Silk Roads’ Concept Reconsidered: About Transfers, Transportation and Transcontinental Interactions in Prehistory
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
The ‘Silk Roads’ Concept Reconsidered: About Transfers, Transportation and Transcontinental Interactions in Prehistory Hermann Parzinger branch left the northern route at Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz Turfan and continued in a northwesterly direction towards Berlin southeastern Kazakhstan (Semi- rechye). Today’s widely used designation, dictated the route to be taken. the “Silk Road,” goes back to the Therefore a knowledge of the Northern and southern routes German scholar Ferdinand von geographical framework is converged in Kashgar in western Richthofen, who travelled essential for understanding the Xinjiang, whence the main extensively in China during the distribution of cultures and their connection to the west crossed the second half of the 19th century. He contacts since earliest times. western fringes of the Tian Shan formulated the term “the silk as well as the Pamir range to attain The eastern terminus of the roads” (Höllmann 2004, 37; the Ferghana basin. Despite low classical, major route of the silk Waugh 2007). In doing so, he precipitation, the fruitfulness of roads was the old imperial city chose the plural form, being quite the Ferghana basin is ensured by Chang’an (Xi’an) in northern China cognisant that not just one single rivers that are fed by the melted (Höllmann 2004; Debaine- track was involved, but a widely snow and ice from the surrounding Francfort and Idriss 2000; Baumer branching and ancient trans- mountains. The most important 2002). The track ran westward continental network of east-west route left the Ferghana and crossed the Huangho (Yellow transportation and communica- basin, passing through the River) in the province of Gansu, tion. Yet, now, at the beginning of Tashkent oasis to Sogdia, where whence it then led further to the the 21st century the plural form is it traversed the Zeravshan valley, northwest [Fig. 1]. At the nearly forgotten; instead, the bridged the Amu Darya river, and, southwestern reaches of the Gobi singular form, the Silk Road, is after crossing the Karakum desert, desert the main road forked into commonly used to designate what progressed across the northern a southern and a northern route. Richthofen meant. In fact, the Iranian highlands ultimately to The southern route ran parallel to plural is more correct and reflects reach Mesopotamia and the the Kunlun mountain range along more precisely what this Mediterranean Sea. There was the southern fringe of the transcontinental travel and undoubtedly also a route that Taklamakan in the region now communication network really circumvented the Caspian Sea to known as Xinjiang. The northern was. This system of travel and the north and then advanced track first crossed the Gobi desert, trade routes is indeed ancient and across the Eurasian steppe. then circumvented the northern developed over millennia. rim of the Taklamakan, following The development of this Archaeological evidence, which is the Tian Shan mountains. A complex and widely branching our focus here, has greatly extended our knowledge of the cultural exchange across Eurasia from prehistoric times and demonstrates the antiquity of this network. The geographical setting of the silk roads: barriers and routes The natural environment of the regions through which the silk roads proceeded is exceedingly varied. High, precipitous moun- tains covered with snow and seemingly endless deserts were obstacles along the silk roads. Copyright © 2008 Hermann Parzinger These natural barriers often Fig. 1. The “Silk Roads” and other trading routes crossing Central Asia. 7 1992; Parzinger 2006). As many other prehistoric cultures, it is mainly defined by its material remains, especially a rather specific pottery with different S- shaped vessels and incised geometric ornaments [Fig. 3, facing page]. Bronze metallurgy and stock breeding are typical features of this culture, although their roots date back to the 3rd millennium BCE. Tin bronzes had been invented even before the Middle Bronze Age, but the Andonovo culture is connected with the first large scale Copyright © 2008 Hermann Parzinger production of jewellery, weapons Fig. 2. Map of the Andronovo culture and its diffusion south- and eastwards and instruments made of tin nd during the Late Early and Middle Bronze Age (first half of the 2 millennium bronze (Chernykh 1992; Parzinger BCE). 2006) [Fig. 3]. Sheep, goats, transportation network – that is, communication network that cattle and horses were the emergence of the silk roads – linked them appears, a network widespread, and stock breeding cannot be dated with certainty. that in its beginnings as well as was the economic basis of the Historical sources scarcely aid in much later enabled migrations of Andronovo population. Not only reconstructing this wearisome population groups as well as the the horse, but also the camel was process. For example, in China transfer of goods and knowledge. of crucial importance for the Zhang Qian is considered the mobility of this culture, and the “progenitor” of the silk roads. He Between north and south: the camel even enabled the was an imperial envoy who role of Andronovo herdsmen Andronovo population to cross journeyed twice to the west in the and metallurgists large and extremely dry areas. late 2nd century BCE. During his From the steppe and forest-steppe travels he was in Ferghana and Looking back into the depths of regions between the Ural and the reached the upper Amu Darya prehistory – and that we must do, Yenisei rivers we know a lot about (Höllmann 2004). The information if we wish to study the emergence settlements of this period, some which Zhang Qian gathered about of the silk roads – we depend of them rather large. Clearly, these distant trans-Pamir regions exclusively upon archaeological sedentary life was quite drew close attention at the sources. Long-distance relations in developed, but the question of the Chinese imperial court. Yet it is the area of the later silk roads had degree to which agriculture was rather improbable that Zhang Qian always been present, perceptible known is still open. Part of the was really the first Chinese who to varying degrees of clarity in Andronovo population was not ever reached these areas; more archaeological contexts. The concentrated in villages but lived likely, his report is the first that migration of certain groups of as mobile herdsmen. has been preserved. peoples along natural trails, later During the first half of the 2nd utilized for the silk roads, can be The travel and communication millennium BCE mobile groups of delineated with increasing networks across Central Asia this Andronovo culture wandered confidence in the first half of the which were described later as the to the south. They survived the dry 2nd millennium BCE. During this “silk roads” were neither an steppes and deserts of Middle period diverse regional groups of achievement of the ancient world Asia, some groups ultimately the Andronovo culture had spread nor even the medieval world. Their reaching the area of the Namazga into distant parts of Eurasia. From beginnings lie long before the VI culture in southern Turk- their origins in present-day millennium in which Buddhism menistan and others the territory western Siberia and northern emerged. The fact that com- of the Sapalli culture in Bactria. Kazakhstan, they expanded their paratively little is known today Both the Namazga VI and the territory to the east as far as the about these early times is Sapalli cultures are fundamentally Yenisei River [Fig. 2]. primarily due to an insufficient different from Andronovo. In amount of research, which The Andronovo culture is a southern Turkmenistan (Namazga however has been expanding year widely spread cultural complex, VI) as well as in southwestern by year. The more knowledge representing the Middle Bronze Uzbekistan (Sapalli) quite a large gained about the early cultures of Age in a great part of the eastern number of tell settlements have Central Asia, the older the Eurasian steppe belt (Chernykh been investigated. Both cultures 8 Zeravshan valley in Sogdia, the Ferghana basin, the Tashkent oasis and Semirechye in southeastern Kazakhstan were integrated into the sphere of the Andronovo cultural community, and thenceforth they followed the development in the steppe farther north rather than that in areas of oases to the south. The reasons for the southern expansion of the Andronovo culture, with some of its groups moving even farther south to the borders of Iran and Afghanistan, are unknown. Nonetheless, it is remarkable that the appearance of the Andronovo culture in Middle Asia was always associated with metallurgical activities (Chernykh 1992; Parzinger 2006). Numerous artifacts and other evidence point towards mining as well as the processing of ores. Prehistoric mines and settlements in which ores were extracted and processed, ascribable to the Andronovo culture, are known in areas in the modern states of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Moreover, not only copper ores were mined, but also tin – that indispensable component for the production of bronze. Whereas copper ores were available farther north in the region of the Ural mountains and elsewhere, the Fig. 3. Typical pottery and bronze objects of the Andronovo culture much coveted tin was found only in Siberia and Kazakhstan. After Parzinger 2006. in Middle Asia. The exploitation of tin in the Zeravshan valley and in are characterized by complex At the protourban center of eastern Kazakhstan by the societies, living in early urban Gonur in Margiana, one of the Andronovo culture has been centres with public buildings, most important sites of Namazga confirmed (Parzinger and Boroffka sanctuaries, workshop areas, VI culture in southeastern 2003). Although objects made of living quarters and even Turkmenistan, a temporary camp tin bronze are already known prior fortifications (Kohl 1984, 1992). of mobile Andronovo herdsmen to this time, they were first Irrigation enabled their popu- existed in the immediate vicinity produced on a large scale by lations to develop agriculture with of this large, coeval tell settlement craftsmen of the Andronovo field crops and even garden (Hiebert 1994).