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Home , Gifted education

The of Urban Gifted Joyce VanTassel-Baska

18 fall 2010 • vol 33, no 4 Urban Gifted Education

The history of the world could be told through countless terintuitive. We know the problems that urban education has biographies, as Carlyle said, and these biographies undoubt- faced over the past half century, and the spate of reports that edly would represent gifted individuals and their contribu- have been issued at regular intervals, decrying the conditions tions at different times in different cultures of our world. in large city districts in respect to serving the poor The Greeks and Romans recognized the value of talent, as and culturally diverse, the bureaucracies that keep anything did the tribes of the Bible, responding to the parables told from getting done effectively, and the problems with facili- by Jesus. The Chinese Dynasties and Confucius as a scholar ties’ upkeep, teacher unions, and a myriad of other problems saw value in educating those from all social strata accord- that escalate, based on the scope and size of the problems (see ing to their talents. Cultures embraced the recognition and Passow, 1963). However, for all of the problems in urban development of giftedness as a way to determine potential America, gifted education has always been a bright spot. contributors to a society—as leaders, even philosopher kings Urban programs often have been more highly evolved in ’s imagined world, or guildsmen, or clerics. Galton than other settings for gifted learners because the critical made the observation that we lost a unique possibility of mass of learners is available to try multiple delivery models inherited ability during the Middle Ages when gifted males and respond to needs in different ways. It is also possible were recruited into the clergy, thus losing valuable contribu- for urban centers in our country to provide comprehensive tions from potential children of these brilliant men. And the articulated options across the breadth of needs. Moreover, history of the world and these societal contributions have leaders in urban education of the gifted, typically being able occurred predominantly in cities, as Arnold Toynbee (1972) to devote full-time efforts to program development, have has noted in his text Cities of Destiny. been more circumspect about the nature of what programs Thus, it is not surprising that cities are where gifted edu- and services should be able to do and why. As the Director cation began, from Hollingworth’s Speyer School experiment of Chicago Public ’ Gifted Program from 1970–1990 in on the East Coast, to Terman’s efforts stated: on the West Coast in large cities like San Diego, to the work of others in large Midwestern cities like St. Louis, When administrators of gifted programs can feel they Cleveland, Quincy (IL), and Chicago. In 1918, in Los have converted their more superficial add-on programs Angeles, so-called opportunity classes and similar groupings into major strands, and that they have in Rochester and Cleveland sought to identify the brightest pushed their programs toward greater comprehensive- grade-school children and separate them from their slower ness in the areas of curriculum scope, range of ability learning classmates through application of individual abil- level, program type, and support services, then they ity testing (Chapman, 1988). By 1940, in Cleveland, more may wish . . . to ponder whether schools have a great than 1,200 bright children were enrolled in 17 major cen- or limited potential to affect positively the education ters catering exclusively to their needs, utilizing some of the of gifted students. (Ronvik, 1989, p. 240) methods of earlier experimental schools like Horace Mann and Winnetka (Tannenbaum, 1983). From the beginning, urban settings also have grappled During the 1930s, honors classes, special classes in foreign with the poverty issue in respect to gifted education because languages, and other extracurricular programs were offered these settings have always had a large percentage of chil- to the gifted in the secondary schools. In various parts of dren coming from poverty backgrounds. In New York the nation, special schools exclusively for the gifted were City throughout the 20th century, the majority of students established; these schools were typically situated in big cities have come from low-income backgrounds, many children with large concentrations of students from which could be of immigrants. Moreover, 60% or more of urban popula- drawn the most intellectually able. tions in general are comprised of different ethnic groups. Early in gifted education was conducted in these Thus, the central issue of our field has been studied and urban sites, and our first longitudinal research on program addressed through urban programs for almost a century. effectiveness was carried out in New York on the Speyer Recommendations from early reports on improving the (Hollingworth, 1926) and in Cleveland on the Major of gifted education have focused on the need to include Work Program (Barbe, 1953). Thus, the history of our field more students from underrepresented groups, provide more is inextricably linked to the work that went on in cities diversity in program options, and conduct more research throughout most of this past century. to demonstrate the efficacy of gifted programs in various In many respects, an examination of urban settings as a configurations. One early chronicler of gifted education even rich reservoir of insight about gifted education seems coun- specifically addressed this issue (Gold, 1965):

gifted child today 19 Urban Gifted Education

program efforts to the building level Schools gifted program served more Anxiety in official quarters and stripping the program than 25,000 students out of an overall over problems in the big cities of authority to do what is needed. In student population of half a million in must eventually transcend con- the process, they have dismantled some the 1980s. At its height, the program cern with the culturally deprived lighthouse programs and services that ran 40 citywide options, six regional alone and come to grips with have been stellar in the history of this centers, and 518 local programs in superior educational opportunity field. Perhaps this article and special individual schools. It employed 25 for young people in the culture- issue may serve as a beacon of hope full-time personnel to work on the rich metropolis. . . . the spate that we need, as never before, to heed administration and service delivery of research in the next decade our history and learn from it and the aspects of the program at the central on urban education cannot fail urban pioneers who forged it. The office or regional center sites, including to give attention to problems of model gifted programs throughout six full-time program coordinators who educating the gifted in large cit- the 1960s–1980s were in San Diego, were responsible for program design ies. (p. 445) Chicago, and selected sites in New York and curriculum, and City. Today, the sites of greatest interest and social workers who assisted with Yet much of what we know about the to international visitors are of two types: testing, counseling, and home visits effectiveness of urban gifted programs (a) our residential and day high schools (VanTassel-Baska, 1983). from the past is anecdotal or descrip- that serve the gifted in 13 states but are The program offered museology tive in nature, not empirical, making it often not located in urban settings, or options at 24 different museums in the difficult to generalize to today’s efforts (b) exurban sites that offer an array of city for students in grades 7–12 where in any setting. Most urban programs program options, including full-time they could be assigned to a curator that were run from the 1960s through centers and school-based services, and one day a week for a semester to learn the 1980s collected data on student are linked to a surrounding metro area how the museum worked, the nature learning and did formal evaluations. such as Montgomery County, MD, of its subject matter, and exhibit con- However, the work was never translated and Fairfax County, VA, both sprawl- struction, culminating with a student into journal articles to find its way to ing school districts that are in the top exhibit as the project. Chicago’s cul- the field. Rather, it was archived in 20 in population in the country. Yet, tural enrichment program was selected Research and Evaluation offices in the as one of the top 10 programs for dis- the models that were developed in cit- individual urban school district, never advantaged gifted students in 1984 as ies in earlier times remain important to be used as a basis for further study it showcased opportunities to use the testimony to effective program devel- or as the foundation on which to build city’s resources to benefit the promising opment and implementation for our future programs. poor—attending concerts at Orchestra best learners. Leadership in gifted education in Hall by The Chicago Symphony; seeing The next section of this article urban settings historically has been professional classical and contemporary chronicles the history and evolution strong, with many of these leaders theater, ballet, and in world-class of urban programs in three sites— having the deepest knowledge base of venues like The Goodman Theater and Chicago, New York, and San Diego— anyone in the field about programs the Art Institute; and even experiencing to profile the extensive efforts that have and services that work. People like opera (Maxwell, 1984). Dave Hermanson in San Diego and preceded our work in this field today The hallmark feature of Chicago’s Rick Ronvik in Chicago had depth of and to illustrate the extensiveness of elementary programs was the focus experience with the way that programs those efforts to focus on this popula- on critical thinking, achieved through played out in urban contexts and were tion of learners within our largest and the careful selection and use of mate- successful in developing and institu- most diverse national settings. rials like Matt Lipman’s for tionalizing their efforts across decades. Children and Jerome Bruner’s Man: A As problems of diversity and pov- Chicago Public Schools Course of Study curriculum, among oth- erty have exacerbated achievement as a Prototype ers. Its secondary programs were early of learning for all, urban education examples of the use of the Advanced reform movements have turned away A system-wide model that stressed Placement (AP) and International from gifted education as an acceptable coherent and cohesive design and Baccalaureate (IB) programs in addi- avenue of practice, often decentralizing implementation, the Chicago Public tion to mentorship and internship

20 fall 2010 • vol 33, no 4 Urban Gifted Education opportunities. The research and evalu- Chicago Public Schools are identified developed through grouping and cur- ation department in Chicago con- as gifted through the use of multiple riculum. One strategy used by program ducted a landmark study for its time approaches, including ability, achieve- administrators has been to establish a (circa 1978), an assessment of critical ment, and recommendations from curriculum framework that represents thinking gains of gifted students in pro- parents and teachers. Threshold cutoffs the program goals and outcomes from grams, using a regression discontinuity are determined based on performance grades K–8. The structure of that design model. Results showed signifi- citywide each year on the relevant mea- framework may be seen in Figure 1. cant and important gains for the gifted sures employed. Use of both traditional Each of the goals has been translated students in programs. This study was and nontraditional measures are used into specific outcomes with sample never formally published although the to assess students for selection, includ- activities provided in each of the four report circulated in Illinois for several ing nonverbal assessments and off-level core subject areas, and sample perfor- years (Chicago Public Schools, 1978). achievement testing. Students scoring mance-based assessments worked out Chicago was one of the first large above the 80th percentile nationally in with a task and rubric. A menu of rec- cities to adopt the talent search con- both and math achievement are ommended materials also is provided cept, using off-level testing and pro- considered for most full-time programs to offer direction for teachers in their viding programs at local in the city. Approximately 5% of these work. The framework then is opera- for gifted students who met the crite- students are served in 155 gifted pro- tionalized through annual workshops ria for participation in fast-paced and grams at the elementary, middle, and that provide content-based instruc- advanced , , creative high school levels. Thirteen centers tional approaches for use in . writing, and other courses at middle are in place across the regional areas Strong secondary schools and pro- school age. It became incorporated into of Chicago to serve these students, grams abound with International their testing and programming efforts including three for English language Baccalaureate schools, magnets, and in 1981 and has continued to this day learners (ELL). Classical schools offer other specialized options. A tiered ser- as one of the most viable options for accelerated comprehensive services to vice delivery system also still functions the highly gifted (Ronvik, 1989). K–6 students at several sites, includ- at elementary and lev- -based programs in gifted ing full-day . Six academic els, with centers citywide for the highly education have also been hallmarks centers for seventh and eighth graders gifted, classical schools, magnets, and for Chicago, including Northwestern provide fast-paced instruction in aca- neighborhood school-based programs University. It has offered summer and demic areas. The International Gifted for students with strong academic apti- academic year programs for Chicago Program is offered at two school sites tude in one area. Citywide programs students since 1983 along with schol- for grades 6–8 and offers intensive such as cultural enrichment, museol- arship support for Chicago students to language study in French in addition ogy, and still operate (T. Wallace, attend several special programs includ- to the other core academic subjects personal communication, June 2010). ing a Fry Foundation initiative to work and advanced research and technology with families of poverty on transition opportunities. issues during the middle school years In the wake of Illinois losing state- New York City as a for gifted learners, providing counsel- wide funding for several years, Chicago Prototype ing, seminars on getting scholarship has become more decentralized in the aid, and visits to campuses. However, administration of gifted programs, ced- A loosely strung necklace of citywide other universities in the city also have ing authority to principals while retain- options open to students from all five offered important program options ing control over admissions to the city’s boroughs in addition to school-based to gifted students in Chicago such programs. Consequently, there is little opportunities, dependent on interest as Loyola University, University of control over curriculum, instruction, and resource decisions, characterize the Chicago, Chicago State University, and the use of differentiated materials , or nature of New York City’s programs the University of Illinois at Chicago professional development of teachers and services for the gifted. The oldest among others. at a centralized level of program orga- continuously operating programs now Currently more than 92% of the nization. However, in recent years, the exist in New York City—Brooklyn student population of Chicago Public integrity of the program structure has Tech (1918), Bronx High School Schools is non-White, and 95% are been shored up, with the program staff (1938), the Hunter Schools on free or reduced lunch. Students in retaining control over the models to be (1930), and Stuyvesant High School

gifted child today 21 Urban Gifted Education

College faculty, whereas the into units of study, the use of special GoAl 1: , begun in enrichment options like foreign lan- To develop selected themes, issues, concepts, and 1955 as a school for intel- guage and philosophy introduced at real-world problems. lectually gifted girls, always primary level to gifted children, and was focused on the educa- the use of diagnostic assessment for GoAl 2: tion of the gifted. These curriculum decisions in a nongraded To develop critical and creative thinking skills. programs have been subject setting (Hollingworth, 1926). Sadly, to both a written descrip- the school was disbanded a year after GoAl 3: tive study of their impact Hollingworth’s death, only to be res- To develop problem-solving skills. and a more contemporary urrected in recent years by educators evaluation of effectiveness at her university—Teachers College— GoAl 4: (Subotnik, Soller, & Hood, who ran an early childhood program To develop metacognitive skills that foster 2004), which challenged the for the gifted in her name (see Borland independent and self-directed learning. extent to which the schools & Wright, 1994). GoAl 5: currently have a clear sense Other pioneering efforts in gifted To develop high-level advanced communication of mission regarding target education can be traced to New York skills in oral, written, viewing, and technological audience and interventions. City as well. programs for gifted modes. Bronx, Stuyvesant, and students have flourished over the past Brooklyn Technical High 100 years in the city. The Performing GoAl 6: Schools, established in the Arts School model originated in New To develop self-understandings and social skills early part of the 20th cen- York and spread to other large cit- that promote healthy relationships and coping tury, have continued to be ies and to states that have established mechanisms. models for secondary gifted residential schools for the arts over the ______programming, especially past 30 years. Perhaps the best national Figure 1. Chicago Public schools curriculum in mathematics and the model for early childhood education framework, 2009. , where students of the gifted was pioneered by Virginia are carefully mentored to Ehrlich in New York City through (1904), where intellectually gifted and participate in the Intel funding from the Astor Foundation in (Westinghouse) through- the 1970s. Targeted at pre-K–3 gifted scientifically prone students could out their years of attendance. Together, children, it provided differentiated matriculate. Waiting lists for these they serve 12,000 New York students content-based curriculum delivered schools have sometimes numbered in annually. Other than a few residential in self-contained cross-graded class- the thousands. At Hunter, for example, schools, these three schools have little rooms, demonstrating the viability of 3,000 were on the elementary waiting competition in the quality of mentor- early identification and intervention for list in 2003. ing their students have received during urban children. The Hunter programs have his- the past 75 years. The commensurate The role of in aca- torically offered advanced learning rewards that have accrued to students demic areas has a long and rich history systematically at secondary levels and the school testify to this success (see in New York City, especially in both and sporadically at elementary levels, Berger, 1994). Moreover, each school math and areas including the dependent on differing boasts Nobel laureates as graduates, 7 Intel science competition mentioned of principals, many of whom were not from Bronx and 4 from Stuyvesant to earlier, MATHCOUNTS, and the socialized or trained in gifted educa- date. International Olympiad competitions tion, taking the school in the direction Begun as a single school in 1926, across subjects. Special math camps and of a good developmentally appropriate the Speyer School, under the direction Math Circles are popular new additions program for typical learners rather than of Leta Hollingworth, became the first to mathematics program emphases in a sterling example of gifted education. example of an elementary school for the last several years for students who Part of this evolution may be grounded gifted children in the city, even before can take advantage of them (Mitchell, in the history of both schools, the ele- Hunter. It soon became a prototype all 2009). mentary school being started in 1870 its own for several features: differenti- Today, the city is the largest public as a demonstration school for Hunter ated curriculum carefully developed school system in the country, serving

22 fall 2010 • vol 33, no 4 Urban Gifted Education more than a million students whose was begun with 300 students. In 1950, backing to support both identification ethnic background numbers 40% an NEA report substantiated the locally and services in local districts within Hispanic, 32% Black, 14% White, and identified need to provide for the the state. By 1961, identification had 14% Asian/Pacific Islander and who are mentally superior in schools. Terman become two-tiered due to state guide- 60% diverse in respect to background himself was a consultant to this effort lines. Scores of IQ 132–139 on a Binet or being born in another country (History of San Diego Gifted Program, were named “state gifted.” Scores from (Berger, 2007). Matthews (2009), in n.d.). IQ 140+ were classified “San Diego her contemporary case study of New Although the program had nascent gifted.” State-identified gifted students York City gifted programs, reported beginnings as a pilot effort in the late were placed in classes for rapid learners that there were 268 gifted programs 1940s, the major activities began to at their home school while the higher in the city in 2006, including elemen- develop and expand in 1958 under scoring group of students was placed tary and secondary, self-contained, the direction of a citywide committee, in regional centers. As early as 1972, and schoolwide options. Out of 1,300 chaired by the deputy superintendent, the state of California and the city of schools in the city, this figure would and have continued in some form San Diego were concerned about the be seen as spotty and uneven as pro- today. In 1958, a district-wide screen- lack of culturally diverse students in grams and services do not reach all of ing program was adopted for grades 3, the program and sought to remedy the students who even qualify, based on 7, and 10. Sixteen elementary schools the problem by examining alternative ability and achievement measures. Her were designated as centers for the measures for identification, coupled analysis of what is needed is stronger gifted, with gifted students grouped with lowering the cutoff scores to the administrative support, a systematic with high-achieving students. In top 2% on ability. An evaluation of the teacher training program, using the 1974, there were 37 programs serving identification model in 1987 led to the new standards, and students in grades 3–6. Special classes inclusion of the Raven’s nonverbal abil- some consistency in program design or seminars for “poorly adjusted gifted ity assessment as a tool for finding more and accountability for gifted student students” were limited to 15 students underrepresented populations. learning. She also suggested the need per site. Secondary students tested out In 1966, four First Order Gifted for a multidimensional approach to of classes and accelerated graduation (FOG) secondary seminar centers for identification that would yield greater requirements. Smaller groups and inde- students were opened for students numbers of diverse learners in the city’s pendent learning allowed the students with IQ 155+. An experimental inde- gifted programs. As in many locales, to work at a higher level. A site-based both urban and suburban, the use of teacher worked with these gifted stu- pendent study program was started standardized tests as sole criteria for dents and their teachers to facilitate at Point Loma High School for these program entry too often becomes the progress. A counselor also worked with students. It was modeled after the lightning rod issue, detracting from the gifted students at each school site. “Oxford Plan” with seminars, teachers providing programs to children who A “Study of the First Order Gifted as tutors/mentors, and the use of com- can clearly benefit. Children” was conducted in 1957– munity resources. A summer program 1959 to determine who should be was begun in the 1970s but disbanded San Diego as a Prototype identified as gifted in San Diego (see in the 1980s due to lack of funding. History of San Diego Gifted Program, Throughout the 1960s, the educa- San Diego is the oldest continuously n.d.). Researchers found that students tion of teachers was a priority, with operating citywide gifted program in with IQ 148+ were the most dissatisfied elementary teachers expected to attend the country. The catalyst for the gifted with their school situations and thus 6 weeks of summer training each year and talented program (GATE) ori- the most in need of special services. related to gifted education and the gins rested with a 1948–1949 large The solution employed was to group nature of their teaching with gifted cities testing report, showing that the them in small seminar classes. At the students. In 1969, the Association of achievement of superior students in the same time, a state study came to simi- San Diego Educators of the Gifted city was less than would be expected lar conclusions, and a Mentally Gifted (ASDEG) formed to support teachers given their ability. Coupled with social Minor Program was started at the state of the gifted and put on an annual con- adjustment data suggesting that they level. This program was established 11 ference, which continues to this day. had only a 50% chance to achieve at years after the start of the San Diego Since 1982, the city also has sponsored their level of capacity, a pilot program program and provided meager financial a Distinguished Lecture each year,

gifted child today 23 Urban Gifted Education

focused on the education of gifted including the decision to include at one site that, through Hollingworth’s children. least 50% of the students in classes as work, had a written, defined curricu- Currently, the San Diego City GATE-identified, the decision to do lum for use in each area of study. All Schools GATE seminar program for away with a 200-minute-a-week con- three cities spawned comprehensive intellectually gifted students serves stu- tact time requirement, and the decision programs within sites that included dents who score at the 99.9 percentile to encourage differentiation in every testing, academic, and social and emo- on the Raven Progressive Matrices and subject area (M. Dejiosia, personal tional services to the gifted population. students who score at the 99.6–99.8 communication, February, 2010). Each urban locale employed psycholo- percentile with one or more factors gists, social workers, and counselors on (environmental, economic, language/ Comparison of a full-time basis to address the needs of cultural, social/emotional, and health). this population, recognizing the need Seminar programs currently exist in Prototypes to address all aspects of development in 51 schools, including 20 elementary In all three cities, there was an early their schooling process. schools, 15 middle schools, and 13 concern voiced from within the school The growth of urban programs was high schools. Students who score below structure to respond to the needs of those threshold levels, but above the marked by political problems from the the gifted. These voices came from the 95th percentile on the Raven, and also start, however. New York City could ranks of teachers and administrators, score at the 95th percentile or higher not or chose not to retain the Speyer and in the case of San Diego and New for 2 years on two subtests of a stan- School and did not expand its Hunter York, also outside consultants from dardized achievement battery, qualify College school operations K–12 universities in the area. There was lit- for a cluster-grouped program at a local although enough students qualified for tle evidence that parents were a major school site where they are placed with several such schools. In San Diego and force in the initiatory stages of program 25%–75% of children not identified Chicago, the local budget has shrunk as gifted, depending on the school’s development in these sites. Although considerably over the years as other pri- grouping model decision. Options the concerns were more for academic orities have pushed gifted education to also include placement of diverse stu- rigor in Chicago and New York, the the side. Urban education problems of San Diego concerns were clearly more dents not identified in the classrooms poverty and race have dominated the in the realm of social adjustment and in order to attain balance that is repre- political landscape in these settings for underachievement. sentative of the school site and cross- decades, leaving gifted education as an All three cities chose citywide grade grouping. In smaller school sites, easy target for reduction in spending responses to the issue of how best to where grouping may be impractical, if not elimination in some aspects of serve the gifted. All selected some form gifted children are provided an indi- program support. of ability-grouped settings through- vidualized plan for instruction. State funding for gifted education Administratively, the program has out each city center. Both Chicago and San Diego had a citywide plan in both Illinois and California, which evolved to include a GATE administra- constitute the two oldest state pro- tor, appointed to oversee GATE per- of action that distributed the efforts grams in the country, have always been sonnel and all aspects of the program. equally among elementary and second- inadequate for fully funding the cost of A Pupil Study Center was formed con- ary levels. In New York, the strongest gifted education in those states. Both sisting of a half-time psychiatrist and responses were at secondary level and started as incentive funding programs two clinical psychologists to provide in the math and science subject areas. services for gifted children with severe Interestingly, Hunter College High and never moved to the next level of adjustment problems. Psychologists School was set up for girls only, testi- support. Thus, both San Diego and increased to eight in the 1980s but mony to concerns about the education Chicago suffered from a paucity of have decreased somewhat in subse- of this group in particular. Chicago was per pupil state allocations equal to the quent years. Teacher resource specialists exemplary among the three in delin- amount needed to run their programs also work with teachers and designated eating the nature of the curriculum to effectively. New York as a state put no GATE sites to assist with differentia- be provided at each level and the most or limited money into gifted education tion practices. Several state and local desirable packaged programs that might over the years, rendering the city even rule changes have affected the opera- be used to accomplish program goals. more helpless to try to initiate citywide tion of the program in various ways, In New York, Speyer School was the opportunities for these learners.

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What Were the Hallmarks sites have been showcases of what ferentiated materials as the means of Strong Urban Gifted is possible in effective education of of meeting their differentiation the gifted. By visiting New York, goals rather than trying to have Education Programs? Chicago, or San Diego, it has been teachers create their own differen- possible to see most of the viable tiated materials. Thus, adaptations Although we can see the marks of models for gifted education in to curricula in gifted programs deterioration within these citywide pro- operation, allowing practitioners to could be easily described, profes- grams across the decades for a variety of make reasonable judgments about sional development provided for, reasons, we can also see the vestiges of what works in practice, especially and continuity of learning estab- our richest history as a field. If urban with students from low-income lished. education was the heart of advanced and culturally diverse backgrounds. 5. Concern for the highly gifted. and sophisticated program develop- San Diego’s focus on underachiev- Urban programs have been the ment and implementation of gifted ing highly gifted learners in self- contexts where the highly gifted education, what were the features that contained settings over the last 50 have often been served the most made these programs so effective and years has been an admirable model. effectively. Beginning with the provided the continuity and longevity 3. Comprehensive articulated offer- San Diego program, where spe- so often not seen in gifted programs in ings across the span of K–12. cial centers were established for other types of settings? We can identify Large cities have been more suc- students with IQ’s above 148 and five such distinctive features that have cessful than programs in other special seminars for those above marked urban education of the gifted. settings at establishing a strong 155 who experienced social adjust- They are: emphasis on program scope and ment problems, urban sites have 1. Citywide offerings targeted at connections, with articulated offer- diversified services to cater to the cross-age groups of gifted learn- ings among the levels of programs highly gifted. Chicago’s use of tal- ers. Cities that have made their (i.e., elementary, middle, and high ent search data on the highly gifted mark in serving gifted learners well schools) and across subject areas in in math and verbal areas led to the have been those that have used their core and noncore areas. Specialized installation of fast-paced classes cultural resources to the advantage secondary schools that offer inno- at local university sites on school of their top learners and those from vative opportunities to gifted time. poverty backgrounds. Community learners also have most often been 6. Counseling for psychosocial resources like museums, libraries, located in cities in subject areas like needs and future opportunities. symphonies, universities, laborato- science, technology, and the arts. Urban programs also did more to ries, and theaters have become sites Full offerings of all AP courses and establish an emphasis on academic for programs, and their staffs have IB schools may also be seen in these planning and career guidance than taken on the mantle of experts in cities, allowing educators to sample other settings in this country. The instructing gifted learners in real- from among the various secondary Chicago model of using full-time world learning. These learners also options available to gifted learn- psychologists and social workers have been congregated by interest ers. Thus, the developmental span to provide IEP’s for highly gifted and aptitude, not age, into these of opportunities for the gifted also learners and to offer assistance in off-site successful programming can best be viewed in one urban social and emotional development opportunities. setting. to other cases of need still serves as 2. Full-time centers or schools for 4. Content-based advanced learning an exemplar for what gifted learn- gifted learners, experimental in in core and noncore areas. Again, ers deserve with respect to guid- orientation. Cities also have been perhaps because of size, the full- ance services. San Diego’s model of the major sites for experimenta- time nature of programs, and his- full-time psychologists and school- tion in gifted education via full- torical precedent, programs for the based counselors also exemplifies time placements of these learners gifted in urban settings have always the focus of urban programs on in differentiated full-day programs used content-based approaches to the psychosocial issues of gifted and services. Beginning with the curriculum differentiation as the students. Special career guidance Speyer School in New York and appropriate model to serve these activities were also mounted in cit- other options in that city, urban students. They also used core dif- ies, involving university personnel

gifted child today 25 Urban Gifted Education

and other professionals to work in schools. Many current students of Community-Based with gifted learners on the activi- gifted education think that our con- Services Need to ties, beliefs, and habits of mind of temporary models are all equal in their real-world careers. capacity to meet the needs of diverse Be Reinstated and gifted learners in diverse areas of learn- Expanded What Can We Learn From ing. Yet our history suggests that this The last two decades in education These Programs Today? is not true—that some organizational models like special classes and schools in general have been about partner- ships and collaboration in educating Often, it is assumed that the past have proven their viability as contexts learners to the standards of this cen- cannot be replicated as situations and where differentiated curriculum is best tury—working with business, govern- people change each generation. Our delivered; that using a differentiation ment, and various contexts through history of innovation in schools speaks model within subject areas allows for telecommunication means as well as to this reality, that when leadership, the most effective reorganization of apprenticeship opportunities in person teachers, and issues of need change, so curriculum for the gifted, using differ- (Besnoy, 2006; Feng, 2006). The past too do the programs and services that entiated materials as the tool; and that exempla from urban gifted programs were purported to be effective in earlier multiple program offerings are essen- of engaging with community organi- times. However, Ralph Tyler, in a visit tial to adequately address the needs of zations to offer programs deserve to to The College of William and Mary a diverse group of learners. These con- continue, perhaps using new media. shortly before his death, commented clusions have been well documented in Museum exhibits, organized by gifted that while the culture changes, the veri- the literature of the field (Little, Feng, learners, can now become virtual and ties of principles that work in curricu- VanTassel-Baska, Rogers, & Avery, be disseminated to broader audiences. lum (or programs) do not. He desired 2007; Neihart, 2007; Sternberg, Torff, Cultural enrichment opportunities can to update his 1962 text to illustrate this & Grigorenko, 1998). principle. His point, I believe, has via- be accessed by DVD and discussed bility in respect to what we can extract The Models That Worked in classrooms rather than handled from the history of urban gifted educa- through time-intensive field trips. Then Can Work Again Teleconferencing and Skype can bring tion in this country. Urban programs With Appropriate can offer important models of success- expert professionals into contact with ful practice that have been operative Updates students and their questions at will. across decades for gifted students, to Thus, the community can continue There is little from the history of be modified for current populations to contribute to gifted education in urban gifted education that could not of learners in our schools. These mod- urban centers in even more viable ways be updated, à la Ralph Tyler’s vision, by els represent the best principles and through technological means. tailoring identification and program- practices of the field: the judicious use ming options to the needs of today’s of acceleration; the employment of Apply the Lessons learners, by using updated curriculum appropriate types of enrichment; the materials designed for the gifted as the Learned From Working use of full-time and part-time group- main source of differentiation, and by With Students of Poverty ing; attention to social, emotional, and renewing the research and evaluation and Color future planning needs; and coherent agenda in these settings. In order for and connected opportunities across this renewal to occur, however, urban Perhaps no aspect of work from grade levels in all areas of learning. settings also must value the need for urban gifted education is more impor- knowledgeable leadership that can tant to heed than what was accom- The Need to Build on devote full-time energy to the needs plished with children of poverty and the Past Rather Than to of urban gifted education. The impor- color. The targeted focus of intensive Destroy Its Footprint tance of gifted education as a part of programs for these learners was to the urban education landscape must enhance their abilities through offer- One of the most important lessons is then be restored to its rightful place in ing the same high-level opportunities to keep alive the history of our field so stimulating innovation and quality for afforded more advantaged learners, that we do not regress in our practices our best learners. including access to the arts as an aes-

26 fall 2010 • vol 33, no 4 Urban Gifted Education thetic enrichment and another avenue (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Maxwell, S. (1984). Chicago’s cultural of learning, to provide intensive assis- , Chicago, IL. enrichment program report. Washington, tance with educational future attain- Berger, J. (1994). The young scientists: Amer- DC: U.S. Department of Education. ica’s future and the winning of the West- Mitchell, M. (2009). Expanding opportu- ments, and to address directly the issues inghouse. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. nity and access for mathematically talented associated with poverty—the need for Berger, J. (2007). The world in a city: Travel- precollege students in the 21st century. scholarships, free Saturday and sum- ing the globe through the neighborhoods of Retrieved from http://www.tpi.org/ mer programs, free instruments for the new New York. New York, NY: Bal- downloads/docs/15_years/Math%20 learning to play music, and free entry lantine Books. Talent%20Pre_Mtg%20FINAL_R.pdf Besnoy, K. (2006). How do I do that? Inte- Neihart, M. (2007). The socioaffective to the city’s cultural events. Because grating web sites into the gifted educa- educational attainment is the single impact of acceleration and ability group- tion . Gifted Child Today, ing: Recommendations for best practice. most critical variable in predicting 29(1), 28–34. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51, 330–341. Borland, J. H., & Wright, L. (1994). future success defined by career and Passow, A. H. (Ed.). (1963). Education in Identifying young, potentially gifted, income, urban gifted program person- depressed areas. New York, NY: Teachers economically disadvantaged students. College Press. nel worked extra hard to ensure that Gifted Child Quarterly, 38, 164–171. students reached successful entry to Chapman, P. D. (1988). Schools as sorters: Ronvik, R. (1989). An essay on education college and had the resources to nego- Lewis M. Terman, applied psychology, and for the gifted. In J. VanTassel-Baska & Patterns of tiate that environment as well. Recent the testing movement, 1890– P. Olszewski-Kubilius (Eds.), influence on gifted learners: The home, the research on the urban poor continues 1930. New York: New York University Press. self, and the school (pp. 231–240). New to suggest the need for early interven- Chicago Public Schools Research and Eval- York, NY: Teachers College Press. tion that bridges affordable opportu- uation Department. (1978). A study of Sternberg, R. J., Torff, B., & Grigorenko, nities, scholarship assistance, and the critical thinking in gifted programs using E. L. (1998). Teaching triarchically need for acquiring , social, a regression discontinuity design. Chicago, improves school achievement. Journal and cultural capital for optimizing life IL: Author. of , 90, 374–384. Education of the intel- Swanson, J. (2006) Breaking through chances (Ford, 1996; Swanson, 2006; Gold, M. (1965). lectually gifted. Columbus, OH: Merrill assumptions about low income minority Worrell, 2007). Books. gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, Feng, A. (2006). Developing personalized 50, 11–25. Conclusion learning experiences: Mentoring for tal- Subotnik, R., Soller, J., & Hood, S. (2004). ent development. In J. VanTassel-Baska The Hunter School evaluation study. In The role of cities has always deter- (Ed.), Serving gifted learners beyond the J. VanTassel-Baska & A. Feng (Eds.), traditional classroom: A guide to alterna- mined the growth and development of Using evaluation for gifted program tive programs and services (pp. 189–212). improvement (pp. 189–204). Waco: TX: civilizations worldwide from Athens Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Prufrock Press. to Rome, to Beijing, to St. Petersburg Ford, D. Y. (1996). Reversing underachieve- Tannenbaum, A. J. (1983). Gifted children: (Toynbee, 1972). It is little surprise ment among gifted Black students: Prom- Psychological and educational perspectives. then that the evolution of gifted edu- ising practices and programs. New York, New York, NY: Macmillan. NY: Teachers College Press. Toynbee, A. (1972). Cities of destiny. New cation as a field has been highly depen- History of San Diego Gifted Program. (n.d.) York, NY: Weathervane Books. dent on what has been done in these San Diego, CA: San Diego City School VanTassel-Baska, J. (1983). A practical guide capitals of innovation in the United District. to counseling the gifted in a school setting. Hollingworth, L. S. (1926). Gifted children: States over the past 75+ years. As cities Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional have lost favor as hubs of educational Their nature and nurture. New York, NY: Macmillan. Children. innovation in other areas of endeavor, Little, C. A., Feng, A. X., VanTassel-Baska, Worrell, F. C. (2007). Identifying and it is perhaps most timely to reflect on J., Rogers, K. B., & Avery, L. D. (2007). including low-income learners in pro- what they have given us as inspirations A study of curriculum effectiveness in grams for gifted and talented: Multiple for programs and services to use with social studies. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51, complexities. In J. VanTassel-Baska & T. Stambaugh (Eds.), Overlooked gems: our best learners. GCT 272–284. Matthews, D. J. (2009). How do you get A national perspective on low-income to Carnegie Hall? Gifted education in promising learners: Conference proceedings References New York City. In L. Shavinina (Ed.), from the National Leadership Conference International handbook on giftedness on Low-Income Promising Learners (pp. Barbe, W. (1953). A follow-up study of grad- (pp. 1365–1384). London, England: 47–51). Washington, DC: National uates of special classes for gifted children Springer. Association for Gifted Children.

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