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Mangroves As Alien Species: the Case of Hawaii

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Mangroves As Alien Species: the Case of Hawaii GlobalEcology and BiogeographyLetters (1998) 7, 61-71 -lA Li tly* 1]; =e a 11m M Mangrovesas alienspecies: the case of Hawaii JAMES A. ALLEN U.S.D.A. ForestService, Institute of PacificIslands Forestry,1151 PunchbowlSt., Rm. 323, Honolulu,HI 96813 U.S. A. email:jimallen@gte. net Abstract. Prior to the early 1900s, therewere no (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni),colonization of mangroves in the Hawaiian Archipelago. In 1902, habitats to the detrimentof native species (e.g. in Rhizophoramangle was introducedon the island of anchialine pools), overgrowing native Hawaiian Molokai, primarilyfor the purpose of stabilizing archaeologicalsites, and causingdrainage and aesthetic coastal mud flats.This species is now well established problems. Positive impacts appear to be fewer,but in Hawaii, and is found on nearly all of the major includeuses of local importance,such as harvestingB. islands. At least five other species of mangrovesor gymnorrhizaflowers for lei-making,as well as some associated species were introducedto Hawaii in the ecological servicesattributed to mangroveselsewhere, early 1900s,and whilenone has thrivedto the degree such as sedimentretention and organicmatter export. of R. mangle, at least two have established self- From a researchperspective, possible benefitsof the presenceof mangrovesin Hawaii includean unusual maintainingpopulations (Bruguieragymnorrhiza and to evaluatetheir functional role in coastal Conocarpuserectus). Mangroves are highlyregarded opportunity ecosystemsand the chance to examineunique or rare in most partsof the tropicsfor the ecosystemservices species interactions. theyprovide, but in Hawaii theyalso have important negative ecological and economic impacts. Known Key words. Species introductions,alien species, negativeimpacts include reductionin habitat quality Hawaii, Rhizophoramangle, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, for endangeredwaterbirds such as the Hawaiian stilt Conocarpuserectus, mangroves. INTRODUCTION nativespecies and communities,alteration of ecosystem processes,impacts on agricultureand infrastructure, Mangrovesare thepredominant form of vegetationin and aestheticimpacts (Vitousek & Walker,1989; Loope, the intertidalzone of tropicalestuaries, lagoons, and 1992). shelteredshorelines. Their vast natural distribution The Hawaiian Archipelago,located in the central also includesmany subtropical coastlines (Duke, 1992). Pacific Ocean between 18? and 30?N and 1550 and Where they occur naturally,mangroves perform 180?W, has no nativemangrove species, despite having ecological functionsof substantialdirect or indirect both suitable climateand geomorphicsettings. Since value to human society,such as the productionof their introductionin the early part of this century, wood, provisionof habitat for mangrovecrabs and however,mangroves have flourishedto such a degree fish,and improvementof water quality (Odum, Mclvor thatmany people have become concernedabout their & Smith,1982; Ewel, Eong & Twilley,1998). impacts,and expensiveprojects aimed at controlling As they provide valued goods and services,there them have been undertaken.Although they have have been some attemptsto introducemangroves into receivedless attentionthan many other alien speciesin areas where they do not occur naturally.Where Hawaii, withinthe range of suitable habitat, mangroves introductionshave been successful and mangroveshave have largelyvalidated Egler's (1947: p.407) prediction developed self-maintainingpopulations (e.g. Hawaii, that they would effect'a change as sweeping, as Tahiti), theyare by definitionalien species. As such, complete,and as strikingas any whichhas occurred the goods and servicesthey provide must be weighed in the Hawaiian Islands'. This paper addressessome against any damage caused. Among the causes for aspects of the change Egler that saw coming, and concernabout alien species in generalare effectson includes an overviewof the introductionand spread ? 1998 BlackwellScience Ltd 6 1 This content downloaded from 170.144.163.23 on Tue, 29 Oct 2013 16:21:31 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 62 JamesA. Allen Table 1. Known introductionsof mangrovesin the Hawaiian Islands Species Year Source Plantinglocation Comments Rhizophoramangle 1902 Florida SouthwesternMolokai Highlysuccessful; the probable source formost R. manglein Hawaii Rhizophoramangle ? ? Kalihi Fishpond,Oahu Possiblyonly one tree,but was reportedlythriving' Rhizophor-amangle 1922 ? Heeia Marsh, Oahu Rhizophor-amangle 1960 ? Kealia Pond, Maui 3,000 propaguleswere planted to keep down dust duringpond drawdowns Bruguieragymnorrhiza2 1922 Philippines Up to 11 sitesaround Oahu3 Has shownlimited tendency to spread B. parviflora 1922 Philippines Up to 11 sitesaround Oahu3 Last recordedin 19484 Ceriopstagal 1922 Philippines Up to 11 sitesaround Oahu3 Last recordedin 19224 Rhizophor-amucronata 1922 Philippines Up to 11 sitesaround Oahu3 Last recordedin 19284 Conocaipuserectus Before1910 Florida? Oahu C. erectusvar. sericeus 1946 Bahamas Oahu Still widelyplanted as an ornamental 'McCaughey (1917). 2Although treatedas B. gymnor-rhizain recent literature and in Wagneret al. (1990), earlierreports (e.g. Walsh 1967) referredto thisspecies as B. sexangula.Samples fromOahu sentrecently to Dr Norman Duke, of theAustralian Institute of Marine Science, were identifiedas B. sexangula.I have retainedthe currentuse of B. gymnorrhizain thispaper, but the readershould be aware that some or all of the treesreferred to as B. gymnorrhizamay in factbe B. sexangula. 3McEldowney(1922); Degener (1940, 1945); Wester(1981). 4Wester(1981). of mangroves,an analysis of their ecological and B. parvifora(Roxb.) W. & A. ex Griff.,Ceriops tagal socioeconomic impacts, and a brief descriptionof (Perr.) C.B. Robinson, and Conocarpus erectus L. recentefforts to controlmangroves in the state. (Table 1). A total of approximately14,000 propagules of thefirst four of thesespecies were obtainedin 1922 fromthe Philippinesby the Hawaiian Sugar Planter's THE INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD Association and planted on eleven sites around the OF MANGROVES IN HAWAII island of Oahu (McEldowney, 1922; Degener, 1940, 1945). The plantings of C. tagal apparentlyfailed The earliestknown introduction of a mangrovespecies completely,and R. inucronata and B. parvifora occurred on the island of Molokai in 1902. An persistedfor 20-30 years,but of the fourspecies only unreported number of Rhizophora mangle L. B. gymnorrhizais known to exist still on Oahu or propaguleswere obtained fromFlorida by the U.S. anywhereelse in Hawaii (Wester,1981). C. erectushas ExperimentStation and plantedby the American Sugar been introducedat least twice(Wester, 1981) and the Company on mud flatson the southwesternpart of variety (C. erectus var. sericeus Griseb.) is still the island (Munro, 1904; Degener,1940, 1945). Cooke commonlyplanted as an ornamental.Both formsof (1917: p.366) stated that the purposes of this C. erectushave escaped cultivationand established introductionwere to hold back 'soil washed down by small wild populationson some islands. everyheavy rain into the sea, and also as a pasture Of the threemangrove species or close associates plant forbees'. (R. mangle,B. gymnorrhiza,and C. erectus)known Records exist for the introductionof five other to be present in Hawaii, R. mangle is by far mangroveor closely associated species, includingR. the most widespreadand common; most mangrove mucronataLamk., Bruguieragymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk., swamps are essentiallymonospecific stands of this ? 1998 BlackwellScience Ltd, Global Ecologyand BiogeographyLetters, 7, 61-71 This content downloaded from 170.144.163.23 on Tue, 29 Oct 2013 16:21:31 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Mangrovesas alien species 63 t 9 I| S He'eia Mangrove 0 0 Kauai Oahu 0 t _ , > Molokai I I ~~Hawaii Lanai Maui C I Kahoolawe Fig. 1. Approximatelocations of known mangrovestands in Hawaii. Map is updated fromWester (1981) with information obtaineddirectly by the authorand fromconsultation with individuals familiar with specific islands. species.Although documentation was found only for THE ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF plantingson Molokai, Oahu and Maui (MacCaughey, MANGROVES IN HAWAII 1917; Fosberg, 1948; Anonymous,1960), R. mangle presentlyis found on all of the main islands with Effecton existingwetland plant the possible exceptions of Kahoolawe and Niihau communities (Fig. 1). Evidently,R. manglebegan to spread veryrapidly Prior to the arrivalof humans,intertidal wetlands in followingits introduction.Fifteen years after the first Hawaii apparentlyhad fewspecies of vascularplants. planting,seedlings had become establishedat least The aquatic Ruppiamaritima L. could be foundin the 8km from the original Molokai planting site, and lowestportions of the intertidalzone, and herbaceous healthy-lookingpropagules were found on the other or smallshrub species such as Sesuviumportulacastrum side of the island, over 90 km away from the (L.) L., Heliotropiumcurassacvicum L., and Lycium original site (Cooke, 1917). R. mangle is still sandwicenseA. Gray werepresent at the upper end of continuingto spread, especially along the eastern the intertidalzone in some areas (Gagne & Cuddihy, shore of the island of Hawaii (the 'Big Island') and 1990), but the bulk of the intertidalzone may have the western shore of Maui (B. Hobdy, Hawaii been inhabitedprimarily by algae and fungi(Egler, Division of Forestryand Wildlife;K. Smith, U.S. 1947). Fish and WildlifeService; L. Wester,Univ. of Hawaii, Intertidalwetlands that existed prior to human pers. comm.). settlementhave
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