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Regional Photogeoiogicai Interpretation of the Tectonic Features of the Central Nigerian Basement Complex: a Satellite Imagery Based Study

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Regional Photogeoiogicai Interpretation of the Tectonic Features of the Central Nigerian Basement Complex: a Satellite Imagery Based Study REGIONAL PHOTOGEOIOGICAI INTERPRETATION OF THE TECTONIC FEATURES OF THE CENTRAL NIGERIAN BASEMENT COMPLEX: A SATELLITE IMAGERY BASED STUDY A Thesis submitt,ed for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Univercity of London. by Ignatius Muo. Chukvzu-Ike, M.Sc., DIC Department of Geology, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London, S.W.7, July 1977 2 ABSTRACT This study is an evaluation of the potentials of satellite images in the regional tectonic studies of a poorly mapped Precambrian terrain. The Nigerian Basement Complex is used as a case study. The research indicates that the amount and'type of geological information obtainable from LANDSAT images depend on many subjective and objective parameters such as the sensor, climatological.. and human factors. The human factor include the geological background and experience of the interpreter. Generally, LANDSAT images supply data that are unique to the scale of the imagery. Studies of the Nigerian Basement Complex 'show that there are many hitherto unrecognised fracture systems and faults, and indicate that these fracture systems probably control the Nigerian mineralisation. The research also shows that there are discrete fault-controlled ensialic low grade metasedimentary troughs in Nigeria, and that elongate porphyritic granites in Nigeria are controlled by these major faults. Three episodes of folding are suggested by the Nigerian images. The oldest of these three appears luniform in shape on these images. Field checks on the luniform images suggest that they were originally flat-lying nappe- like folds. 3 The Nigerian low grade metasediments appear to have formed late in the evolutionary history of the Basement. The research also indicates, for the first time, the locations and types of marginal fractures along the intra-cratonic and folded Benue trough. Data available in the thesis do not support the existing theories about the origin of the trough. The study outlines the lineament systems of Nigeria. The regularly spaced North-South lineaments appear to be most extensive. Concentrically arranged lineaments considered to have originated from Archaean meteoritic impacts, are discussed in their regional settings. The wider tectonic implications of concentric lineaments are also examined. LANDSAT images are considered useful in the study of tectonic trends and 'tectonic domains' of the Nigerian Basement and in elucidating the tectonic chronology of events of the study area. Similarities and differences between the major tectonic elements of Nigeria, as seen from LANDSAT images, and those of the neighbouring West African countries are also discussed. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my special gratitude to Dr. J.W. Norman for accepting me to do this research under him and for his guidance, encouragement and helpful criticisms. My special thanks go to my father Mr. Chukwu Ike Njoku for all the sacrifices he made towards my education. I also owe many thanks to my colleagues in the photogeological laboratory at the Royal School of Mines, in particular to Jawad Zwain, Nigel Press and Adrian Lloyd Lawrence. I am also indebted to the Nigerian Government for financing this research. CONTENTS Pam PART I CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND RESEARCH METHODS 1 .1 • Introduction 16 1.2. The LANDSAT systems 19 1.3. A review of the literature on the use of LANDSAT imagery for regional geological work 22 1.3.1. A review of the literature on air photographs as a tool for regional geological mapping 26 1.4. The geographical setting of the study area 28 1.4.1. Rainfall 29 1.4.2. Vegetation zones 1.4.3. Physical features 31 1.4.4. Soil developments 33 1 •5 • A review of the geological liter- ature on Nigeria and current geological problems 37 1 .1 Major tectonic elements of the Nigerian Basement 39 1.5.2. The relation of Nigerian rocks with those of the neighbouring West African countries. 42 1.5.3. Some Problems of Nigerian Basement geology 45 1 .6. Research methods 46 1.6.1. Selecting satellite images and air photographs of Central Nigeria. 47 1.6.2. Satellite imagery interpretation techniques adopted for this study 47 .6.3, Air photo interpretation 50 1.6.4. Geophysical data and LANDSAT informa- tion 51 1.6.5. Ground checking of LANDSAT data. 51 1.6.6. Analyses of interpreted LANDSAT data. 53 CHAPTER TWO: FACTORS AFFECTIYG THE AMOUNT AND TYPE 01-,1 INFOPLATION FROM SATELLITE IMAGERY. 2.1. Objective factors. 55 2.1.1. Sensor factors. 55 2.1,2. Climatological factors 56 2.1.3. Rainfall, soils and weathering 56 Page 2.2. Systems factors 58 2.2.1. Scale of satellite imagery 58 2.2.2. Resolution and registration factors 59 2.2.3. Dynamic range of tones 60 2.2.4. Limited stereo effects 62 2.2.5. Atmospheric conditions and best times of imagery acquisition 64 2.3. Subjective factors 64 2.3.1. The experience and geological background of the interpreter 2.7,.2. Methods of interpretation 66 2.3.3. The length of time available for the interpretation 68 2.3.4. Some subjectivity its lineament selection from orbital imagery based on intrusions 69 CHAPTER THREE: SONE USEFUL CRITERIA FOR TECTONIC INTERPRETATIONS FROM SATELLITE IMAGES 3.1. Directly observed features on images 72 3.1.1. Lineaments 72 3.1.2. Criteria for inferring types of faulting from LANDSAT lineaments. 76 3.1.3. Basement tectonic trends 82 3.1.4. Fold geometries 87 3.1.5. Drainage patterns 87 3.1.6. Major tonal contrasts indicative of major changes in lithology 88 3.2. Features interpreted from patterns and associations of one feature with another 88 3.2.1. Domes, intrusions and metamorphism 9,2 3.2.2. Structures suggestive of ancient graben 92 3.2.3. Fracture patterns 95 3.2.4. Inferring different relative ero- sional levels. 97 CHAPTER FOUR: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AIR PHOTO DERIVED FRACTURE TRACES, FRACTURE ZONES AND SATELLITE IMAGERY LINEAMENTS AND CURRENT THEORIES ABOUT FRACTURES AED IL:EEAMENTS Fracture traces showing on air photographs 98 4.1.1. Qualitative aspects of fractures 99 4.1.2. Quantitative aspects of fracture traces 100 4.1.3. The techniques of fracture trace analyses 100 7 Page 4.2. The formation and propagation of fractures 101 4.2.1. The fatigue theories 102 4.2.2. The gravitational theories 103 4.2.3. Meteoritic impacts 105 4.3. Lineaments and fractures 106 4.3.1. Nigerian lineaments and air photo fractures 107 4.3.2. Lineament manifestation on the ground 109 4.4. The theoretic bases for relating lineaments 111 4.4.1. The conjugate-shear model 111 4.4.2. Other elements of wrench fault tectonics 113 4.4.3. The plate tectonic model 114. PART 2 CHAPTER FIVE: THE CENTRAL NIGERIAN BASEMENT COMPLEX - A CASE STUDY 5,1. Major distinctive geological features on Nigerian LANDSAT Images. 119 5.1.1. Major lithological changes - 119 5.2. Regional fold styles of the Nigerian Basement 123 5•2•1• The flat-lying, E-W trending (F1) folds 123 5.2.2. The F2 folds 129 5.2.3. The F3 folds 129 5.3. Groups of metaseiments 129 5.3.1. Group one metaseaiments 130 5.3.2. Group two metasediments 131 5.3.3. Group three metasediments 131 5.4. Intrusive rocks seen from orbital images 17,1 5•4•1• "Eye-shaped" structures 131 5.4.2. The "older granites" .132 5.4.3. The low-grade and higher grade metasedimentary contact relation- ships 133 5.5. The nature of the metasedimentary troughs 134 56,1. Similarities and differences between Nigerian low-grade rocks and the Baberton Mountain-type granite greenstone terrain. 145 8 5.6. The tectonics of the Nigerian ring intrusions 137 5.7. The basement trends. 140 5.8. Major tectonic features of the Benue trough as seen on LANDSAT images 1 41 CHAPTER SIX: THE CENTRAL NIGERIAN LINEAMENTS AND FRACTURES 6.1. The near-meridional lineaments 152 6.1.2. Lengths and shapes 152 6,1.3. Spacing and ground details 152 6.1.4. The relation between the lineaments, metasedimentary. trolaghs and mig- matisation 1 55 6.1.5. The age of the N-S lineaments 156 6.1.6. Geophysical evidence for the existence of the N-S lineaments 1 57 6.1.7. The possible origin of the N-S lineaments 1 59 6.2. The NE and NW trending curved concentric lineaments 1 59 6.2.1. The concentric lineaments 162 6.2.2. The characteristics of the curved concentric lineaments 162- 6.3. The intersection patterns of straight lineaments and fractures of Central Nigeria. 168 6.4. Palaeotectonic stress pattern determination from LANDSAT lineaments of Nigeria 170 6.5. Some major LANDSAT lineaments of Central Nigeria 171 6.6. The relationship between the Kalangani and Yaribori faults. 172 CHAPTER SEVEN: TECTONIC PROVINCES OF THE NIGERIAN BASEM1ZT 178 - 7•1• Aeromagnetic trends of NW-Nigerian domains 182 7.2. Structural correlation guides from LANDSAT data of Nigeria. 1 84 • 7.3. Regional deformation seauences of Central Nigeria as seen ;'on LANDSAT images 187 CHAPTER EIGHT: BROADER PMSPtTIVES 8.1. Principal stress directions in Precambrian Nigerian Basement. 189 8.1.1. Evidence for a revived E-W principal stress system. 190 Page 8.2. Similarities between the Nigerian deformation patterns and those of the Hoggar S.Vi. Algeria 191 8.5. Some similarities between lineament patterns of Nigeria and those of S. America 196 Astrons 8.4. 197 8.4.1. Other possible causes of concentric features 197 8.42. Geological implications of the impact concept 199 8.4.3. Therm-tectonic events and in-situ deformations 201 8.4.4.
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