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Bacterial Strategy of Invading Host Immune System: a Review Muhammad Ali1, Muhammad S

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Bacterial Strategy of Invading Host Immune System: a Review Muhammad Ali1, Muhammad S REVIEW ARTICLE Bacterial Strategy of Invading Host Immune System: A Review Muhammad Ali1, Muhammad S. Abdallah2, S. A. Jere3 1Department of Microbiology, Federal University Gusau, Gusau, Nigeria, 2Desert Research Monitoring and Control Centre, Yobe State University Damaturu, Damaturu, Nigeria, 3Department of Applied Science, Kaduna State Polytechnic Kaduna, Kaduna, Nigeria ABSTRACT Bacteria are one of the infectious organisms and considered as threats to humans killing hundred thousand people worldwide annually. They have developed highly effective mechanisms to subvert the human immune system, which explains why developing vaccines and controlling these pathogens have been so difficult. Following infections by bacteria, the innate immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils engulf and destroy microorganisms, while adaptive immunity is mediated through the generation of antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes, through a process of gene rearrangement resulting in the production and development of specific antibodies and killer T cell, respectively. However, many microbial pathogens avoid host recognition or dampen the subsequent immune activation through sophisticated interactions with host responses, but some pathogens benefit from the stimulation of inflammatory reactions against the host. Such mechanisms include capsule formation, secretion of toxins or modulator, avoiding immune surveillance, Antigenic variation, cell death manipulation, escape from phagocyte response, subversion of innate pathway, and blockage of acquired immune. Other strategies used by bacteria to invade host immunity include inhibition of complement, inhibition of cytokines, interferon or chemokines, interference with toll-like receptors, blockage of antimicrobial small molecules, and blockage of intrinsic cellular pathways. The paper reviews some strategies used by bacteria in evading host immune system. Key words: Adaptive immunity, bacteria, immune system, innate immunity, strategy INTRODUCTION role in the early recognition and subsequent triggering of a proinflammatory response to invading pathogens.[3] The he bacteria are one of the infectious organisms and innate immune response relies on recognition of evolutionarily considered as threats to humans killing hundred conserved structures on pathogens, termed pathogen- thousands of people worldwide annually.[1,2] They have associated molecular patterns, through a limited number T [4] developed highly effective mechanisms to subvert the human of germ line-encoded pattern recognition receptors. The immune system, which explains why developing vaccines adaptive immune system, on the other hand, is responsible and controlling these pathogens have been so difficult. for the elimination of pathogens in the late phase of infection Successful pathogens have evolved a range of anti-immune and in the generation of immunological memory. Whereas strategies to overcome both innate and acquired immunities, the adaptive immune response is characterized by specificity which play critical roles in their abilities to cause disease.[2] developed by clonal gene rearrangements from a broad repertoire of antigen-specific receptors on lymphocytes, the The innate immune system constitutes the first line of host innate immune response is mediated primarily by phagocytic defense during infection and, therefore, plays a crucial cells and antigen-presenting cells, such as granulocytes, Address for correspondence: Muhammad Ali, Department of Microbiology, Federal University Gusau, Gusau, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected] © 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. Clinical Research in Immunology • Vol 2 • Issue 1 • 2019 1 Ali, et al.: Bacteria strategy of invading host immune system macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs), and has been engulf and destroy microorganisms, and this represent the first regarded as relatively nonspecific.[5] defense barrier against infection.[8] In turn, adaptive immunity is mediated through the generation of antigen-specific B and The common features of pathogenic microorganisms are T lymphocytes, through a process of gene rearrangement the exploitation of cytoskeleton and membranous structures resulting in the production and development of specific to invade or gain motility inside the host cell and also the antibodies and killer T cell, respectively. Adaptive immunity manipulation of key signaling pathways.[6] The pattern- is also behind immunological memory, allowing the host to recognition receptors confer to mammals an extremely efficient rapidly respond when exposed again to the same pathogen. “detection system” of invading microorganism, triggering an Contrarily to the original thought, the innate immune response intricate signaling network that ultimately orchestrates the is not completely nonspecific, but rather is able to discriminate establishment of an adequate immune response.[6] However, between self-antigens and a variety of pathogens.[11] as part of their pathogenic strategies, several microorganisms Furthermore, much evidence has demonstrated that pathogen- evade the immune system by circumventing or distorting specific innate immune recognition is a prerequisite to the these signaling pathways and creating, therefore, conditions induction of antigen-specific adaptive immune responses,[5,12] that facilitate their replication and spreading in the host.[6] The being DC central players in this linking.[13] DCs are specialized pathogens avoid host recognition or dampen the subsequent antigen presenting cells that function as sentinels, scanning immune activation through sophisticated interactions with host changes in their local microenvironment, and transferring the responses, but some pathogens benefit from the stimulation of information to the cells of the adaptive immune system.[14,15] On inflammatory reactions.[7] activation by microorganisms or microorganism components, immature DCs suffer a complex process of morphological, THE IMMUNE SYSTEM phenotypical, and functional modifications to become mature DCs that enter draining lymphatic vessels and migrate to the The immune system is classically divided into innate and T-cell zones of draining lymph nodes where they present adaptive (acquired) immunity.[8] The distinctive features of antigens to T lymphocytes. Depending on their maturation/ innate immunity commonly refer to a broadly distributed activation profile, DCs will polarize and expand distinct T-cell variety of myeloid and lymphoid cells that can exert rapid subsets (T-helper cells which include Th1, Th2, and Th17, effector function through a limited repertoire of germ line- regulatory T cells, and cytotoxic T cells)[16] and given that the encoded receptors. Innate immunity represents a rapid and recognition of different microorganisms leads to distinct DC stereotyped response to a large but limited number of stimuli.[9] maturation or activation profiles, and the adaptive immune It is represented by physical, chemical, and biological barriers, response is, therefore, modulated to match the nature of the specialized cells, and soluble molecules, present in all pathogen.[17] individuals, irrespective of previous contact with offending agents or immunogens, and does not change qualitatively or MECHANISMS OF OVERCOMING quantitatively after contact.[3] The main effector cells of innate immunity are macrophages, neutrophils, DCs, and natural HOST IMMUNE SYSTEM killer cells. Phagocytosis, release of inflammatory mediators, activation of complement system proteins, as well as synthesis Capsule formation Bacterial surfaces are complex structures which present of acute phase proteins, cytokines, and chemokines are the many diverse antigenic targets to the host body surface.[18] main mechanisms in innate immunity.[3] A common mechanism of masking bacterial surfaces is to express a carbohydrate capsule. Capsules are effective at In contrast, adaptive immunity in mammals is characterized by two types of lymphocytes, T and B cells, clonally hiding many bacterial surfaces and preventing opsonization. expressing a large repertoire of antigen receptors that are This mechanism is used by most extracellular bacterial produced by site-specific somatic recombination, i.e., T cell pathogens that circulate systemically within the body. For receptor (TCR) and antibody B cell receptor. Functionally, example, the pneumococcus (Streptococcus pneumoniae) naive T and B cells encounter antigens in specialized relies extensively on its capsule to prevent antibody and complement deposition on its surface, thereby avoiding lymphoid organs and undergo a process of cell division and [19] maturation before exerting their effector function.[10] opsonization and phagocytic clearance. Similarly, bacteria that cause meningitis (Haemophilus IMMUNE SYSTEM AND INVADING influenzae, Escherichia coli K1, and Neisseria meningitidis) MICROORGANISMS rely extensively on capsules to promote their extracellular lifestyle within the host by preventing antibody and Following infection, innate immune cells such as macrophages, complement deposition and insertion.[18,19] Pathogens DCs, and neutrophils, which are collectively called phagocytes, expressing surface capsules also often have filamentous 2 Clinical Research in Immunology • Vol 2 • Issue 1 • 2019 Ali, et al.: Bacteria strategy of invading host immune system adhesins (fimbriae and pili) that protrude through the capsular might facilitate resistance against the
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