January 2021

Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles and Opportunities

EDITORS: MAVRICK BOEJOEKOE, BENJAMIN HENDERSON, SCOTT B. MACDONALD, GUY MENTEL

Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Table of Contents

Foreword...... 2 Guy Mentel Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 3 Mavrick Boejoekoe, Scott B. MacDonald, Benjamin Henderson Chapter 2. A short theoretical view on causes and strategies to reduce corruption ...... 8 Satcha Jabbar Chapter 3. The quality of governance in Suriname: A bridge too far? ...... 10 Ine Apapoe Chapter 4. Legal aspects of helping Suriname achieve better anti-corruption and governance .... 13 Bruce Zagaris Chapter 5. Good governance and corruption in the Caribbean: the Haitian challenge ...... 17 Georges A. Fauriol Chapter 6. The Caribbean, good governance, and the global accountability regime ...... 23 Scott B. MacDonald Chapter 7. Recommendations for good governance in the Caribbean...... 27 Scott B. MacDonald, Bruce Zagaris, and Georges A. Fauriol

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Corruption Barometer, only 39 percent of Foreword citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean believe their government is doing a good job Guy Mentel fighting corruption, while 57 percent think

their government is performing poorly. The Caribbean has too often been relegated Though the hemisphere has seen some to the back seat of most Western successes in recent years, such as the wave Hemisphere policy discussions. With the of prosecutions that swept Latin America in exception of Cuba, the countries of the the aftermath of “Operation Car Wash” region have rarely emerged atop United (Lava Jato) or the corruption cases that States foreign policy priority lists. From brought down high-level politicians in climate change to blue economy issues to Guatemala and Honduras, the region has food security and increased digital also seen significant backsliding. Such connectivity, the Caribbean, with all of the regression can be seen in the dismantling of challenges it faces, is also home to the United Nations-backed International extraordinary opportunity and possibility. Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala

(CICG) and the demise of the Organization The inspiration for this book was a July of American States-backed Mission to 2020 two-day conference co-sponsored by Support the Fight Against Corruption and the U.S. Embassy in Suriname and Global Impunity in Honduras (MACCIH). Americans. The virtual summit brought together regional and international experts to In recent months, new leaders have taken examine possible paths toward political, power across the Caribbean. In Suriname, an environmental, and economic stability in the embattled former military ruler who Caribbean. Relatively recent discoveries of dominated the country’s politics in recent large oil reserves off the coasts of Guyana decades bowed out of power after losing an and Suriname on the one hand, and growing election in the middle of the COVID-19 Venezuelan refugee flows on the other, pandemic. In the Dominican Republic, the loomed in the backdrop of many panel ruling Dominican Liberation Party (Partido discussions. The conference concluded with de la Liberación Dominicana, PLD) was a number of recommendations, including a handed an overwhelming defeat. St. Vincent call for increased U.S. attention to the region and the Grenadines held democratic in terms of both foreign assistance and elections that quietly decided the future of a engagement by senior-level policymakers. country that had been run by former Prime

Minister Ralph Gonsalves for four During 2020 elections in the Dominican consecutive terms. Republic, Suriname, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago, voters indicated that concerns In the United States, a new presidential over good governance were of utmost administration will also bring with it new importance. This is neither a Caribbean- opportunity to ramp up international anti- specific phenomenon, nor is it a particularly corruption efforts, making them new one. Corruption hampers economic commensurate with U.S. interests at home growth, inhibits efficient delivery of public and abroad. For instance, the Biden services, deters investment, undermines administration might increase investments in democratic institutions, and erodes faith in regional cooperation on anti-corruption, the political process. According to deploying resources and expert assistance to Transparency International’s Global

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities countries interested in developing conference. Global Americans would also internationally supported anti-corruption like to extend our appreciation to the U.S. commissions. Policymakers might also Embassy in Suriname and Ambassador consider establishing governance-themed Karen Williams in particular. Finally, all of public-private partnerships (PPP), given that the editors would like to thank the panelists companies suffer significant losses due to who joined us for the July 2020 conference, corruption in terms of unsuccessful bids and including: Rayah Bhattacharji, Sharda inhospitable markets. A serious focus on Ganja, Dr. S. Jabbar, Dr. Georges A. anti-corruption and good governance Fauriol, Dr. Anthony Bryan, Dr. Maarten requires a whole-of-government approach in Schalkwijk, and Bruce Zagaris. the U.S. and a commitment to work with partners across the hemisphere as they invest Chapter 1. Introduction in policies that strengthen the rule of law, Mavrick Boejoekoe, Scott B. MacDonald, transparency, and democratic institutions. Benjamin Henderson Caribbean nations may also look to other This study seeks to identify the causes of institutions for guidance—both in terms of corruption in the Caribbean, while good governance and as cautionary tales. determining how it influences the region’s Regional tools and systems like the socioeconomic environment and pointing to Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the what is needed to foster better governance Inter-American Anti-Corruption going forward. These subjects should be Convention, and the Caribbean Financial viewed in relation to how Caribbean Task Force, among others, are already in governments can provide better transparency place to allow Caribbean nations to share and accountability to their citizens, improve best practices and set standards for their personal safety, and make their developing anti-corruption programs. The economies more competitive. The need for Ninth Summit of the Americas, to be held in good governance has never been more the U.S. in 2021, will provide another critical as the Caribbean, and the world, important opportunity to rally hemispheric struggle to cope with the health and partners behind a good governance mission economic crisis induced by the COVID-19 and message. pandemic. This assumes greater importance

considering recent elections in Guyana, The audience for this series of essays Suriname, Jamaica, St. Vincent and the includes policymakers, civil society actors, Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago; the businesses, journalists, activists, and discovery of large commercial quantities of academics. The editors of this book hope offshore oil in the first two countries, and that the ideas that fill these pages inform additional liquified natural gas (LNG) fields better public policies and inspire increased in the last; and the general impact of collaboration among nations in the corruption and governance on a wide range hemisphere. of countries in the Caribbean.

Global Americans would like to extend Good governance implies effective special thanks to Mavrick Boejoekoe in institutions, responsible leadership, and Suriname, Anthony Bryan in Trinidad and integrity. The importance of this was heeded Tobago, and Scott MacDonald in the U.S. by social scientists Aron Acemoglu, S. for their support in organizing the July 2020

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Johnson, and James A. Robinson, who levels of tolerance for official bribery, the noted: penetration of criminal organizations into the political process, embezzlement of public funds, favoritism, and patronage. This “Countries with better institutions, has often left the Caribbean people more secure property rights, and questioning the value of their political less distortionary policies will systems and integrity of public officials, invest more efficiently to achieve a ranging from police officers to heads of greater level of income.” central banks and prime ministers. To varying degrees, Caribbean societies were shaped by the governing practices and Equally important, there is also much to be roots of corruption inherited from their said about the importance of good policies respective colonial powers. In the Spanish that stress the development of physical and Caribbean, that can be traced back to the human capital, both of which are critical to encomienda system introduced in the late making institutions flexible and able to 15th century and efforts to prohibit trade adapt to changing circumstances. with other countries. Both created the need for informal networks that broke rules and There can be considerable drawbacks from a regulations through contraband activities, lack of effective institutions, poor policies, bribes, and promotion of political allies and and the dominance of a small elite who have family members to key government organized society for their own benefit at the positions. Spanish officials dispatched to the expense of the rest. In some cases, endemic Caribbean colonies were forbidden from corruption has led to political upheaval. One engaging in other business activities or only need look to the root causes of accumulating property during their tenure in revolution in France during the 1780s, office, however, many departing colonial Republican China in the 1920s and 1930s, authorities either remained in the region, and the late Soviet Union in the 1980s. wealthy and powerful, or returned to Spain Modern democracies have so far been far richer than when they left. Corruption exempt from this upheaval, as exemplified was also a serious factor in other Caribbean by the end of the Cold War and where colonies under the English, Dutch, and judicial reform has empowered the national French. Indeed, it could be said that during police and judiciary to tackle entrenched much of the Caribbean’s colonial era, corruption, as occurred in Brazil during corruption was the grease that lubricated the “Operation Carwash.” If corporate wheels of administrative machinery, governance issues are added into the picture, reflecting similar experiences in the the likes of the Savings and Loan scandals, metropolitan countries which sent out Enron, and Bernie Madoff reflect many of officials to their southern postings. the same concerns about greed and the erosion of public confidence in the United The importance of dealing with corruption States. in the Caribbean remains. In the aftermath of the September 2020 elections in Jamaica, The Caribbean faces the same governance Prime Minister Andrew Holness indicated challenges as other parts of the world. that his second consecutive government Corruption due to institutional weaknesses would be tough on corruption. At his and societal norms are reflected by varying inauguration ceremony, he noted:

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Dominican Republic, swelling the country’s “There will be those who believe undocumented population.” The COVID-19 that the majority is a basis for pandemic had a major impact on reducing arrogance, gives license to do as the illicit flow of trade, but post-pandemic, they wish, creates opportunities the arrangement is likely to be revived. to… selfish ends and their personal ambitions, gives room for The importance of good governance is a complacency, and tolerance of message that is widely understood in the errors. Those who hold such views Caribbean. The challenge is maintaining the would be sadly mistaken and soon political will to tackle the complex separated.” relationships entwined between the government and the private sector.

There is also an important economic impact Why focus on Guyana, Suriname, and of corruption. If members of the political Haiti? class, workers in bureaucracy, and police all have their own “little charges” for which Guyana they already receive payment through taxes, The discovery of large, commercially viable economic activity becomes inefficient. This amounts of oil off the shores of Guyana and also pertains to the special interests that Suriname have put these two countries into receive “special treatment” over other sharper focus. From electoral practices to competitors, some of which could probably the transparency of government, financial offer the same products or services for a transactions, and what type of institutions lower price, ultimately benefiting the and policies will be installed to ensure that taxpaying public. Transparency reduces the future revenue from their oil sales will be ability of political elites and major domestic used for the national good, these and foreign companies to make side deals governments will be under the microscope. during bidding and planning processes. Together with Haiti, Guyana and Suriname Corruption can also distort national feature more in the following chapters than economic development. In Haiti, the illicit other Caribbean countries. This emphasis commercial trafficking that characterized was reinforced by recent elections in the their border with the Dominican Republic South American countries. Corruption was a border before COVID-19 long provided an major issue in Guyana’s March, and example of lost government revenues, Suriname’s May, vote. In the former case, special relationships, and bribes. In a March old charges against the 23-year rule of the 2019 study by the Center for Strategic and People’s Progressive Party were dredged up, International Studies, Mary Speck, Linnea which included complicity with narco- Sandin, and Mark Schneider observed that traffickers, extra-judicial killings, cronyism, “exports from the Dominican Republic, questionable land deals—one involving now worth hundreds of millions of dollars, enter President Irfaan Ali—and the Haiti illegally each year, depriving the mismanagement of the country’s sugar government of revenues needed to create industry. There was also plenty of grousing jobs and provide basic services and stifling over electoral corruption on the part of the the growth of Haiti’s own agricultural and outgoing “A Partnership for National Unity- industrial sectors. Meanwhile, Haitians— Alliance for Change” government (2015- unable to find employment, education, or 2020). Considering that the country’s two healthcare at home—cross into the

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities major ethnic communities have a strong According to the World Bank’s Ease of identification with one political party (the Doing Business 2020 rankings, Guyana Afro-Guyanese tend to vote for the A ranks 134, which puts it below Iran, Partnership for National Unity + Alliance Paraguay, and Nigeria. As David Lewis for Change and the Indo-Guyanese for the noted: People’s Progressive Party/Civic), the Guyanese government is under considerable pressure to get it right on managing national “Guyana needs to avoid the traps wealth in an equitable manner. that so many other resource-rich It is worth noting that Guyana has been one nations have fallen into. of the few countries to make considerable Developing a new non-political improvements in anti-corruption measures regulatory system will be a crucial since 2012. The global watchdog first step. But the country also organization, Transparency International, needs systemic change to create a ranked it 85 in its Corruption Perceptions friendlier climate for local business Index (CPI) out of 198 countries. Part of the and investment.” country’s improvement came from actions by the Granger government, including making petroleum contracts publicly Suriname available, dismissing employees found Suriname’s track record with corruption is a guilty of corruption, re-establishing the point of concern for many of the country’s Integrity Commission, appointing an citizens. Part of this stems from the ombudsman, activating anti-money country’s political development in which laundering laws, passing whistleblower democratic norms were disrupted following protection legislation, and updating the code the 1980 coup. The coup provided an of conduct for public officials. Following opportunity for military strongman Desi protests by citizens, the government also Bouterse and those close to him to play an halted a major contract for parking meters in extended role in behind the scenes politics Georgetown, which violated procurement and allegedly corrupt economic activities for laws. several decades, despite efforts of civilian governments to clean office. As one Dutch While Guyana fared well in Transparency journalist, Douwe den Held, wrote in July International’s 2019 CPI, there could be a 2020: “Bouterse proved to be an extremely downgrade due to the delay of the country’s controversial figure who dominated parliamentary election, which was finally international coverage of the small South held in March 2020 after the government American nation. He took over Suriname in suffered a no-confidence vote in December a military coup in the 1980s, returned to 2018 and the following dispute over the power as a democratically elected president results, ultimately resulting in a change of in 2010, and has been accused of human government in August 2, 2020. rights abuses and drug trafficking.”

Going forward, corruption will no doubt be It is worthwhile to briefly review Bouterse’s part of the charged political atmosphere in record. He was finally sentenced in Guyanese politics. Guyana’s oil gives it a November 2019 for the massacre of 15 chance for a brighter future, but there is political opposition members in December considerable work that has to be done. 1982; alleged to have had a hand in the

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Moiwana massacre in 1986 where 35 corruption. Oil has changed that. The world Maroons were killed—mainly women and has come to Guyana and Suriname, and with children—by the National Army then under that, so has greater external scrutiny of his control; and in 1999 was sentenced by governance and corruption. Dutch authorities to 16 years for cocaine smuggling; and has since been followed by Haiti ongoing allegations of being involved in As for Haiti, the issue of corruption is very using his country as a transit point in much front and center to the country’s international drug trafficking and gold ongoing problems in providing stable smuggling out of Venezuela. There was also government. Indeed, Haiti is often regarded the case in early 2020 of the central bank as being in a near-state of chaos. As Georges missing $100 million out of its coffers. In Fauriol, one of the conference panelists the ensuing scandal it was revealed that the noted in an earlier article in Global government decided to tap that money to Americans, “Is Haiti a failing state? Or is it, keep current on debt repayments and as they say in French, ‘a la derive?’” The purchase key foodstuffs, with an eye on the expression more accurately depicts what is elections. The central bank head, Robert van happening in Haiti, providing the image of a Trikt, was dismissed and arrested. An arrest drifting vessel at the mercy of currents, warrant has been issued for Bouterse’s moving toward an inevitable disaster. finance minister Gillmore Hoefdraad, who since the election, is thought to have escaped In the same article, Fauriol points to causes to Guyana. Rounding out the picture, for Haiti’s drifting, which include political Bouterse’s son was arrested by the U.S. dysfunction, imploding economic prospects, Drug Enforcement Agency in 2013 in boiling public temper, and an electoral Panama for offering to smuggle cocaine and calendar debacle. A major thread that helping Hezbollah to set up a base in weaves together much of this state of affairs Suriname—he is now sitting in a U.S. is longstanding corruption, which most federal prison. There is more, but suffice to recently has been exposed in a scandal say that the government that won the May involving a missing $3 billion linked to the 2020 elections has considerable work ahead Venezuelan oil program run by PDVSA. to clean up corruption. The sheer size and scale of the scandal, which is thought to have lasted nearly a For both Guyana and Suriname, the decade, was hard to miss in the poorest newfound wealth represents a major country in the Western Hemisphere. challenge. Managing oil resources will require transparent, effective, and Corruption has badly eroded the public’s responsible governance to avoid turning confidence in the Haitian government. either country into another corrupt petro- Successive leaders and their parties have state. In this, both countries are going to demonstrated an inability to deal with the have their institutions tested to see if they hopes as well as the fears of its citizens. can learn to adapt to changing Poor governance has left a political circumstances. It could be said that in both landscape with little hope and boiled down cases a relative sense of isolation, much of it to the basics in terms of an almost ongoing induced by remote geography and by revolt against real and perceived injustice language, contributed to a lesser level of and inequality. Although much of Haitian external influences in terms of dealing with society is angry over ongoing corruption, it

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities continues to be a central problem. Haiti regarding the occurrence of corruption by remains in the bottom tier of countries viewing societies as a conglomerate of ranked by Transparency International, a different economic and social groups with position it has consistently held, which in conflicting interests that are exemplified by itself, makes the added focus on Haiti the economy. The competitive nature of worthwhile. society is also evident in the rules, laws, taxation, benefits and other national Corruption and good governance are economic decision-making processes. What centerpieces to the future development of one is left with is “how political forces the Caribbean. While most of the Caribbean affect the choice of economic policies, is far removed from the bottom rungs of especially as to distributional conflicts and corruption by various international ratings, political institutions.” This leads to the major governance issues continue to exist question, how is it possible, despite laws, and, in some cases, have profoundly rules, and regulations in many corporations, distorted development of civil society. government departments, and other private and public businesses that corruption is still

Hopefully, the following essays help present and, in many instances, even influence the process of creating a better increasing in the international arena? Caribbean society and business environment for both local and foreign actors. Public sector corruption cannot simply be reduced to people in positions of power The paper is broken down into six chapters. stealing from the taxpayers and citizens. Nor Chapters two through four are dedicated to can it be entirely explained by greed, low Suriname, chapter five covers Haiti, chapter moral and ethical values, or weak six covers the Caribbean, good governance institutional capacities. It has deep roots and the global accountability regime, and embedded in the forming of the society and chapter seven provides recommendations for the income distribution, especially in good governance. The last two chapters seek developing countries with a history of being to put the Caribbean into a broader under colonial rule. During colonial times, comparative perspective, which underscores the “elites” of the economic and social the point that the region is not just seen by hierarchy were created by a political, its own population for its positives and administrative, and financial elite created by negatives, but also by external forces, the colonizing country. These groups ranging from multilateral lenders, private interacted with each other to safeguard the sector businesses, investors, and rating interests of the colonial power. They were agencies. appointed to high state positions, were owners or shareholders of the plantations, owned ships to transport produce, and Chapter 2. A short theoretical financed production and trade. The governor view on causes and strategies to of the colony, appointed by the colonial reduce corruption power, saw to it that these overseas interests were protected. Leading up to and following Satcha Jabbar independence, many of these individuals returned to their homeland having served the Contrary to existing economic explanations “tropical years” under the bosses and owners in many developing countries, the political of capital, properties, and power. Few of the economy approach takes a broader view

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities workers stayed and became citizens of the Causes of corruption colony, and those that did continued to The Nordic countries—Switzerland, cultivate strong ties to the former power Singapore, and New Zealand—are all holders. perceived as the least corrupt nations in the world, ranking consistently high in terms of Suriname international financial transparency. In the aftermath of Suriname’s Academic literature suggests that this is due independence in 1975, new social groups to the presence of a relatively homogeneous were formed. These changes in the country’s population, where one language is spoken social structure are an ongoing development and little ethnic diversity exists. According that is related to production structures, to social scientist Barry R. Weingast, for a accumulation of wealth, income distribution, country to avoid corruption there has to be and education. Old industrial and agrarian an agreement between players to do so. This elites are now being replaced by or merged agreement is easier to achieve if the country with capital market gurus and high-tech is less socially segmented. companies. The middle class is characterized by having specific skills and A society is viewed to be socially segmented knowledge including doctors and teachers, if it possesses many different ethnic groups, medium- and high-level staff in large as well as various economic and social companies, small technical shops, etc. groups with diverging interests. This Lastly, low-income groups tend to have segmentation often makes it more difficult limited skillsets and are usually laborers and to reach a common ground, with the various agrarian workers. In this group we also find groups and factions within these groups, all low-ranking military personnel. Segments of competing for the provision of various the various groups tend to opt for state public policies and goods. power or at least access to it. Historically, ethnic and religious groups Ethnic diversity formed different “wings” within parties. As What makes Suriname—and other diverse a result, political parties request different societies in the Caribbean—even more goods and services from the government. interesting is the presence of different For instance, in the 1960s when two religious and ethnic denominations within ethnically-based political parties held power the economic stratification. This can have an in Suriname, one party requested overseas impact on the existence (or absence) of scholarships for their members, while the corruption. Suriname’s population may be other group opted for land. small—under one million—but people of African, Asian, European, and American Cross-country regression studies have found descent comprise an ethnic hodgepodge that variables such as social capital, cultural where no ethnic group has an outright values, and ethnic heterogeneity are majority. This is also reflected in the mix of correlated with measures of corruption and languages, which range from Dutch and bureaucratic inefficiency. Combine this English to Sranang Tongo, Caribbean Hindi, classification with the mix of economic Javanese and Chinese, with just as many classes and the picture is complete. varieties of religion dominated by Christianity, Hindu, and Islam.

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

How corruption influences the region’s them over to the Attorney General, but what socioeconomic environment can be done to prevent corruption in the first Corruption influences the socioeconomic place? environment in many ways: First, and most importantly, install a high- 1) Corruption deteriorates norms and values level authority for good governance that will as to what is right, especially in highly have all the legal rights to carry out the segmented societies like Suriname. It following tasks: influences what is acceptable. For example, is it acceptable that party members can 1. Map all of the forms of corruption obtain public works contracts by getting in: domain land management, public inside information on the procurement works, finance, government prices just because they donated to the purchasing, health, international party? tendering, and between government and multinational organizations. 2) Corruption discourages paying taxes. In a 2. Produce a good governance larger sense, it has even discouraged honest handbook for the government of work in Suriname. If people are not paying Suriname and make it an integral part taxes because they can bribe tax officers, of primary and secondary school other would-be taxpayers may choose to curriculums, while also sharing it in work in the informal sector to also avoid the media. paying taxes to an unfair system. This hurts the economy by reducing public income, 3. Correct and punish past corrupt and with that, public provisions. practices where possible.

3) Corruption distorts market prices and As Suriname begins this new decade, it is therefore distorts the entire allocation not only fighting the COVID-19 pandemic, process of goods and services. For example, but also corruption. It is important to set the smuggled alcohol, cigarettes, medicine, and example that corruption is not okay, and that food discourages the production of local it causes harm to all in the long term. products that cannot compete with the often- lower prices of the illegally imported foreign Chapter 3. The quality of products that are not subjected to tariffs. Bribes paid to obtain public land also governance in Suriname: A increase the market price of land. The bridge too far? message is clear: corruption benefits a select Ine Apapoe few, but hurts the nation.

What is needed to foster better “Good governance,” “combating governance? corruption,” and “integrity” are all popular Since May 25, 2020 Suriname has begun terms among Surinamese politicians, civil putting the pieces back together after a society groups, and academics these days. decade of mass corruption, fraud, bad The ubiquity of references to such ideas is governance, and populistic politics. One due primarily to the economic and political after the other the current government is turbulence of recent years, which has unearthing massive scandals and handing contributed to serious violations of the principles of good governance. The

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Government of Suriname (GoS) is plagued by a weak system of checks and balances, As demonstrated by the United Nations and the Surinamese parliament is dominated Development Programme’s 2017 Corruption by a majority that has prioritized adopting Risk Assessment for Suriname, the GoS laws designed to reward political allies and remains ill-equipped to overcome these maintain power, rather than serving the persistent obstacles to good governance in interests of the Surinamese population. the country. This does not necessarily mean, however, that Suriname has not made any The quality of governance in a given progress with regard to fighting corruption country has long been an emphasis of and reaching higher quality of governance in donors, international organizations, the two decades following the publication of scientists, and other national governments. the IADB report. Good governance is built from values such as democracy, popular democratic Attempts to establish good governance participation, lawfulness, integrity, From 2003 until 2014, the GoS attempted to efficiency, and effectiveness. Good meet some of the requirements for good governance establishes standards for the governance—to varying degrees of processes by which social, political, and success—by involving the Surinamese economic conflicts may be addressed and population in the decision-making process resolved. Achieving good governance, through the Decentralization for Local however, requires extensive reforms and the Government Program (DLGP). (The collaborative efforts of civil society groups, program was formally discontinued in 2014, the business community, political elites, and without having achieved all of its stated international organizations; the goals). From 2006-2010, the GoS establishment of good governance, spearheaded the Public Sector Management therefore, can pose a challenge for Strengthening Program (PSMSP), which developing countries such as Suriname. This aimed to improve and strengthen the article seeks to demonstrate the central Surinamese public sector, enabling it to importance of integrity—and in particular function more efficiently and effectively. incorruptibility—with respect to the The PSMSP included awareness-building construction of good governance in initiatives to ensure cooperation between all Suriname. public sector stakeholders; and emphasized transparency and responsibility within the A 2001 study conducted by the Inter- Surinamese government, the redefinition of American Development Bank (IADB) legal arrangements, and the technical identified several obstacles to the strengthening of governmental institutions. achievement of good governance in However, the implementation of the PSMSP Suriname, including: the existence of proved to be an insufficient solution to the extensive patronage networks; a wealth of multidimensional challenges facing (and dependence upon) natural resources; Suriname. As had been the case with and the corrupting influence of drug previous efforts at reform, the PSMSP trafficking. The report also argued that there ultimately collapsed due to a lack of are significant shortcomings in the consensus-building, the inability of the GoS Surinamese judiciary, and the Constitution to issue the necessary regulations (e.g., of Suriname, that undermine good budget, tax, customs, decentralization, governance. procurement), and its limited capacity to

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities implement and coordinate its necessary understandable. Achieving good reforms. governance, combating corruption, and promoting integrity are complex tasks, In his 2010 inauguration speech, former requiring thorough preparation and President Dési Bouterse announced the start collaboration between all interested actors. of what he termed a “crusade against Establishing standards of good governance corruption.” Bouterse also called for the in Suriname is not just a question of the implementation of good and transparent adoption and application of laws and rules, governance and the finalization of the but also a question of understanding the Openness of Governance Act (Wet political and administrative culture of Openbaarheid van bestuur). While this law Suriname, which is still largely defined by has still yet to be adopted, a companion the widespread practice of patronage. The piece of legislation, the Anti-Corruption social expectations for political leadership Act, did come into force. After several represent another deeply engrained societal amendments made to the draft in 2002, the obstacle. In Suriname, party loyalists are law now mandates income, asset, and frequently rewarded after elections with jobs financial disclosure requirements, with strict directly within the government or other submission timeframes, for certain government-related organizations. government officials. A further revision to the law, in August 2017, also required the Thus, it is no surprise that, despite the legal Surinamese National Assembly to create an and policy-related advances of recent Anti-Corruption Commission to prevent and decades, the corruption ratings for Suriname combat corruption. However, although the have worsened. In 2019, Suriname ranked Anti-Corruption Act has been adopted, it has 70th out of 198 ranked countries in the not yet been proclaimed in the State Decrees Transparency International rating system for (a legal condition that must be fulfilled control of corruption, scoring 44 out of 100 before a law can be implemented). on the corruption perception index.

Furthermore, the parliamentary Anti- Corruption Commission has not yet been Suriname control of corruption convened.

The August 2019 establishment of the Constitutional Court represented, in theory, a major improvement with respect to the Surinamese judicial system. In practice, however—just as other initiatives and programs (the DLGP, the PSMSP, the Anti-

Corruption Act) have largely failed, due to Source: GlobalEconomy.com the lack of enforcement capacity, the weakness of the public sector, and other The path to better governance, controlling persistent obstacles to the execution of good corruption, and promoting integrity, will not governance—the Constitutional Court has be an easy one; several challenging steps yet to fulfill its promise. must be taken. It will be necessary to mobilize all of Surinamese society in these The fact that the aforementioned initiatives efforts. This means, firstly, that the have not yet delivered concrete results is government has to be demonstrably

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities committed to the execution and enforcement economic development, since investors rely of good governance. Secondly, citizens and on integrity in a host country’s legal system. societal organizations, as well as political parties, will also need to build awareness Money laundering in Suriname is connected and remain committed to their own roles in to transnational organized crime, especially this process. It is not enough that legislation the transshipment of cocaine. Public is adopted—such laws must also be corruption contributes to money laundering. implemented; and both preventative and Profits from gold mining and related penal anti-corruption regulations must be industries contribute to a boom in the rigorously applied. informal sector. The bulk of the money in this sector does not pass through the formal In other words, Suriname must undergo a banking system. Gold is used to barter in complete shift in its collective mentality. Suriname’s interior. From January-October Everyone in the country has to realize that 2019, Suriname only prosecuted one case good governance is a shared responsibility. for money laundering. Ultimately, the adoption and enforcement of policies and actions that will build and In April 2018, the Dutch authorities seized maintain good governance in Suriname will approximately USD $21.5 million of a cash depend on the political will of the shipment from the Central Bank of government; but it is Surinamese society Suriname. On December 24, 2019, a Dutch that must hold the politicians accountable, court ruled in favor of the bank because, as demand integrity, combat complacency the sender of funds, it has immunity and towards corrupt practices, and insist that hence the funds could not be confiscated. unethical behavior will no longer be Dutch prosecutors have continued the tolerated or accepted. investigation into money laundering. They have also presented documents, suggesting Chapter 4. Legal aspects of that Surinamese commercial banks and cambios may have laundered USD $82.6 helping Suriname achieve better million from 2017-2018. anti-corruption and governance Bruce Zagaris The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is a global money laundering and terrorist The 2020 Good Governance and Corruption financing watchdog. The intergovernmental in the Caribbean conference raised the issue body sets international standards that of the role of the rule of law in the region. In prevent illegal money laundering and Suriname, those issues include a lack of terrorist financing activities. FATF transparency in procurement concerning standards require the Surinamese extractive industries, anti-corruption, anti- government to complete and publish its money laundering issues, and the proper national risk assessment, in order to institutional framework for natural resource strengthen its anti-money laundering and extraction. From a legal perspective, there terrorist financing prevention (AML/CFT) are both challenges and opportunities for policies. Countries should identify, assess, Suriname to improve its anti-corruption, and understand the money laundering and anti-money laundering, and terrorist terrorist financing risks they face. They financing regimes. Achieving improvements should also take appropriate action in in these areas will help in Suriname’s response, including designating an authority

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities or mechanism to coordinate risk assessment, suspicious transaction reports and for the apply resources, and ultimately mitigate dissemination of that analysis—is eligible to risks. Likewise, the Surinamese government, apply to become a member FIU. A financial institutions, and designated non- qualifying FIU should be able to access financial businesses and professions must additional information from reporting apply a risk-based approach to ensure that entities and have access, on a timely basis, AML/ CFT measures are commensurate to the financial, administrative, and law with the risks identified. In March 2019, enforcement information that it requires to former President Bouterse signed a undertake its functions properly. If the FIU resolution requiring government agencies to is not able to meet the criteria due to cooperate with the national risk assessment. national laws, lack of implementation, or its The government and stakeholders must own lack of capacity, it is not eligible to join prepare, disseminate, and apply a the Egmont Group. FIUs are uniquely comprehensive risk assessment in the positioned to support national and framing and implementation of its international efforts to counter terrorist AML/CFT policies. financing. They serve as the gateway for sharing financial information domestically Suriname’s Money Laundering Act of and internationally, in accordance with 2002—amended in 2016 and in accordance global AML/CFT standards. with international conventions and treaties— facilitates the seizure and forfeiture of Suriname is taking steps to join the Egmont assets, instruments, or products deriving Group. It could benefit significantly from from drug trafficking and other related the work of Egmont’s Technical Assistance crimes. However, Suriname lacks and Training Working Group, specifically regulations for the accountability and the technical assistance and training Egmont transparency of the administration of seized members receive, often in conjunction with and forfeited assets. Nor does Suriname observer organizations and international offer or participate in specialized training partners. The group also supports FIUs programs for the administration and facing significant challenges to complying disposition of seized and forfeited assets. As with Egmont requirements and international a result, its executive agencies lack the standards. capacity to effectively implement asset forfeiture laws. Among the working group’s courses are: Tactical Analysis, Strategic Analysis, One way in which Suriname can improve its Corporate Vehicles and Financial Products, AML/CFT policies is for its Financial Egmont AML/CTF Supervisory, and FIU Intelligence Unit (FIU) to join the Egmont Information System Maturity Model. Group. The Group is a body of 165 FIUs that offers a platform for the secure Anti-corruption and governance exchange of expertise and financial According to a United Nations Development intelligence to combat money laundering Program report, corruption in Suriname is in and terrorist financing. part due to “poor legislation, inadequate institutional mechanisms, inefficient public Any FIU which meets the criteria of the expenditure management, limited Egmont Group—namely being a national transparency, conflicts of interest, and the center for the receipt and analysis of abuse of influence and power.” The

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities elements in institutions, sectors, and exports. Businesses encounter a large agencies contributing to corruption are: a corruption risk when they bid public concentration of authority and lack of procurement. Irregular payments in effective checks and balances; weak connection with awarding public contracts transparency concerning executive and licenses are widespread. The lack of decisions, combined with limited access to transparency makes the procurement system information; unclear regulatory systems that opaque. Gold is Suriname’s main export. allow for discretionary decision-making; However, Suriname does not regulate gold lack of consistency in implemented mining and most of it occurs in a substantial procedures and processes; and ineffective informal economy. Illegal mining accounts systems of oversight and enforcement. for over two-thirds of gold extraction. Once Among the concrete problems with Suriname starts to participate in the Suriname’s laws, institutions, and systems Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative are the following: its laws are antiquated and and is evaluated, its anti-corruption and too narrow to address modern corruption governance of natural resource extraction risks; even the proposed anti-corruption should improve. laws do not cover many issues that affect sectors like mining and forestry, such as Suriname’s existing legal framework for widespread deforestation; anti-corruption anti-corruption originates from its outdated measures in Suriname are new and also penal code, creating a number of problems. relatively narrow; the failure to ratify In 2017, the Surinamese Parliament enacted legislation; poor checks and balances; a lack anti-corruption legislation, including of necessary institutional structures financial disclosure requirements for certain facilitates corruption; civil society has a government officials. The law requires limited role in promoting ethical principles income, asset, and financial disclosure and like the rule of law, integrity, transparency, has strict guidelines for submission and accountability; and Suriname does not timeframe. However, the government has have a law that guarantees the right to access not yet set up the Anti-corruption information (i.e. a freedom of information Commission, which is responsible for law). implementing the law. Within CARICOM, Guyana, Jamaica, and the Bahamas have Companies operating in Suriname's natural financial disclosure laws. None of them resource sector encounter a substantial risk work effectively, partly due to lack of of corruption. The lack of requirements for funding for their commissions and a lack of corporations to establish policies or internal transparency. controls, enlarges the risk of foreign companies becoming involved in corrupt Notwithstanding the yet-to-be-implemented practices. Additionally, though there is a anti-corruption law of 2017, Suriname needs financial disclosure law for public officials, to modernize its criminal laws pertaining to it has not yet been implemented yet. Reports corruption. For instance, it needs a law show that corruption is believed to occur in facilitating whistleblowing. In terms of the allocation of licenses, the licensing international conventions, Suriname is a process, the declaration of extraction results, member of the Inter-American Anti- and the payment of taxes and royalties. Corruption Convention. However, it is not a Bribery regularly occurs in the customs member of the United Nations Convention administration in relation to imports and on Corruption, which is the only legally

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities binding universal anti-corruption instrument. Article 18 of the revised Treaty of The convention's far-reaching approach and Chagauramas provides for the establishment the mandatory character of many of its of a Legal Affairs Committee. Under Article provisions make it a unique tool for 19(1), the Committee is responsible for developing a comprehensive response to a providing advice on treaties, international global problem. As of February 6, 2020, the legal issues, and harmonization of laws of convention has 187 participating countries, the community. CARICOM should task the which means that Suriname would be able to Legal Affairs Committee with devising cooperate with the 187 members in the regional approaches and best practices on investigation and prosecution of corruption anti-corruption and related initiatives. offenses. Technical and financial assistance Similarly, Suriname did not update its Suriname may want to take advantage of regulatory and procedural frameworks technical and financial assistance from allowing for effective cooperation international organizations and civil society, mechanisms with other countries and in order to improve its laws, treaties, and relevant international organizations on the capacity to prepare new legislation, management of seized and forfeited assets. regulations, and negotiate treaties. The Moreover, although Suriname ratified the UNODC Regional Office for Central Inter-American Convention on Mutual America and the Caribbean has a regional Assistance in Criminal Matters, it is not a program consisting of the following five party to the Inter-American Convention on sub-programs: countering transnational Extradition. organized crime, illicit trafficking, terrorism, corruption, and money laundering. Ultimately, more must be done on a regional The Inter-American Development Bank basis to combat corruption. With the help of provides grants to CARICOM countries to the Commonwealth Secretariat, 12 prepare national risk assessments, revise Caribbean governments established the AML/CFT laws and regulations, and Association of Integrity Commissions and strengthen exam procedures. Anti-Corruption Bodies in the Commonwealth Caribbean in 2012. One source of assistance is the Basel However, as it is not a member of the Institute of Governance. The independent Commonwealth, Suriname did not not-for-profit organization providing participate. In 2015, the chief prosecutors technical assistance in governance, anti- from the Commonwealth countries in the corruption, and asset recovery to public and Caribbean met to discuss best practices to private organizations around the world recurrent issues that interfere with the actively engages in strengthening prosecution of corruption, money developing countries’ capacity to investigate laundering, and the recovery of proceeds of and prosecute cross-border corruption. It these crimes. The Commonwealth has collaborated with the Egmont Group to Secretariat organized the meeting in transpose in-person trainings on collaboration with the Caribbean FATF for operational analysis and on terrorism the CARICOM Implementation Agency for financing into self-paced e-learning modules Crime and Security and the UN Office on which are free of charge and available on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). https://learn.baselgovernance.org. The operational analysis training has been up

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities and running for over a year. Another potential source of training on anti- • First, an alarming feature has corruption and AML/CFT is the emerged across all regions of the International Anti-Corruption Academy in world—as well as in Haiti: the Austria. difficulty governments are having in addressing the aspirations, let alone While Suriname has significant room for the fears, of their citizens. Much of growth in anti-corruption, transparency, and this can be associated with poor governance, the international community governance, which has energized a will welcome the opportunity to help the revolt against real and perceived new government improve in all of these injustice and inequality. regards. In particular, the international community (e.g. the IMF 2018 Article IV • Second, this corrosion of good, let report underscoring the need to strengthen alone democratic governance, has governance) recognizes that many of the translated into frustrations at both the significant problems in Suriname, such as policy and street-levels—sometimes the more than doubling of its public sector violently. In the case of Haiti, the debt since 2014 (constituting 77.2 percent of breakdown of national governance GDP in 2017), cannot be solved without a has made it difficult, if not impossible major transformation in improving its anti- to deal effectively with Haiti's corruption legislation and enforcement, multiple other problems—notably transparency, and governance. The systemic corruption. international community realizes that Suriname’s richness in natural resources— • And third, a pattern of dismal such as gold, oil, bauxite, and timber—will governing performance from Haitian significantly increase development and political leaders of all factions since corruption pressure, requiring careful the late 1980s has coexisted with stewardship to manage the country’s fragile painfully disappointing outcomes environment and to protect endangered from layers of international donor species in Suriname’s marine and efforts, let alone direct interventions. Amazonian biomes.

Cumulatively, this should at least draw Chapter 5. Good governance and attention to the need by both Haitian corruption in the Caribbean: the leadership and its international partners to come to grips with a reality where the Haitian challenge country’s many woes remain unresolved. It Georges A. Fauriol is not entirely surprising that foreign actors are viewed by portions of both Haiti’s Intractable issues intellectual and popular circles—and in The past decade has witnessed a decay of Haiti’s extensive diaspora as well—as a key established democracies’ own commitment source of the country’s mess. Perhaps to democratic principles and in turn a incongruously, this notion of foreign qualitative decline in the adherence to norms meddling—targeting particularly the United and institutions of democracy world-wide. States, and multinational institutions, notably the UN system and the OAS—is How is this relevant to Haiti? often matched by an expectation that these

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities same actors will readily support Haiti in in Haiti. These four policy arenas can be times of need. This leads to serious matched up with what one might describe as misjudgments and may begin to explain the “corruption triggers” embedded in each disappointments of Haitian governance. Lost policy activity: a) financial transaction and in the translation is the fatigue and resource flows, b) institutional mechanisms frustrations evident among Haiti’s many and management processes, and c) levels of friends, which easily gives way to policy authority and action mandates. expediency and outcomes which do not reinforce the foundations of Haiti’s fragile Governance-corruption spectrum constitutional order. conceptual design

Resource Institutional Mandates/ Haiti’s governance-corruption spectrum Flows Processes Authority This analysis works from the uncomfortable, Economic but realistic, premise that corruption can Governance permeate all sectors of Haitian governance. Political Norms/ The magnitude of the challenge is confirmed Effectiveness by several overlapping indices: Rule of Transparency International’s 2019 Index Law/Const. Apparatus ranks Haiti as the second most corrupt International country in the hemisphere after Venezuela; Community the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report Index—which measures the quality of One can operationalize this framework by institutions and the ensuing human capital looking at three cases of the past decade, and economic ecosystem—ranks Haiti notable by their sheer scope: the PetroCaribe fourth from the bottom out of 141 countries embezzlement, the massive post-2010 (barely ahead of the Democratic Republic of earthquake reconstruction effort, and in a the Congo and Yemen); and the World different context, the Haiti-DR uncontrolled Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators, cross-border trade flows between Haiti and reporting across six dimensions of the Dominican Republic. In varying ways governance (notably, government each encompasses: effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, and control of corruption), also rank Haiti • The skewing of economic governance dramatically low. These statistics reflect a toward self-dealing through opaque perennial challenge for succeeding Haitian mandates and administrative governments to effectively match up with authority, let alone bureaucratic good governance and anti-corruption practices by those involved; activities in the Caribbean. • An often-remarkable insouciance and Making sense of the scope of the problem resistance to achieving effective may best be visualized through what outcomes by tilting mandates, amounts to Haiti’s governance-corruption processes, and monetary flows toward corruptive ends; spectrum. This includes four arenas of policy activity: 1) economic governance, 2) • A dense and what is at times an political practices, norms, and effectiveness, impervious observance of formal 3) rule of law and constitutional apparatus, rules, frequently degenerating into and 4) international community engagement

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

broader institutional and systemic Martelly) and individuals in his government, political chaos; several of whom transitioned to the current

• And what can become a difficult, government—and suggested that Moïse tiring, if not plotting interaction might also be tainted by the scandal. After between Haitian actors and delays, the last installment of the CSCCA international community partners, investigation was issued in August 2020, leading to short-cuts and adding further credence to the fact that programmatic dead-ends. between 2006 and 2016 every government ministry, a number of autonomous public PetroCaribe institutions, as well as Haitian and foreign The scale of the PetroCaribe embezzlement firms benefited from PetroCaribe (somewhere in the range of USD $1.5-2.5 corruption—with no cost controls and billion range, derived from Venezuela’s budgetary oversight. The evidence is discounted oil program and designed to overwhelming, but in the context of Haiti’s support Haitian social and infrastructure dysfunctional politics and weak judiciary, projects, but also used for budgetary this begs the question of what happens next. support) provides an illustration of the Fast forward into 2021 and it is likely that limitations of efforts to push political the PetroCaribe matter will have remained leadership toward corrective action. With an unresolved political and legal issue. support from the donor community, Haitian civil society and sometimes international Post-January 12, 2010 earthquake media interest have been no match for the reconstruction outsize deception of successive governments This natural catastrophe left an estimated and its allies. Eighteen-month-long public 220,000 people dead, 300,000 injured, and disturbances culminated in what was an already weak national governance essentially a shutdown of the economy infrastructure facing destruction and a during fall 2019. With a focus on the need humanitarian tragedy. This also let loose an for government transparency and effective unprecedented flow of humanitarian aid—by anti-corruption measures—in effect political 2015 approximately USD $13.5 billion in accountability—public pressure successfully contributions and pledges, about three- pushed through several investigations. quarters from public/country donors and the rest from private sources. But, the optimistic The most significant effort included an notion of "building back better” quickly initial report from the Cour Supérieure des gave way to the fog of overlapping or Comptes et du Contentieux Administratif duplicative initiatives, overconfident (CSCCA—roughly equivalent to our programming disconnected from the reality Government Accountability Office [GAO] on the ground, an anxious interaction but with more autonomous legal authority) between local and international issued in May 2019, accusing PetroCaribe reconstruction and development actors, and and a large swath of Haiti’s government an over-reliance on foreign contractors machinery of embezzlement. This expanded essentially by-passing the admittedly limited on earlier reporting from a parliamentary absorption capacities of Haitian public investigative effort (initially resulting in a institutions. 686-page parliamentary report issued in late The global goodwill was undermined by 2017). Revelations have gone beyond headlines such as the American Red Cross targeting Moïse’s predecessor (Michel claims of a major home building project that

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities by 2015 could reportedly account for only Washington. The Haiti-DR border is six new homes. Multiple infrastructure emblematic of dysfunctional governance (notably roads, bridges, and even sports shielding corruption on an institutionalized facilities) and public building reconstruction scale. A paper prepared in 2019 by the contracts were issued to Dominican and Haitian private sector alarmingly noted that other non-Haitian businesses that often no other political, social, or economic appeared to have links to individuals within development strategy in Haiti will succeed the Haitian public sector bureaucracy and without ending the enormous illegal border political community—and with cost payouts trade that kills employment, depresses often exceeding project deliverables. For economic growth, and robs government good measure, PetroCaribe funding was also revenues. diverted toward reconstruction projects with little accountability. Politically overstated • In 2015 Dominican exports to Haiti critiques linked to the Clinton Foundation totaled USD $1.4 billion, while (later expanded to the Clinton-Bush Haiti Haitian exports to the DR amounted to Fund, involving funding raised by both only USD $4 million. former U.S. presidents), added to the overall • In 2018 exports from Haiti to the diminishing credibility of rebuilding efforts, Dominican Republic were still less regardless of the validity of the accusations than USD $60 million. against the foundation. In a telling, even tragic, indicator of the failings of the 2010 • The budget deficit of the government of earthquake reconstruction undertaking Haiti in 2018 was approximately USD occurred when the COVID-19 pandemic hit $350 million.

Haiti in March 2020. It emerged that three • Lost income at the border for the medical facilities built in the aftermath of Haitian government from Dominican the earthquake lay unopened. The general imports was estimated to be in the hospital in Port-au-Prince (primarily funded USD $350 million range. with U.S. and French government funding), a regional hospital in Gonaïves (with • For the same year Haiti’s customs Canadian support), and a smaller facility in collection of duties at border points Jacmel (with support from Japan) remained was only around USD $15 million. unusable because the government had not yet appropriated the budget to staff the What has facilitated this corrosive facilities. environment is also what amounts to collusion among layers of Haitian and Uncontrolled trade flows between Haiti Dominican beneficiaries in both the public and the Dominican Republic and private sector. This includes lax customs The Caribbean remains a bridge between controls on both sides of the border enabling North and South America, and that reality contraband and illegal trade, made worse by translates into several transnational threats— border flows occurring outside of the four notably drug trafficking and organized formal border crossings. For this process to crime, human trafficking, weapons remain in place also implies collusion that trafficking, and terrorism. This provides the reaches back into the political leadership of backdrop to why an uncontrolled Haiti- both countries. Under-resourced Haitian Dominican Republic (DR) border has been a customs and border controls, seizures of long-standing concern to policy-makers in merchandise, and the capacity to impose sanctions against contraband and fiscal fraud

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities are no match for the volume of day-to-day President Jovenel Moïse’s mandate, let merchandise and vehicle crossings (and foot alone how to carry out legitimate elections traffic). This also affects backup delayed since fall 2019. Arguably, enforcement mechanisms responsible for addressing Haiti’s governance and monitoring and implementing anti- corruption challenges is more related to a corruption regulations, let alone applying shortage of political will and discipline penalties to those who break them. The scale coupled with weak institutions, than access of a dysfunction affecting Haitian trade to international donor assistance and extends even into arenas deemed by most expertise. The latter remains available from observers as relative success stories. A case a variety of country donors and international in point may be the over-hyped Caracol development institutions, but the common Industrial Park in northeast Haiti, built from refrain often heard relates to the limited scratch after the 2010 earthquake with absorption capacity of Haitian partners. To massive support from the United States and achieve results, a sharper emphasis might the Inter-American Development Bank. The also be placed on policy mechanisms with a park was designed to tackle the country’s longer-term and wider political impact. unemployment rate as well as create jobs away from the overcrowded capital, Port-au- U.S. policy Prince. It attracted major investors, notably Despite being an election year, Haiti South Korean textile/garment companies. continues to receive attention on Capitol However, the government’s mismanagement Hill, including two House hearings—one in of the park—corruption and concerns over December 2019 and another in March 2020. security— has cast a level of uncertainty In both cases one constant was Haiti’s about the entire initiative. inability to come to grips with corruption, violence, and political dysfunction. Early More of the same last year a bill was introduced—whose title In recent months there have been cases encapsulates much of those concerns—HR involving electric power breakdowns, water 5586 Haiti Development, Accountability, supply shortages, as well as fuel supply and Institutional Transparency Initiative scarcities—each with a history of Act. It specifically targets corruption, mismanagement and the same refrain of violence and impunity, freedom of the press, government agencies operating with little and for good measure, requires updated oversight and budgetary controls. Following reporting on funding related to post- the 2020 summer hurricane season, clearing earthquake reconstruction efforts. away damage was hampered because heavy equipment owned by the government’s A latent concern is that U.S., and more Centre national d’équipement (CNE – broadly international funding, is being national equipment center) lay abandoned misused as budgetary gap-fillers and non-functioning. In a similar vein, compensating for the loss of revenue due in armored vehicles from the Haitian national part to Haiti-DR border contraband trade. In police broke down mechanically while recent years, USAID funding has attempted responding to recent public disturbances in to address this issue, but it likely lacks the the Port-au-Prince region. political bandwidth to truly alter Haitian By the end of 2020, Haiti’s unstable behavior. If the U.S. Congress is energized, socioeconomic edifice also faced a domestic this could change the calculus. A promising constitutional crisis regarding the length of proposal emerged at last December’s

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities hearing in the House of Representatives to interference and requires creativity from the create a bipartisan working group of international community. The recent, and members in the U.S. Congress, providing a imperfect, experiences in Guatemala (the robust Haiti policy platform on Capitol Hill. UN-backed International Commission This would be welcomed by Haiti’s civil Against Impunity in Guatemala) and society which has provided much of the Honduras (the OAS-backed Mission to political energy pressing for greater Support the Fight Against Corruption and transparency across the country’s political Impunity in Honduras) can provide some and economic institutions. lessons, but they are not easily transferable.

The governance-corruption theme A more promising avenue is to capitalize on potentially partners as well with a less Haiti’s membership in CARICOM and its defined, but broader interest in U.S.- institutionalized commitment to the rule of Caribbean resiliency policy. Effective law. Haiti’s governance breakdowns have resiliency is all about acting on anticipated historically triggered engagement from its changes, or opportunities. In U.S. policy Caribbean neighbors, and although a new terms, this has traditionally referenced the Haitian ambassador to CARICOM was Caribbean’s capacity for disaster recently named, the Moïse government has management and overcoming political not easily welcomed interest from breakdowns—a definition that matches up CARICOM. Nonetheless, this is a with Haiti’s national struggles. In this constituency with core competencies to regard, the U.S.-Caribbean Resiliency develop an effective Caribbean anti- Partnership is a commendable endeavor corruption and transparency mechanism on a which should pay particular attention to scale which Haiti might find more Haiti. However, this requires robust welcoming. This dovetails with existing engagement from Haiti’s political leaders, technical and financial assistance initiatives civil society, and the private sector that on anti-corruption, and the emergence of needs to go beyond what, until recently, has regional and international enforcement been framed mostly by short-term responses mechanisms—notably the CARICOM and infusions of resources. Implementing Agency for Crime and Security, the Association of Caribbean Regional policy responses Commissioners of Police, and national Haiti should be given credit for pursuing enforcement capacities. Beyond functional investigations of the PetroCaribe scandal, areas of expertise is the reality that this mix but issuing government audits and of institutions also represents a network of parliamentary investigations reports is not partnerships with international funding enough. There is a need to develop more agencies, government donors, and sustainable mechanisms to address philanthropic organizations working on widespread public sector corruption and transparency and anti-corruption measures. constructively channel public anger. This Haiti has to take a more energetic approach kind of civil society activism is appealing to to all of this. international donors ready to support more robust judicial assistance programs and the investigatory capacity of key government and judicial units, but this will not be sufficient to circumvent political

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Chapter 6. The Caribbean, good corruption, and in 2020 saw Goldman Sachs, the U.S. investment bank, reach a settlement governance, and the global of USD $3.9 billion with the Malaysian accountability regime government for its part in the scandal. In Brazil, the 2010s were rocked by Operation Scott B. MacDonald Car Wash (Operacão Lava Jato), which

Good governance is a major concern in the revealed extensive money laundering and Caribbean. Indeed, the issue of corruption is bribery involving the state-owned oil an ongoing point of discussion in some company, Petrobras. The ripples from that countries and a topic that tends to arise scandal ultimately sent one former president during elections. This was amply evident in to prison, helped impeach another, ruined 2020’s hotly contested elections in the the reputation of one of the country’s largest Dominican Republic, Guyana, Suriname, and best-known companies, Odebrecht, and and Trinidad and Tobago. In each case, snared high-ranking political figures in other campaign narratives included concerns of parts of Latin America. The United States citizens over governance, which have an has also seen its share of public corruption. impact on their day-to-day lives in the form It is often forgotten but it was only in 1883 of quality of public services, accountability that the U.S. officially did away with the of government finances, and law and order. spoils system via the Pendleton Act, and While the need for better governance is an there have been many financial scandals, not issue in the Caribbean, the region is hardly necessarily involving the government, but unique in dealing with such challenges. nonetheless causing damage to the public Caribbean governments are finding faith, including the Savings and Loans themselves increasingly brought into a scandal, Enron, and Bernie Madoff. broader international system of governance accountability. While this at times may be How corrupt is the Caribbean? perceived as external interference, the In many ways this is a loaded question, creation of such a global accountability something that no doubt makes many regime generally functions as a force for government officials roll their eyes in positive change, especially if it contributes exasperation. Although the Caribbean does to the creation of more robust civil societies. not have the same litany of massive multi- The Caribbean is hardly unique in facing billion-dollar scandals spread across several governance issues. According to the World national jurisdictions as in the cases of Economic Forum, the global cost of Malaysia and Brazil, it is fair to say that corruption in 2018 was estimated to be USD corruption exists. In its 2019 survey of $2.6 trillion, equal to a fifth of the global corruption in Latin America and the economy at the time. The World Bank Caribbean, global corruption watchdog estimates that over USD $1 billion is paid in Transparency International’s main findings bribes for corrupt purposes every year. were: corruption is on the rise; governments are not doing enough; presidents, prime But that is not all. International news ministers, and parliamentarians are seen as headlines in recent years provide rich the most corrupt; bribery is a regular findings in terms of corruption in high occurrence for many; sexual extortion is a places. In Malaysia, the 1MDB scandal major issue; political integrity is lacking, helped bring down the government, put its especially around elections; and, despite former prime minister on trial for fears of retaliation, citizens can make a

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities difference. Countries in the survey honest officials who stand in the way, and representing the Caribbean included the taking bribes tend to be more blatant and Bahamas, Barbados, the Dominican easier to identify. Republic, Guyana, and Jamaica. In these countries, Transparency International noted Most Caribbean countries have faced these a sizable group of people who see issues, a situation probably not helped by the government corruption as a big problem. longevity of certain governments. In Cuba, which has seen only three leaders since

Government corruption, by country 1959, political power is exercised and (2019) monopolized by a narrow elite, leaving

much of the population feeling held back by Percentage of people who an ineffective and corrupt state. The cost has Country concerned with corruption been that many Cubans have not used their

Peru 96% ambition, talent, and entrepreneurial drive at Colombia 94% home, but have left and contributed to the Argentina 93% economic life of the United States, Spain, or Dominican 93% other parts of Latin America and the Republic Caribbean. Much of the same could be said El Salvador 93% Venezuela 93% about Guyana during the long years of Honduras 91% Forbes Burnham (1964-1985), which proved Brazil 90% an incentive for many Guyanese to leave Guatemala 90% and test their skills in North America, the Mexico 90% United Kingdom, or other parts of the Panama 90% Caribbean. Chile 85% Trinidad and 85% Tobago As corruption has long been an issue, there Costa Rica 82% has been an effort to develop databases and Bahamas 80% ratings systems to help governments, Jamaica 78% citizens groups, businesses, and investors Guyana 59% quantify levels of corruption. Transparency Barbados 53% International provides rankings for 198 Source: Transparency International jurisdictions based on comparable data. In these, Caribbean countries generally fare

It is worth noting that in the Caribbean (as well with a sprinkling of representation in elsewhere) corruption is often in the eye of the upper tier (least corrupt) and bulked in the beholder; practices conducted by the the middle, though Haiti is notable for being local population may be perceived as in the bottom tier. The Bahamas and normal, yet from the outside may be seen as Barbados are the most highly ranked (not far a form of corruption. In some countries this from the United States), reflecting high would include the hiring of family members levels of rule of law, transparency, or the favoring of certain companies for functioning judiciaries, and low crime rates. government contracts run by family members and friends. Other forms of corruption, including the large-scale embezzlement of public funds, the laundering of those funds, the removal of

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

investor protection, rule of law, government Transparency International rankings for effectiveness, and democratic the Caribbean and selected countries accountability. (2019)

Another governance rating database is the Country Rank Score (out of 198) (out of 100) World Bank’s Worldwide Governance United Kingdom 12 53 Indicators. This covers a wide range of United States 23 69 indicators pertaining to governance and Bahamas 29 64 Barbados 30 62 corruption. Included in the World Bank’s St. Vincent & The 39 59 program are such items as “control of Grenadines corruption” and “voice and accountability.” Dominica 48 55 Under the first are such considerations as Grenada 51 53 corruption among public officers, public Cuba 60 48 trust of politicians and transparency, Suriname 70 44 accountability, and corruption in the public Jamaica 74 43 China 80 41 sector. Under voice and accountability are Trinidad & Tobago 85 40 such items as press freedom, human rights, Guyana 85 40 role of the military in politics, and openness Panama 101 36 of the budget process. Russia 137 28 Dominican Republic 137 28 The World Bank also created the Ease of Haiti 168 18 Doing Business Ranking Index. It takes into Venezuela 173 16 consideration items such as what it takes to Source: Transparency International incorporate a business, get a building permit,

obtain an electricity connection, transfer Transparency International is not the only property, get access to credit, protect organization that rates and ranks countries in minority investors, pay taxes, and enforce terms of governance. Considering the contracts. All of this points back to importance of access to international capital, regulations, or the rules of the game. the Caribbean has increasingly had to take Corruption can complicate many of the into consideration the role of international factors that go into creating a positive rating agencies. These include Moody’s, environment for business, which, in turn, Standard & Poor’s, and Fitch, which provide can result in lost opportunities including sovereign ratings. Such ratings are important employment generation, a broader and for many investors looking at the region as a deeper tax system, and better social services. potential place to invest, as they provide an Among Caribbean countries, Jamaica (71 idea of creditworthiness and put countries out of 190), St. Lucia (93), and Trinidad and into peer groups consisting of members from Tobago (105) ranks the highest; Grenada around the world. Considering the (146), Suriname (162), and Haiti (179) rank Caribbean’s large infrastructure needs, the lowest. having access to such investors is important. Rating agencies look for robust anti- Another part of the global accountability corruption measures and systems to control regime is ESG (Environmental, Social, and debt, external sustainability, and overall Governance) standards. ESG is used by development prospects. This brings into play private investors (pensions, companies, and such variables as bureaucratic quality, mutual fund managers) to gauge how a

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities company or project in which they are wider platform to attract foreign and investing, either through green bonds or domestic investment. direct investment, meets these standards. Although ESG investment started from low There are other ways that Caribbean levels in the early 21st century, it now countries and territories are rated. These accounts for billions of dollars, and in the include organizations like the Organization post-COVID-19 environment will continue for Economic Cooperation and Development to expand further. Moreover, many of the (OECD), the Financial Action Task Force, world’s leading companies (a number of and other multinational groups that create them active in the Caribbean) are adopting “blacklists” and “greylists” for jurisdictions ESG standards. According to a survey by that are regarded as facilitating money KMPG (one of the world’s largest laundering and other types of financial crime accounting firms), 75 percent of the largest or tax evasion. The European Union’s 100 companies across 49 countries indicated Economic and Financial Affairs Council that they are employing ESG business maintains a list of “non-cooperative” models or incorporating aspects of jurisdictions for tax evasion. The last sustainability approaches, a number which revision, in February 2020, included the shifted substantially upward by 2017 from following Caribbean countries: the Cayman just 12 percent in 1993. Islands, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Jurisdictions that For Caribbean governments, ESG becomes had previously been on the EU blacklist important from the standpoint that investors were Aruba, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, may shy away from investing in companies and Dominica, but they were removed as operating in jurisdictions that have poor they worked with the EU to improve their track records with environmental tax compliance standards (despite a degree compliance, governance, and transparency. of acrimony over a European imposition of This has particular relevance for companies what constitutes an international norm). operating in the extractive industry, including mining, oil, and gas. Equally The stakes for the Caribbean are high in important, Caribbean aspirations to terms of governance issues, especially in a implement Blue Ocean economic policies region hard hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. that tap the potential of the local eco- The Caribbean already has a number of systems constructed around oceans systems reasonably well-developed organizations fit into a widening ESG investment menu. that include CARICOM, the Caribbean The blue economy approach combines Court of Justice, the Caribbean conservation and growth in the context of Development Bank, and the Caribbean oceans, seeking to provide a sustainable and Financial Task Force. Although there is integrated development strategy. It enables often grousing over the value of Caribbean small states to provide ocean ecosystem regional organizations, the region would be services and to develop new industries in much poorer without them as they provide aquaculture, sustainable tourism, marine important forums for discussion, technical biotechnology, seabed mining, and other expertise, and the creation of regional growth sectors. Considering that standards. Moreover, they reinforce ideas competition for international capital, this about the need for robust civil societies and could well provide Caribbean countries a their projects should help promote civic organizations throughout the region.

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Looking ahead, good governance and and regulations, which support the ideas of tackling corruption are important to the the rule of law and the ability of businesses Caribbean. This comes in many shapes and and individual citizens to function in their forms, but for governments in the region to day-to-day capacities. deliver the package of goods that their citizens should expect (law and order, Getting this balance right is not an easy task. functioning public utilities, and working The American political scientist Samuel P. healthcare and educational systems), there Huntington caught some of the nuances of has to be a commitment to maintaining this balancing act in Political Order in systems that promote the public good. In Changing Societies: some cases this means not just having laws on the books, but also enforcing those laws. At the same time, Caribbean governments “In terms of economic have to be aware that, as they are growth, the only thing increasingly held to a higher standard by worse than a society with their own citizens, they are also held to a rigid, over-centralized, international standards. Accountability to dishonest bureaucracy is both domestic and international one with a rigid, over- constituencies may add to the pressures on centralized, and honest government, politicians, and business bureaucracy.” leaders, but the results are societies that are more inclusive and equitable—a goal to which all citizens can aspire. The Whether one agrees or disagrees with importance of accountability was caught by Huntington’s observation, it underscores the the American sociologist E. Digby Baltzell, importance of “getting it right” with respect “The downfall of every civilization comes, to good governance. In this regard, the not from the moral corruption of the Caribbean is no exception. common man, but rather from the moral complacency of common man in high It is instructive that, in 2020, the newly- places.” elected leaders of Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname stated that corruption was a major Chapter 7. Recommendations for concern for their administrations. Indeed, in good governance in the his inaugural address, Jamaican Prime Minister Andrew Holness promised that Caribbean steps would be taken to strengthen the Scott B. MacDonald, Bruce Zagaris, and country’s anti-corruption agencies, and that Georges A. Fauriol each of the elected members of his party would participate in the sensitization and Most acts of corruption occur under the public education programs that would be radar; you know they are there, but they are created by Jamaica’s Integrity Commission. just out of sight. It can also be argued that According to Holness, this requirement the challenge of good governance is just as would increase their awareness and elusive, and remains an issue for understanding of the anti-corruption governments and civil societies across the legislative framework, “not just [to] world. The task facing countries is one of sensitize them, but to ensure that they are striking the right balance in terms of rules [aware] of their duties under the law and

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities understand that this will be an accountable government.” He also stated, “In addition to • Most Caribbean governments have investigation and prosecution, we must also made laudable commitments to seek to present the occurrence of acts which democratic governance, yet they weaken public trust and damage the integrity need to update their governance of the government.” practices to adapt to changes in the global economy—in particular, with The Global Americans Conference on Good regard to the increasing digitalization Governance and Corruption in the of commerce and investment. These Caribbean offered up a productive are not easy tasks. The reality is that, discussion on corruption and good while endowed with governance governance best practices, recognizing that assets and regional institutional some reforms are geared more toward mechanisms, the Caribbean is also a domestic conditions (influenced by local nexus of chronic deficiencies, societal views pertaining to different notably in public sector transparency practices and tolerance to certain practices) and corruption. and others toward externally-driven factors. The following recommendations and key Its geography continues to make the observations build upon those discussed Caribbean region a conduit for drug previously: trafficking, organized crime, human trafficking, and terrorism. Each of • There is a need to create a high-level these phenomena introduce illicit authority for good governance that financial flows that fuel persistent will set the government’s tone on crime in most Caribbean nations and governance by outlining all forms of undermine good governance. corruption that may exist in the Portions of the region, notably the public domain, and can provide a southern Caribbean’s oil and gas handbook on best practices to belt, are magnets for highly lucrative educate cabinet ministers, multinational investments, which departmental heads, and rank and file carry with them an uneven record of civil servants. This project could also faithfulness to notions of be extended to the broader public transparency. It is muddled further through the education system. The by geopolitics, notably China’s Belt good governance body should also and Road Initiative, which offers have the authority to correct and development and infrastructure punish corrupt practices when funding to Caribbean nations that necessary, with the support of the have been increasingly critiqued for head of government. Jamaica and operating with sometimes opaque Guyana have integrity commissions, contracting and investment criteria. but such a mechanism is absent in Suriname. In July 2020, Barbados • This raises the need to maintain and, passed the Integrity in Public Life in some cases, upgrade ties to Act, which seeks to deter and punish international organizations involved corruption by politicians, senior in dealing with transnational crime public officers, and high-ranking on such areas as money laundering, managers of state-owned enterprises. terrorist financing, fintech

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

applications, and crypto-currencies. also encompass supporting Sources of assistance include the supplementary reforms in legal, Basel Institute of Governance, the regulatory, and institutional Inter-American Development Bank frameworks. Both countries are (already active in most countries in currently experiencing vigorous oil the region), and the United Nations and gas exploration as well as Office on Drugs and Crime (which significant goldmining operations. has a regional office for Central America and the Caribbean). And, of • There is also a need to update rules course, the regional governments and regulations pertaining to the have access to the Caribbean management of forests in Guyana Development Bank, which considers and Suriname. Forests make up the promotion of good governance to around 90 percent of land cover in be critical to Caribbean each country and are relatively development. The Egmont Group, a untouched, compared to other body of 165 Financial Intelligence countries like Brazil, Indonesia, and Units (FIUs), is a platform for the the Democratic Republic of Congo. secure exchange of expertise and financial intelligence to combat • Through its Legal Affairs money laundering and terrorist Committee, CARICOM should play financing. Most Caribbean countries a role in upgrading the regional and and territories (including Aruba, member standards on governance Curaçao, the British Virgin Islands, and anti-corruption. CARICOM and the Cayman Islands) are should supplement the work of the members; Guyana, Haiti, and Commonwealth Secretariat in Suriname are not. establishing the Association of

Integrity Commissions and Anti- • If Caribbean countries have not Corruption Bodies in the established their own offices of Commonwealth Caribbean. This Transparency International (TI) or would focus attention on the need to similar transparency organizations, modernize anti-corruption, they should consider doing so. TI governance, money laundering, provides an important global freezing, and forfeiture laws.

benchmark for each nation’s civil society, as well as domestic and • The Caribbean Association of Chiefs foreign business. Similarly, the of Police should also play a proactive establishment of regional and local role in helping to build the capacity offices of the International for anti-corruption work by domestic Association of Journalists and law enforcement.

Investigative Journalists would be worthwhile. • CARICOM should consider helping

develop uniform financial disclosure • Guyana and Suriname need to legislation for its members and help strengthen mining sector governance, ensure they are properly resourced. transparency, accountability, and Guyana, Jamaica, and the Bahamas administration. These reforms should

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

have financial disclosure laws, but supporting the investigatory capacity none of them work effectively. of key government and judicial units

will not be sufficient to circumvent • Caribbean governments should political interference in some consider working with the IADB, the countries in the region. This will UNODC, and the Follow-Up require creativity from the Mechanism for the Implementation international community, but most of the Inter-American Convention importantly, from Caribbean political against Corruption to strengthen anti- and civil society leadership. The corruption legislation and resources. elements for overcoming political

obstacles exist. For example, with • The European Union, Canada, the encouragement from international United States, and the Nordic partners, CARICOM’s countries are all potential candidates institutionalized commitment to the to contribute to strengthening anti- rule of law provides core corruption and good governance competencies to develop regional activities in the region. anti-corruption and transparency mechanisms. • Clearly, pushing for more robust judicial assistance programs and

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

About the Authors

Bruce Zagaris is a partner with the Washington, D.C. law firm of Berliner, Corcoran & Rowe LLP, founder and editor of the International Enforcement Law Reporter, and former lecturer at the Law Faculty, University of West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados. He is widely published, with his most recent book being International Criminal Law: Cases and Materials (co-author with Jordan J. Paust et al, Carolina Academic Press, 4th edition, 2013).

Georges A. Fauriol is a fellow at the Caribbean Policy Consortium, as well as a Think Tank Haiti (TTH) Steering Group member, a partnership of Université Quisqueya (Haiti) and the Inter-American Dialogue; he is on the adjunct faculty of Georgetown University’s Democracy and Governance program, and is also a Senior Associate at the Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS). He is widely published in the area of Caribbean and US policy in the region, and more broadly, democratization dynamics.

Guy Mentel is the Executive Director of Global Americans. Mr. Mentel writes and speaks extensively about U.S.-Latin American relations and hemispheric affairs. He plays a leading role in developing Global Americans’ agenda, programs, publications, and events, and frequently briefs congressional staff and other international observers about U.S. policy toward the region.

Benjamin Henderson is an editor at Global Americans. He has worked with contributors to publish a multitude of pieces on governance, corruption, and the Caribbean. Previously he worked for the Foreign Agricultural Service at the United States Embassy in Brasilia where he researched the expansion of agricultural development in the Brazilian Amazon.

Ine Apapoe is a public administrator and a head of the Public Administration department at the Anton de Kom University of Suriname teaching Integrity of Governance. Currently she is finishing her dissertation at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Ine's research is about the role of good governance in dual governance structures in Suriname.

Mavrick Boejoekoe is currently working as a director at the Ministry of Regional Development and Sports in Suriname, responsible for regional development. From 2012 to 2017, Mr. Boejoekoe was the district commissioner of Sipaliwinie, Suriname. He has over eight years of experience working in the central and local government in Suriname. In 2016 he founded the Youth Education and Leadership Foundation, and in 2018, was selected to represent Suriname in the Humphrey program where he focused on international development and did his professional affiliation at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) with a focus on good governance and corruption in Suriname. He has also worked as the Indigenous and Tribal people and Stakeholder Specialist (ITPS) at the National Institute for Environment and Development in Suriname. Mavrick has a Master in Public Administration from the Anton de Kom University of Suriname and a Master in Business Administration from the International Business School Americas.

Satcha Jabbar is Chairperson of the Institute for Public Finance, a non-profit foundation that carries out research in the field of public sector financial management in Suriname. She is also an independent financial consultant with extensive banking and credit management experience.

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Good Governance in the Caribbean: Obstacles & Opportunities

Scott B. MacDonald is the Chief Economist for Smith’s Research & Gradings, Senior Associate at the Center for Strategic & International Studies and a Research Fellow at Global Americans. He is also a member of the Caribbean Policy Consortium and has done considerable work on governance, money laundering, and electoral politics in the Caribbean, Latin America, and Europe. He is currently working on a book on the new Cold War in the Caribbean.

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