, 298 legal nonexistence, 247 devolution of power and, 301–4 legal permanent residents (LPRs) discretion in, 304–7 under AEDPA, 205 enforcement scores for, 315–16 , 318 case studies of, 207–18 executive branch of, 313 citizenship and, 204 expansion of surveillance by, 249 deportation of, 203 , 205–18 external pressures on, 314–20 development of laws for, 345 future research for, 321–2 future research on, 220–1 governing board immigration GEDs for, 211 policy, 311 under IIRIRA, 205 IIRIRA and, 301 illegality and, 203 immigration-related perceptions under Immigrant Act of 1965, 248 for, 310 judicial review of, 205–7 interaction with federal offi cials, 312 liminal legality for, 215 interactions with immigrants, 322 under Nicaraguan Adjustment and internal commitments and, 314–20 Central American Relief Act, 214 internal organization of, 307–14 for political refugees, 345 internal policies for, 314 Legal Workers Arizona Act, 358 for Latino threat, 299 legality legality and, 304–7 binary categories of, 247 liminal legality and, 304 defi nition of, 300 in New Jersey, 188 in-between status, 9 in Ohio, 188 liminal, 6 , 9 operational approach, 315 in xenophobic times, 240–2 partnerships with ICE, 298 Lewis, Paul, 375 Proposition 187 and, 301 life cycle stages, illegality and, 7 under rule of law, 304–7 liminal illegality sheriffs, 309–10 , 312 isolation as result of, 250 state-level politics as infl uence for undocumented young on, 317 adults, 164–5 strategies for, 314–20 liminal legality, 4 , 6 , 9 , 157 , 247 surveys of, 308n2 isolation from, 250 training of, 313 local law enforcement and, 304 trust scores for, 317 for LPRs, 215 287(g) programs and, 301–3 new forms of, 11 López, Agapito, 353 for 1.5 generation, 148 Los Angeles, urban community production of, 164 gardens in, 246–7 local law enforcement, of LPRs. See legal permanent residents immigration. See also Operation Lucero, Hector, 140n1 Secure Communities Luis, Jose, 173

Index 393

Madison, James, 340 debt crisis as infl uence on, 184 Magid, Mohamed (Imam), 284 deportation and, 17 , 40–1 , 46 males, experiences of illegality drug cartels and, 184 for, 150–4 economic recession as infl uence contextual infl uences on, 151 on, 185 generational infl uences on, 152 for females, 184 IRCA and, 151 fertility rates as infl uence on, labor training and, 150 86–9 for 1.5 generation, 152 during Great Depression, 77–8 personal relationships for, 153 under Hart-Celler Immigration Act as positive challenge, 152 of 1965, 45 in private spaces, 150–1 illegal immigrants and, 39–40 in public spaces, 150–1 increased rates of, 46 Malkin, Michelle, 99 INS and, 45 Mancha, Justeen, 369 invasion history with United States Mandela, Nelson, 267 as infl uence on, 40 Marbury v. Madison , 342 Latino Threat Narrative and, 67 Marcuse, Herbert, 78–9 liberalization of, 45 Mares, Teresa, 250 local context for, 185–9 Maril, Robert Lee, 120 Mexican-American War as infl uence Marquardt, Marie Friedmann, 375 on, 63–4 Marshall, John, 342 migratory debts and, 121 Massey, Douglas, 75 , 165 to New Jersey, 186–9 mass incarceration, immigration to Ohio, 186–9 enforcement and, 6 paradox of, 39 McCain, John, 225 pattern changes in, 183–4 immigrant activism and, 225 population growth and, 86–9 media quotas for, 44 Border Patrol applications, 78 racial profi ling and, 185–6 reconquest narrative in, for reconquest of Southwest region Southwest region, 91–2 from, 90–2 representations of illegality in, recruitment of labor and, 40 140 , 142–3 restrictions on, 44 undocumented immigrants and, 143 as revolving door, 40–2 Mellonkopf, John, 101 Secure Fence Act and, 56 Menjívar, Cecilia, 157 , 163 , 199 , 250 , social service infrastructure 304 for, 187–8 Mercy Housing Corporation, 265–6 beyond Southwest region, 184 Mexican-American War, 63–4 , 183 stigmatization of, 42–7 Mexicanos en Exilio, 127 as threat to social order, 67 Mexico, immigration from, 6 . 287(g) programs for, 185–6 See also deportation regimes, undocumented population Mexican migration and ; New rates, 181 Jersey, Mexican immigration to ; U.S. border and, 63 Ohio, Mexican immigration to ; U.S. Border Patrol and, 40 U.S.-Mexico border Migrant Education Program, 353 under Bracero Program, 41–2 , 44 migrant smugglers (coyotes), 123

394 Index

migration. See undocumented Negrón-Gonzales, Genevieve, 375 migration the Netherlands, immigrant struggles migratory debts, 121 in, 242 militarization, of border Nevins, Joseph, 119 enforcement, 113 New Jersey, Mexican immigration at U.S.-Mexico border, to, 186–9 165 , 184 law enforcement of, 188 Miranda, Olga, 372 managing legality in, 195–8 mixed-status families, 76–7 Operation Secure Communities, 186 anchor babies in, 84–5 threats of deportation, 197–8 experiences of illegality for, 156 New Sanctuary Movement, 277–8 , sponsoring for, 100 277n8 U.S.-Mexico border and, 124 Newsweek , 87 , 89 moral authority, bureaucratic Newton, Lina, 98 ideology, 70–3 New York Times , 226n1 Morales, Daniel Ibsen, 92 NFOP. See National Fugitive Morales, Maria Cristina, 122 Operations Program Moran, Jerry, 102 NHCLC. See National Hispanic Motomura, Hiroshi, 3 Christian Leadership Conference Muslim Public Affairs Council, 284 Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central Muslim responses, to immigration American Relief Act, 4 enforcement, 283–5 LPRs under, 214 Nicholls, Walter, 276 , 375 NAFTA. See North American Free NILC. See National Immigration Law Trade Agreement Center NAIJ. See National Association of 9/11 terrorist attacks, 14n15 Immigration Judges border enforcement after, 116 Napolitano, Janet, 362 , 370 deportation regimes after, 182–5 support for DREAM Act, 232 ICE after, 147 National Association of Immigration illegality defi nition after, 140 Judges (NAIJ), 340–1 noncitizens. See also legal permanent National Fugitive Operations Program residents (NFOP), 71 illegality of, arbitrariness of, 2 National Hispanic Christian North American Free Trade Leadership Conference Agreement (NAFTA), 114 , (NHCLC), 282–3 360 , 366–7 national identifi cation, 230 National Immigration Law Center Obama, Barack (NILC), 230 , 237 comprehensive immigration reform UWD and, 236–7 and, 57 National Labor Relations Act, 335 DACA program and, 276 national-origins quotas, 45 Deferred Action for Childhood National Review , 87 Arrivals program under, 84 national security, U.S.-Mexico border deportations under, 329 and, 115 DREAM Act and, 96 , 232 negative labeling, 67–8 immigration enforcement of undocumented migration, 77 under, 370–3

Index 395

Latino support for, 80 , 289 urban community gardens as, 247 Ohio, Mexican immigration to, 186–9 Palmer Raids, 77 children’s experiences, 193–5 Paredes, Christian, 119 deportation from, 198 Parker, Kunal, 204 local law enforcement of, 188 Paso del Norte Civil Rights managing legality in, 195–8 Project, 127 Operation Secure Communities, 186 Paul, Rand, 102 Oklahoma City bombing, 14 Pearce, Russell, 92 Olivas, Michael, 166 Peña, Devon, 250 , 252 1.5 generation, 93–8 . See also young Perez, William, 175 adults, undocumented permanent temporariness, abject status of, 94 247 academic achievement for, 148–9 Personal Responsibility and Work activism of, 149–50 Opportunity Reconciliation Act, citizenship status of, 93–4 52 under DACA program, 96–8 undocumented young adults under DREAM Act, 94–7 , 148–50 under, 165 experiences of illegality for, 146–50 Plaza Mexico, 251 by gender, experiences of illegality Plyler v. Doe , 167–8 , 173 , and, 152 334–5 , 356–7 illegality for, 93 limitations of, 168 liminal status for, 148 population growth, Mexican schooling for, 93 immigration and, 86–9 sense of belonging for, 147 Zero Population Growth, 86–7 socialization of, 146–7 precarious legal status, 247 stigma for, 146 Prevention through Deterrence One-Dimensional Man operation, 71 (Marcuse), 78–9 Price, Marie, 250 Operation Secure private spaces, experiences of illegality Communities, 19–20 in, 150–1 deportation through, 141 proof, of illegality. See burden functions of, 302 of proof goals of, 299 Proposition 187, 88 as interference to community education for undocumented youth policing, 313 under, 168 national controversy over, 20 immigrant rights movement in New Jersey, 186 and, 230 in Ohio, 186 local law enforcement of, 301 requirements of, 306–7 Provine, Doris Marie, 375 screening through, 331 public charges, 41 Operation Streamline, 115 public spaces, experiences of illegality Operation Wetback, 78 in, 150–1 outside space, 118–19 for males, 151 punitive immigration Packer, Herbert, 304–5 enforcement, 249 palliative sanctuaries, immigration reform compared to, 266 Quebec Model, 90

396 Index

quotas changes to, 344–6 for Mexico immigration, 44 children and, 332 national-origins, 45 clarity under, 329 under U.S. immigration Constitution as, 335 enforcement, 48 due process in, 340–2 family unity under, 336–7 racial ideology, 65 for FBOs, 329n1 racial profi ling Fourteenth Amendment and, 334 by INS, 49 future research for, 347 Mexican immigration and, 185–6 IIRIRA and, 337 racism immigration enforcement in antiimmigrant ordinances, and, 327–8 355 , 357 immigration reform and, 37 illegality and, 166 judicial review and, 340–2 immigration law infl uenced by, 17 labor rights and, 335–6 institutionalized, 362–70 for lawmakers outside law, 342–4 Reagan, Ronald, 84 local law enforcement of deportations under, 330 immigration under, 304–7 IRCA and, 49–50 , 248 meaning of, 328–9 REAL ID Act, 54–5 WJP and, 328 issuance of identifi cation cars under, 55 Sale v. Haitian Centers Council , 337 reconquest narrative, for Southwest sanctuaries. See palliative sanctuaries region, 90–2 . See also Latino sanctuary cities, 186 Threat Narrative sanctuary spaces, 254 . See also urban Huntington on, 91 community gardens in media, 91–2 Sandoval, Fidencio, 369 Reform Immigration for America Saperstein, Rabbi David, 283 (RIFA), 237–8 Sassen-Koob, Saskia, 79 Refugee Act (1980), 48 Saucedo, Leticia, 122 refugees, 338 , 367 Saucedo, Renee, 372–3 Reid, Harry, 231–2 Save Our State movement, 88 Reimers, David, 47 Saveur , 253 residency rights, for undocumented SB 1070, 273 , 303 , 354–5 young adults, 234 national response to, 358–9 retroactive deportation, 52n52 SBC. See Southern Baptist Conference RIFA. See Reform Immigration for SBInet, border enforcement with, 112 America Schuck, Peter, 101–2 Rodríguez, Nestor, 119 , 374 Section 287(g). See 287(g) programs Rosaldo, Renato, 84 , 251 Secure Communities. See Operation Ruiz, Jose Miguel, 374 Secure Communities Rule of Law Secure Fence Act, 56 access to justice in, 329 seditionists, 41 administration of, 329 self-deportation, 12 , 276 , 327 , as aspirational, 329 331–2 , 371 attrition-through-enforcement Shadowed Lives (Chavez), 98 strategies with, 329–35 shadow population, 3

Index 397

sheriffs, 309–10 spaces of sanctuary, 254 . See also federal reimbursement for, 312 urban community gardens Latino, 319 Spector, Carlos, 127 racial demographics for, 309 Stanford Avalon Community skills building, for undocumented Garden, 253 young adults, 164 state-produced ideology, 66 Skolnick, Jerome, 304–5 as coercive, 66–7 smart enforcement strategy, 11 stigma, illegality as, 146 illegality under, enlargement of, 19 for undocumented immigrants, 227 Operation Secure storytelling, 238 Communities, 19–20 Strangers No Longer: Together on the Smith, Lamar, 343 Journey , 278 Smith, Rogers, 101–2 structuration theory, 65 Snyder, Susanna, 375 Sugarman v. Dougall , 356 social activities, illegality as suspension of deportation, 3 infl uence on, 7 Sweeney, John, 361 social capital, from empowerment, 265 Tancredo, Tom, 173 social citizenship, 219 Tanton, John, 87 social cleavages, 7 Temporary Protected Status, 4 social order, of society, 65 territorial rights, citizenship and, 204 , Mexican immigration as threat 219–20 to, 67 Thomas, Robert, 122 social services, use of, 89–90 Travelers Together program, 291 for Mexican immigrants, 187–8 287(g) programs social stratifi cation, in U.S. deportation through, 141 educational system, 167–8 , 178–9 local law enforcement and, 301–3 social welfare agencies, 249 for Mexican immigration, 185–6 Soja, Edward, 250 replacement of, 303 solidarity, 122–4 , 278–81 lack of, from illegality, 142–3 undocumented migration. South Central Farm, 251–3 See also young adults, funding of, 252n4 undocumented razing of, 253 comprehensive immigration reform Southern Baptist Conference and, 58 (SBC), 286 families and, 9–10 Southwest region, in United States generational infl uences on, 145–50 Mexican immigration into, 184 ideological branding of, 76 reconquest of, 90–2 labor recruitment and, 42 space media representations of, 143 inside, 118–19 from Mexico, 181 outside, 118–19 negative labeling of, 77 private, gender experiences 1.5 generation and, 93–8 in, 150–1 social construction of, 300 public, gender experiences in, 150–1 stigma from, 227 spaces of belonging, 166–70 use of social services and, 89–90 spaces of resistance, 172–3 as violation of border sanctity, 37

398 Index

United Nations Convention relating to national security as issue, 115 the Status of Refugees, 337 regional residents of, illegality United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 334 and, 124–6 United We Dream (UWD), 236–8 social construction of, 65 infrastructure for, 238 stratifi cation of citizenship status urban community gardens along, 125 empowerment classes in, 264–5 Utah Franklin Community CLDS in, 286–7 Garden, 254–8 HB 47 in, 287 functions of, 266 UWD. See United We Dream future research on, 268 homeland identity as result of, 226 Van Hook, Jennifer, 106 as intrinsic sites of resistance, 266 Vásquez, Manuel, 375 in Los Angeles, 246–7 Verdinez, Manuel, 369 meals in, 260–1 Vila, Pablo, 129 as palliative sanctuaries, 247 violence plot rental rates for physical, 123 gardeners, 253n8 structural, 123–4 as recreation of homeland, 258–62 Violence Against Women Act, 4 social connection through, 254–8 visa backlogs, 365 South Central Farm, voice, in immigrant rights 251–3 , 252n4 movement, 226–9 Stanford Avalon Community maintenance of, 235–40 Garden, 253 production of, 229 for women, 255–6 , 267 USA PATRIOT Act, 15n19 , 54 wage theft, 76 , 76n5 U.S. Border Patrol War on Terror early enforcement by, 40 Arab targets during, 54 founding of, 63 Border Protection, Antiterrorism under Immigrant Act of 1990, 50 and Illegal Immigration Control selective enforcement by, against Act during, 55–6 Mexicans, 40 declaration of state of emergency U.S. Catholic Conference of Bishops during, 54 (USCCB), 278 Emergency Supplemental USCCB. See U.S. Catholic Conference Appropriations Act for Defense of Bishops during, 54 U.S. Citizen Reform Act, 102 Enhanced Border Security and Visa U.S. News & World Report , 86–7 , 89 Entry Reform Act during, 54 U.S.-Mexico border, 63 . immigration enforcement See also border enforcement ; during, 53–6 Border Patrol ; California, Muslim targets during, 54 experiences of illegality in ; El REAL ID Act during, 54–5 Paso, Texas WCC. See World Council of as dangerous place, 115 Churches death rates along, 184 We Are Americans: Undocumented militarization of, 165 , 184 Students Pursuing the American mixed-status families near, 124 Dream (Perez), 175

Index 399

Welcoming Christ in the Migrant , California Dream Network 278–9 and, 240 Whitworth, Courtney, 250 CHIRLA support for, 240 Wiesel, Elie, 277 constitutional protections Wiles, Richard, 129 for, 166–8 Wilson, James, 305 dominant identities for, 174–6 Wilson, Pete, 88–9 under Family Educational Rights WJP. See World Justice Project and Privacy Act, 171 women, experiences of illegality future research applications for, 150–4 for, 178–9 contextual infl uences on, 151 ICE and, 165–6 empowerment consciousness under IIRIRA, 165 for, 262–6 as in-betweens, 163–4 generational infl uences on, 152 under IRCA, 168 IRCA and, 151 liminal illegality for, 164–5 from Mexico, 184 meritocracy in United States for1.5 generation, 152 for, 174 as positive challenge, 152 new narratives for, 172–3 positive results of, 152 under Personal Responsibility and in private spaces, 150–1 Work Opportunity Reconciliation in public spaces, 150–1 Act, 165 as transnational mothers, 258 Plyler v. Doe , 167–8 urban community gardens and, under Proposition 187, 167 255–6 , 267 residency rights for, 234 World Council of Churches rites of passage for, 169 (WCC), 276–7 skills building for, 164 World Justice Project (WJP), 328 spaces of resistance for, 172–3 World Trade Organization state-sanctioned spaces of belonging (WTO), 366–7 for, 166–70 transition to illegality for, 163 , Yick Wo v. Hopkins , 356 168–73 young adults, undocumented. as unknowing minors, 232 See also children, immigrant in U.S. educational system, 163–4 , experience for 167 , 169 activism for, 162 , 172–4 under AEDPA, 165 Zero Population Growth, 86–7 Americanizing experiences for, 169 Zigler, James, 343 under Assembly Bill 540, 167 Zlolniski, Christian, 122 under California Dream Act, 168 Zolberg, Aristide, 45