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Jesuit School of Theology

3-1-1993

Discernment of Spirits

Michael J. Buckley S.J.

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DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS The capacity for the discernment of spir­ its responds to a profound expectation and a pervasive temptation within Christian­ ity. All human beings who search for God want God to guide their lives, and Chris­ tians have been taught normatively to ex­ pect "to be guided by the Spirit" (Gal 5: 18; Rom 8: 14). Such expectations, both of a person and of the Church itself, tend to put great emphasis upon religious experience, upon an abiding interaction with God that engages affectivity and awareness, under­ standing and choice, prayer and action, in­ ti mate personal relationships, ecclesial sol­ idarity, and the entire way of life of the community. This emphasis becomes temp­ tation only under the persuasion that the intensity of experience absolves one from discretion, critical reflection, and the doc­ trinal content of Christian faith, giving ex­ perience a priority over the unspeakable Mystery that approaches human beings DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS 275 through experience and transferring the re­ Prophetic interpretation emerged in the ligious guidance of a single person or of an historical development of the chosen peo­ entire community to an unchallengeable ple to determine the presence and direc­ subjectivity, to sentimentality or supersti­ tion of God in the life of the community, tion or excited enthusiasms. and a corresponding set of criteria evolved This sense of ambiguity, of the tension among the people for recognizing the between longing and temptation, is found soundness of individual prophecy (Deut in both Pauline and Johannine theology. In 18:21 ff.). Prophets were to be judged by the earliest canonical document of the their own orthodoxy, the fulfillment of Church, Paul directs the Christian commu­ their prophecy, the contents of their proph­ nity: "Do not quench the Spirit. Do not de­ ecy, and the morality of their lives; the ac­ spise prophetic utterances. Test everything curate discrimination by the people would (panta dokimazete); retain what is good. depend upon the living faith of the com­ Refrain from every kind of evil" (I Thess munity, its fidelity to and sense of the cove­ 5: 19-22). The First Letter of John counsels: nant, and an openness to be guided and "Beloved, do not trust every spirit but test corrected by God (McNamara et al. , pp. the spirits (dokimazete ta pneumata) to see 3-13). whether they belong to God, because many In the Essene community at Qumran, false prophets have gone out into the during the second century before Christ, world" (1 Jn 4:1). Religious experience is discernment of spirits as such emerges in almost always an equivocal reality, inher­ the Manual ofDiscipline, the rule oflife for ently ambiguous. Even Christian freedom, this desert community: "For the instructor. for example, can be twisted into a pretext Let him instruct and teach all the sons of for evil (see Gal S: 13). All influences need light, concerning all the categories of men, to be tested prayerfully to determine their all the kinds of spirits found in them, and authenticity. To meet this need, the com­ their distinctive signs." These spirits are munity must be gifted with the discern­ two-those of "truth and perversity"­ ment of spirits. and recognizing this, the community deter­ This NT concern comes out of the expe­ mined "to examine their spirit and their rience of Israel. Although the Hebrew works each year in order to promote each Scriptures did not systematize a doctrine one according to his formation and the per­ or even frame a term for the discernment fection of his conduct, or to move him back of spirits, the practice of this religious dis­ according to his faults" (Manual of Disci­ crimination pervades the OT in the choices pline 3: 13-14; 3: 19; 5:24; see 5:20-21 ; 6: 16- that individuals and, indeed, the entire 17; 9: 14). This discernment is neither the community were called to make. God will OT prophetic interpretation of history nor guide the upright with divine counsels (Ps the community's discrimination among 73:24), but human beings are also liable to prophecies. It is done by another-either a be deceived under the appearance of great wise man or the entire community; its cri­ promise (Gen 3: 13). Good and evil spirits teria are the rules and good order of the were said to come upon a human being, community; its goal is the determination and while all spirits remained under the whether a candidate should be admitted sovereignty of Yahweh, they led in contra­ into the community and in what position. dictory directions ( 1 Sam 16: 14). The (See Guillet et al. , pp. 17-30.) hearts of human beings themselves were the source of enormous ambiguity: "More tortuous than all else is the human heart, New Testament Teaching beyond remedy; who can understand it?" The concern to test and discern the in­ (Jer 17:9-10). fluences that affected the Christian com- 276 DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS munity preoccupied the early Church. Paul ence of the Spirit; the guidance of the numbered among the important charis­ Spirit. mata given by the Spirit the discernment of The primitive and most basic criteria spirits (diakriseis pneumaton-1 Cor were those that indicated that one's actions 12: I 0). This gift responded immediately to were determined in the absence of the Spirit the need of the primitive Christian com­ and under the influence of the "flesh": munity to distinguish among the sources of "Now the works of the flesh are obvious: ecstatic or prophetic utterances-whether immorality, impurity, licentiousness, idola­ from the Spirit of God or demonic spirits. try, sorcery, hatreds, rivalry, jealousy, out­ As pastoral requirements indicated, how­ bursts of fury, acts of selfishness, dissen­ ever, Paul formulated a basic criteriology sions, factions, occasions of envy, drinking by which one could distinguish among all bouts, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I the agencies brought to bear upon the warned you before, that those who do such Church. On the one hand, there was the things will not inherit the kingdom of God" promised guidance from the Spirit of God, (Gal 5:19-21 ; cf. Rom 13:12). The criteria and one must come to recognize this divine are clear (phanera) enough. Whatever the initiative (Rom 8: 14; Gal 5: 18). On the intensity of one's religious emotions and other hand, the community had to be con­ awareness, or whatever the seemingly char­ cerned, as was the Matthean community, ismatic experiences of the community, to distinguish false prophecy from true (Mt these deeds or outbursts are evil and they 7: I 5-20; 12:22-35). indicate the presence of the evil by which Prophecy and leadership were singled one is guided. "While there is jealousy and out as especially demanding this testing be­ rivalry among you, are you not of the cause destructive temptations entered into flesh ... ?" (I Cor 3:3). the Christian community not so much The second level, the presence of the through the immediate attraction to evil as Spirit, is disclosed by the commitment to through the deception worked by the ap­ the mystery of God as disclosed in Jesus parently good. "Such people are false apos­ Christ. "Nobody speaking by the spirit of tles, deceitful workers, who masquerade as God says, 'Jesus be accursed.' And no one apostles of Christ. And no wonder, for even can say, 'Jesus is Lord,' except by the holy Satan masquerades as an angel of light. So Spirit" (I Cor 12:3). The first Johannine it is not strange that his ministers also mas­ letter repeats this same doctrine: "This is querade as ministers of righteousness" (2 how you can know the Spirit of God: every Cor 11 : 13-15). For the early Church, the spirit that acknowledges Jesus Christ come prophetic and the charismatic were equiv­ in the flesh belongs to God, and every ocal experiences, either gift or deception, spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus does but in no sense immediately self-justifying, not belong to God" (I Jn 4:2-3). Specifi­ for the demonic can enter a person's life as cally, this spirit is "of Christ" if it so con­ the apparently more intensely religious. It forms human beings to Christ that they, was imperative to determine how a dis­ like Jesus, are able to address God as crimination among these influences could "Abba, Father" (Rom 8: 12-17; Gal 4:6). be made. But to be renewed, to be "justified," In elaborating the criteria by which the through the presence of the transforming authentic influence of the Spirit of Christ Spirit is still only to "have begun with the could be differentiated from its counter­ Spirit" (see Gal 3:3). feit, Paul distinguished three relationships The third level of the gift of the Spirit is possible between Christians or a Christian the habitual direction by the Spirit, a guid­ community and the promised Spirit of ance which emerges organically from the God: the absence of the Spirit; the pres- second level and which draws to itself the DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS 277 whole Christian life and development: "If disclosed in Jesus Christ. Then what is in we live in the Spirit, let us also follow harmony with that orientation issues in [stoichomen] the Spirit. Let us not be con­ love and joy, peace and patience, kindness ceited, provoking one another, envious of and goodness, etc., and these states of vir­ one another" (Gal 5:25-26). This is to "live tuous affectivity indicate the influential in the Spirit" or to be "guided by the presence of the Spirit. Christians learn to Spirit" (Gal 5: 16, 18), and it follows upon a serve God in this way. "For the kingdom of fundamental understanding of the gospel: God is not a matter of food and drink, but "Those who are led by the Spirit of God are ofrighteousness, peace, and joy in the holy children of God" (Rom 8: 14). Spirit; whoever serves Christ in this way is The Acts of the Apostles presents the life pleasing to God and approved by others" of Paul as embodying this doctrine. By the (Rom 14: 17-18). But the distinction of the Spirit, for example, Paul is sent ( 13:4), is levels and of their corresponding criteria is bound to a particular path (20:22), brought essential. In a similar fundamental dis­ to conviction and choice ( 19:21 ), and even cernment, the Letter to the Ephesians dis­ prevented from some ministries ( 16:6). tinguishes "the works of darkness" from This doctrine applies also for the Christian the "fruit oflight" (Eph 5:9-10). community itself: the Spirit acts in and There are in Paul, then, three levels of through the teaching of the Church ( 15:28), discernment of spirits governed by three comforts and fosters the Church (9:31 ), commensurate criteria. Even more, there is and Paul recognizes that the guardians who an organic development from one level to care for the Church have been established another: from sin through conversion into by the Spirit (20:28). In Galatians, Paul a life of sanctification, as the Spirit of God lists criteria for recognizing the guidance of penetrates human life more deeply: "Do the Spirit, and, like Matthew, he focuses not conform yourself to this age but be upon the commensurate effect: "The fruit transformed by the renewal of your mind, of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, that you may discern (dokimazein) what is kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentle­ the will of God, what is good and pleasing ness, and self-control" (Gal 5:22-23). and perfect" (Rom 12:2; see I Jn 2:23-24). The criteria have changed in subtlety. Hence one can speak of the discernment While the "works of the flesh" are "obvi­ of spirits, both a charismatic gift given by ous," the morality of actions, outbursts and the Spirit of God for the common good of deeds, the "fruit of the Spirit" place greater the whole community and a developed emphasis upon virtuous affectivity; upon Christian capacity to discriminate among such experiences as love and joy, or peace the various spiritual states that are being and gentleness; upon the harmony within experienced-the "spirits"-in order to oneself and within the community-fun­ determine which lead toward God and damental dispositions that underlie Chris­ which lead away from God. The radical tian deeds and make them possible. If one source of such discernment is the Spirit, confuses these different levels, a monster giving a love and a knowledge that trans­ can emerge. If, for example, one finds form the Christian into a "spiritual per­ peace in party spirit or in fornication, the son" (Rom 5:1-5; I Cor 2:12). Connatu­ "peace" or "joy" does not authenticate rally, this enables one to "judge (anakrinei) one's life. The moral quality of the deed all things." The goal of discernment is judges the health of the affectivity. But one "God's wisdom, mysterious, hidden" to lives by the Spirit if there is a prior Chris­ which a person comes, for "we have not re­ tian order in her or his life, an order indi­ ceived the spirit of the world but the Spirit cated by the moral deeds of the Christian that is from God, so that we may under­ and the commitment to the reality of God stand the things freely given us by God" 278 DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS ( 1 Cor 2:7 , 12). For the good of the Church, "We should then constantly search all the various gifts go together, each paired with inner chambers of our hearts, and trace out another as the completion of its nature: the the footsteps of whatever enters into them gift of tongues and the interpretation of with the closest investigation" (Confer­ tongues; healing and miracles; prophecy ences I :22). and discernment of spirits. Cassian does not elaborate a criteriology for distinguishing among religious influ­ Christian Tradition ences; he rather suggests a pattern of spirit­ The early Church took up and developed ual discipleship. Discernment can only out of its own experience the teaching it come out of a humility that will allow a had received on the discernment of spirits. monk to disclose his thoughts and deeds to In his great work in systematic theology, De the elders, "for a wrong thought is enfee­ principiis, Origen (184-254) traces human bled at the moment that it is discovered" thoughts back either to interior subjectiv­ ( Conferences 2: I 0). This self-disclosure ity or to three sources other than oneself: makes spiritual direction by the elders pos­ God, good and evil spirits. He further elab­ sible. One learns discernment through this orates criteria by which each may be recog­ pattern of a continual self-revelation and nized. Particularly the monastic tradition of an obedience conceived among the developed the more individual side of this monks primarily as a dimension of spirit­ doctrine. Its classic development is found ual direction. (See Nicene and Post-Nicene in the conferences of Abbot Moses in the Fathers, 2nd series, 11:304-316). works of John Cassian (ca. 360-435). "We In the 6th century John Climacus, writ­ ought, then, carefully to notice this three­ ing for the monks at Raithu, summarized fold order, and with a wise discretion the debt of Christian tradition in discern­ (sagaci discretione), to analyze the ment to John Cassian: "From humility thoughts which arise in our hearts, tracing comes discernment as the great Cassian out their origin and cause and author in the has said with beautiful and sublime philos­ first instance, that we may be able to con­ ophy in his chapter on discernment. From sider how we ought to yield ourselves to discernment comes insight, and from in­ them" (Conferences 1:20). sight comes foresight. And who would not Cassian cites, as did Origen and Jerome, follow this fair way of obedience, seeing the most quoted apocryphal saying attrib­ such blessings in store for him?" (Ladder uted to Jesus: "Become shrewd (probabiles) 4: I 05). Climacus built ·upon the work of moneychangers," noting that their highest Cassian in the twenty-sixth chapter of the skill is to differentiate what is pure gold Ladder of Divine Ascent, outlining a prog­ from what has been made to look like it, to ress in discernment that marked the faith­ distinguish true coins from counterfeits, ful life and giving it extensive, albeit and to determine what is the proper weight aphoristic, treatment: "Discernment in be­ of each. Similarly, human beings are taught ginners is true knowledge of themselves; in to examine carefully "whatever has found intermediate souls it is a spiritual sense an entrance into our hearts," whether that that faultlessly distinguishes what is truly be religious doctrine, the interpretation good from what is of nature and opposed to and use of Scripture, the urging to some it; and in the perfect it is the knowledge work of piety or apostolic zeal (Confer­ which they possess by divine illumination, ences 1:20), and the spirit in which some­ and which can enlighten with its lamp what thing is undertaken and done ( Conferences is dark in others. Or perhaps, generally 1:22). Any of these can begin a moment of speaking, discernment is, and is recog­ deception whose internal contradiction nized as, the assured understanding of the leads eventually to religious disintegration. divine will on all occasions, in every place DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS 279 and in all matters; and it is only found in sensibility issuing from a committed those who are pure in heart, and in body Christian life or as knowledge learned from and in mouth" (Ladder 26: I). study, or an intermixture ofall three. It was In the subsequent tradition of the consequently classified as an art or as a Church, "discernment of spirits" (discretio doctrine, and the experiences out of which spirituum) came to possess a series of dis­ it issues have historically included the radi­ tinct but related meanings, one of which is cal and transforming gift of the Spirit, a life often confused with another, while the em­ of spiritual discipleship, and the disci­ phasis remained more upon the individual plined inquiry into the criteria by which di­ experiences or interpersonal relationships verse religious influences may be recog­ than upon the life of the whole community. nized. These criteria focus not so much Discernment ranged over the whole inter­ upon the origins of these influences as pretative process in which human beings upon their orientation. make decisions. Different understandings of discern­ Ignatius of Loyola ment of spirits were distinguished in terms In the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius of of the "spirits" being differentiated. In its Loyola outlines his classic "Rules for the most limited sense, this discernment desig­ Discernment of Spirits." These function nated the ability to distinguish between critically as the exercitant attempts to re­ evil and good spirits as they attempt to in­ spond to the influence of God directing her spire human thinking, choice, or prophecy. or his life. The rules unite all of the factors In a more general sense, it denoted a dis­ that previous traditions included: good crimination among all the factors that in­ and evil spirits, personal and preternatural fluence human choice: states of affectivity, influences, thoughts and imagination, and such as consolation or desolation; states of states of affectivity, consolation and deso­ intentionality, such as imagination, fanta­ lation. Consolation indicates any move­ sies, thoughts, or visions; and all per~ ment of affectivity toward God; desola­ sonal-prophetic, angelic, or demonic­ tion, any movement of affectivity away and societal structures that enter a person's from God. These divergent influences are world and affect judgments and decisions. perceived to be causally connected, e.g. , In still another sense, it indicated an ex­ evil spirits can cause the kind of thoughts traordinary gift for reading hearts and or imagination that effect desolation, or a foretelling the future. In each of these three state of desolation can issue into commen­ senses, this discernment of spirits remains surate thoughts that place one under the a hermeneutical capacity, the interpreta­ personal influence of evil. The fourteen tion of the religious meaning of various in­ rules for the first week are offered for those fluences that bear upon human awareness who are being tempted "openly and obvi­ and decisions. This use of discernment ously," i.e., either by the pleasure that at­ must be further distinguished both from tracts to evil or by the pain and cost that the prudential skill of simple "discretion" can deter from discipleship. Ignatius indi­ (discretio) and from what is often called the cates two different subjects of such tempta­ "discernment of the will of God," the tions and frames a matrix by which the knowledge of that finality which lies at the influences upon their lives are united and basis of "the drawing of this Love and the contrasted ( 1-2). Consolation and desola­ voice of this Calling." tion are defined (3-4). The subject is coun­ Discernment of spirits in each of its un­ seled how to act directly against desolation derstandings could also be distinguished in (5-6), against the thoughts that arise from terms of its source. It was understood as an desolation (7-11 ), and against the personal infused gift of the Spirit or as a connatural influences of evil (12-14). 280 DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS The eight rules for the second week are the practice of discernment to an impor­ much more subtle and deal with the experi­ tant communitarian function through the ence of being deceived or tempted under "Deliberation of the First Fathers" and the appearance of good. At such a juncture through the repeated provisions made it is no longer enough to know how to deal throughout the Constitutions for the dis­ with the attraction to an obvious evil or cernment that enters in manifold ways into with the repugnance for the good. These community life and government. rules distinguish the consolation in which there is no danger of deception-when one is drawn wholly into the love of God with­ Other Developments out commensurate thoughts or images­ The discernment of spirits has received from the consolation mediated by ideas extensive analysis in the history of Chris­ and imagination (2-3), in which deception tian spirituality. Mention must be made of is possible. These latter must be tested for three treatments in the West that have be­ their authenticity. One must attend to the come classics: Denis the Carthusian, De attraction toward the morally good by con­ discretione et examinatione spirituum sidering the beginning, middle, and end of (ca. 1445-1450); John Cardinal Bona, De the entire process. These rules outline the discretione spirituum fiber unus (1671); progress of deception disguised in appar­ and Giovanni Battista Scaramelli, Dis­ ent consolation (4) and frame a procedure cernimento degli spiriti (1753). In the East, by which true and false consolations can be the Philokalia ( 1782) collected many of the distinguished at the terminus of their influ­ most important texts in this tradition from ence (5), during the course of their influ­ the 4th to the 15th century in order to ence (6), or even at the beginning of an guide the interior or contemplative life. integral religious "movement" (7). Major developments in the understand­ Ignatius warns against giving the rules ing and applications of the discernment of for the second week to those whose tempta­ spirits have occurred in the contemporary tions are those of the first week-"week" Church. Discernment of spirits has re­ being used not to designate seven days but trieved its importance for individual spir­ a stage in the development of the exercit­ itual direction, and, through communal ant's prayer. In the first week affectivity is discernment, it has developed its possibili­ to be judged by its obvious direction, and ties for the guidance of Christian commu­ this direction distinguishes affectivity into nity. The Second Vatican Council contrib­ consolation and desolation; in the second uted to this with its emphasis upon "read­ week the apparent moral worth of what is ing the signs of the times." New paths have proposed is judged by the affectivity and been opened by the liberation theologians, thoughts to which it leads over the course with their insistence that discernment is an of its history, i.e., by the experience of essential part of orthopraxis. The capacity peace and joy, etc. Affectivity is not the for Christian discernment depends upon criterion in the first week that it is in the the prior position one has taken toward the second, and between these two moments oppressed. Discernment must be brought lies conversion and the reorientation of to bear upon the revelation of the glory of affectivity worked by the contemplative God disclosed in the liberation of the poor. union with the mysteries of Christ. Only as The absolute criterion of orthopraxis be­ affectivity is ordered can it in turn become comes that of Mt 25:32ff.: "I was hungry a clue to the influence of God. and you gave me food," etc. One's practical Whereas the focus in the Spiritual Exer­ discernment originates both within this es­ cises is upon the influences that come upon chatological horizon of faith and the his­ an individual's choice, Ignatius expanded torical horizons of situations ofjustice and DISCIPLESHIP 281 injustice (strategy) and within the conse­ no mathetes without a didaskalos, a "mas­ quent determination among actions that ter" or "teacher." The English word "disci­ this condition calls forth from the Chris­ ple" comes from the Latin discipulus, tian (tactics)-(Dussel, pp. 47-60). "pupil." Jesus is the embodiment of Christian In the OT the master-disciple relation­ discernment. His Spirit makes it possible ship does not appear; mathetes is not used for Christians to continue his manner of in the Septuagint. It enters the Jewish tra­ discernment. His passion and death as dition with Rabbinic Judaism, probably praxis-to bring the Good News to the under the influence of the Greek and Hel­ poor-offer a set of criteria for discern­ lenistic philosophical schools. ment conceived as putting into practice the In the NT mathetes refers most often to divine will. For one must verify in the so­ the disciples of Jesus. There is no question cial and historic order what has been un­ that Jesus gathered a group of disciples derstood (Sobrino, pp. 14-26). around him and sent them out as his co­ workers to proclaim the coming of the See also DESIRE; DETACHMENT; DISCRETION; EXPE­ reign of God. Mathetes is also used for the RIENCE; FEELINGS; GRACE; HOLY SPIRIT; IGNATIAN disciples of John the Baptist (Mt 11 :2) and SPIRITUALITY; PRAYER; PRAXIS; SPIRITS; SPIRITUAL occasionally for the disciples of the Phari­ DIRECTION. sees (Mt 22: 16). But its usage in reference Bibliography: (Classical texts and standard bibliogra­ to the disciples of Jesus, along with the phies are given in the works cited here.) M. Buckley, verb akolouthein, is unique. "The Structure of the Rules for Discernment of Spir­ Akolouthein, appearing fifty-six times in its," Spiritual Exercises: Collected Essays, ed. P. Sheldrake (London: SPCK, 1990). M . McNamara, J. the Synoptics and fourteen times in John, Sobrino, W. Peters, J. Castillo, E. Dussel, et al., Dis­ does not always refer to those who were dis­ cernment of the Spirit and of Spirits, ed. C. Floristan ciples in the strict sense, as when it is used and C. Duquoc (New York: Seabury, 1979). J. Guillet, G. Bardy, F. Vandenbroucke, J. Pegon, H. Martin, Dis­ of the crowds that followed Jesus (Mt 4:25; cernment ofSpirits, ed. E. Malatesta, trans. I. Richards 8: I). But when used of individuals (Mk (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1970). 1:18; Lk 5:11; Jn 1:43), it, like mathetes, MICHAELJ. BUCKLEY, S.J . shows the special characteristics of disci­ pleship in relation to Jesus. First, unlike the case of discipleship in DISCIPLESHIP Rabbinic Judaism, the disciples of Jesus The concept of discipleship, central to did not choose the master; rather, the mas­ the ministry of Jesus, is expressed in the ter chose and called the disciples. The initi­ NT by the verb akolouthein and by the ative comes from Jesus (Mk I: 17; 2: 14). In noun mathetes. Jesus called men and Mk 3:13-14 Jesus called those he desired women to "follow after" (akolouthein) him. for a twofold purpose: that they might be Those who followed him were known as his with him and that he might send them out "disciples" (mathetes). to preach. The coordinate conjunction kai ("and") indicates the equal importance of both aspects. Discipleship in the NT Second, there is an inclusive element to The word mathetes appears more than Jesus' call, even if it is still within a Jewish 250 times in the NT, always in the Gospels context. Unlike that of the rabbis, Jesus' and Acts. In secular Greek the word means call was not restricted to the ritually pure "one who learns." A mathetes was someone and the religiously obedient. Among those bound to another in order to learn, thus an invited to follow him were "tax collectors apprentice to someone in a trade or profes­ and sinners" (Mk 2: 15). Women also ac­ sion or a student of a philosopher. There is companied him as disciples (Lk 8:2).