MASARYK UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Education

Department of English Language and Literature

Primary and Secondary education in USA and China: comparison of approach and purpose

(Bachelor thesis)

Brno 2014

Supervisor: Written by:

Michael George, M.A. Anna Ziklová

Declaration

I declare that I worked on my Bachelor thesis on my own and that all the information sources I used are listed in the bibliography.

I agree with storing my thesis in the library of the Faculty of Education of Masaryk

University in order to make it available for study purposes.

In Brno, 20. 4. 2014

Anna Ziklová

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Michael George, M.A. for his valuable advices, supervision and encouragement.

Special thanks go to my family and friends for their advice, moral support and tolerance during the writing of this Bachelor thesis.

And last but not least I would like to extend my thanks to James Marsh for his consultation. Bibliografický záznam

Ziklová, Anna. Primary and Secondary education in USA and China: comparison of approach and purpose: Bakalářská práce. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, Pedagogická fakulta, Katedra

Anglického jazyka a literatury. 2014. 62 stran. Vedoucí Bakalářské práce:

Michael George, M.A.

Anotace

Bakalářská práce s názvem „Primary and Secondary education in USA and

China: comparison of approach and purpose,“ se zabývá zkoumáním vzdělávacích systémů v Číně a v USA v návaznosti na neobvykle rychlý a úspěšný růst ekonomiky v Číně. Bakalářská práce srovnává strukturu školských systémů, metody zvolené ve výuce a přístupy studentů ke vzdělání. Mimo jiné, bakalářská práce také zahrnuje porovnání role rodiny a historický – filosofický vývoj obou kultur v návaznosti na vzdělání. V závěru je také nastíněn vhodnější školský systém.

Klíčová slova

Srovnání, USA, Čína, vzdělání, systém školství, primární vzdělávání, sekundární vzdělávání, zkoušky, rodina.

Annotation

The bachelor thesis entitled „Primary and Secondary education in USA and

China: comparison of approach and purpose‟, is based on the comparison of Chinese and American education as a matter of fast and successful growth of Chinese economy.

The bachelor thesis compares and contrasts the structure of educational system, teaching methods and students‟ approaches to education in general. Besides the comparison, the thesis also includes a distinction between the family role and a historical/philosophical development of both cultures regarding the progress of creating the education. There is also mention a suitable system of education in the conclusion.

Key words

Comparison, USA, China, education, system of education, primary education, secondary education, examination, family.

Table of contents 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2. HISTORICAL IMPACT ON NOWADAYS EDUCATION...... 2 2.1 Confucius ...... 2 2.2. Thomas Jefferson and John Dewey ...... 6 2.2.1 Thomas Jefferson ...... 6 2.2.2. John Dewey ...... 7 3. CURRENT FAMILY STRUCTURE ...... 10 3.1. Chinese families ...... 11 3.1.1 The role of women in society ...... 12 3.1.2 The role of men in society ...... 13 3.1.3 One child policy ...... 14 3.2. American families ...... 17 3.3. Summary of American and Chinese families ...... 19 4. SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN USA AND CHINA ...... 20 4.1. Chinese system of education ...... 20 4.1.1 Primary education ...... 23 4.1.1.1 Teaching Methods ...... 23 4.1.1.2 School regulations ...... 25 4.1.1.3 School curriculum ...... 25 4.1.2 Secondary education ...... 27 4.1.2.1 Teaching Methods ...... 28 4.1.2.2 School regulations ...... 29 4.1.2.3 School curriculum ...... 30 4.2. American system of education ...... 34 4.2.1 Primary education ...... 36 4.2.1.1 Teaching Methods ...... 37

4.2.1.2 School regulations ...... 39

4.2.1.3 School curriculum ...... 39 4.2.2 Secondary education ...... 40 4.2.2.1 Teaching Methods ...... 40 4.2.2.2 School regulations ...... 41 4.2.2.3 School curriculum ...... 42 4.3. Summary of Chinese and American system of Education ...... 45 5. CONCLUSION ...... 48 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 58

1. Introduction

Two political world powers, China and the United States of America, have been competing for the lead position in the field of economics, business and politics since the end of the Second World War. These two countries have many differences such as a historical background, cultural heritage, the political system etc. on one hand, and one important similarity on the other. Both China as well as USA are competing for the position of leading the world economically, politically and also for holding the most military power over the world.

The United States of America with its 317 million inhabitants has represented a leading economic, political and military power since the Second World War, when European countries were not strong enough to take responsibility and deal with damage after the war.

China is a large country with a long history and unique cultural habits, which is inhabited by almost 1.4 billion citizens. The ingrained ethical tradition, respect, obedience and the matter of competition between such an enormous amount of people resulted in the growing economic power of China.

The aim of this thesis is to compare and contrast educational systems of both countries with an influence of history and social - family background resulting in the fast economical growth of China. As the education is included in the successful development of a state a thought of the better educational methods is also included.

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2. Historical impact on current education

In both Chinese as well as American historical contexts, persons can be found whose ideas, way of observing the world and methods left an irreversible impact on current education.

Some of these thoughts are deeply ingrained in humans‟ minds and pass from generation to generation. The others are criticized for their inappropriate and old-fashion approaches. Either way the footprint of the educators thinking cannot be obliterated.

2.1. Confucius

The Ancient History Encyclopaedia introduces Confucius as a Chinese philosopher who lived in the 6th Century BC and whose thoughts, expressed in the philosophy of Confucianism, have influenced Chinese culture and systems of education right up to the present. Confucius‟s philosophy and thus its reflection in his education were mostly based on morality and the ethical codex of an individual with a subsequent beneficial influence on the society. It is important to mention that Chinese relationships are, even nowadays, closely tied and framed into a hierarchy. The bottom of the hierarchy was based on the individual persons and how their actions impacts on families at a higher level. The top of the hierarchy is occupied by the empire and its functioning. Consequently, it is neither the society nor the family whose impact is the leader of growth. According to Jianpig Shen, the author of Confucius, 551 - 479 BC, the essay included in Fifty Major Thinkers on Education,

Confucius made an effort for his students to follow the order of development, which began with achieving self-cultivation, continued with aiming towards the family harmony, which was closely ensued by good order in the state with the final step of making peace in the empire. Therefore, the real emphasis was on the social rather than private purpose of education. … The moral values Confucius advocated were ultimately related to governing and regaling social relationships (4).

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Regarding education, Phillipson and Lam, the authors of Learning and Teaching in

Chinese classroom, consider Confucius to be the first person in Chinese history who devoted most of his life to teaching, and was also called „the First Teacher‟, „the Sage‟, and „the Model

Teacher‟(19). As mentioned above, with accordance to Jianping Shen Confucius was praised on one hand and criticized on the other. The Instrumental approaches of educational purpose are still one of the most serious issues in current Chinese education (Jian Shen 4). Besides the instrumentalism in education, the technique of memorisation still prevails. As a result, students are lacking creativity and the ability to apply their knowledge in practical and more difficult multi- tasks. Phillipson and Lam argue:

… in the essence of Confucian education thought, there are several remarkable educational

concepts that present the enlightened features of Chinese education, and are comparable to

the most liberal educational ideas found in history.

First is the notion of education as a form of personal enjoyment, which resembles the

contemporary „personal development orientation‟. Another famous dictum from Confucius

reveals the personal significance of education: „In ancient times one studied for one‟s self;

nowadays one studies for the sake of others. The gentleman‟s learning (today) is meant to

serve as a bridge to win attention from others‟. … It suggests the deeper meaning of study

that emphasizes moral rather than utilitarian goals.

Second, Confucian education implies the significance of education for society. Confucian

educational thought is centred on personal enrichment rather than on vocation or securing

recognition and benefit for oneself. However, in Confucian thought, the idea of personal

fulfilment is inseparable from the society (i.e. carries social implications).

The third significant Confucian idea … is universal education. Confucius mentioned that

education should be for everyone. Every normal individual should be included and have

access to education because he/she can bring perfection to the socio-political order of the

society through education.

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Fourth, with regard to reaching „sagehood‟, the curriculum proposed by Confucius was not

predominantly composed of „book learning‟ but of the six arts, namely, rites, music,

archery, charioteering, writing and mathematics, including rituals and martial arts (19, 20,

21).

Taking the idea of providing the education to everyone into the consideration, i.e. “… education should be available to all, irrespective of social class” (Jian Shen 4), the caste system and the position of women in that society should be emphasized. Once someone was born into a particular social class, his/her place was predestined and thus unchangeable. For instance, the statues of woman as „home keeper „, who is completely devoted to her husband and family, did not reckon the possibility for a woman to be fully educated. Women used to have a difficult position with regards to education. If they had been lucky, they could have attended primary schools and gained basic education. Only occasionally a woman was able to get higher education.

Confucius is also considered to be “a pioneer in providing education to the common people” (Jian Shen 4). but unfortunately, some areas in current China cannot arrange education for every child, especially in the poorest regions in the West of China, in which the schooling and teaching background remains inadequate.

Nevertheless, even in the poorest school the Confucius traditions of education are still preserved. Confucius paid real attention to his students‟ individual differences and he interpreted the idea of suiting different personas for various kinds of jobs. Thus, the possibility of relaying higher things to people above the average and the lower things to people below average, was introduced (Jian Shen 2). This idea, besides others, can stay for the student‟ eagerness for improvement, be the engine for the desire to be the best of all.

Shen also states that Confucius‟s students were also expected to be motivated and study actively. Confucius made a statement that „No vexation, enlightenment, no anxiety, no 4 illumination, if I have brought up one concern and he does not return with the other three, I will not repeat‟. As noticeable from the quote, Confucius‟s students were urged to take the initiative in learning. Moreover, the eagerness and dedication to learning was significant for

Confucius as well. After having been taught something, students were expected to draw relevant inference from it (Jian Shen 2). Confucius encouraged his students to take the opportunity to learn on one hand and on the other hand, it was him, the teacher, who played the most significant role in the whole process of schooling. The teacher-centred approach is maintained even in today‟s teaching procedures.

The author of Studies in Comparison and International Education, Liu Bing argues that “… Confucius‟s philosophic and educational ideas are recorded in, among others, the following so called 'Four Books' - The Analects of Confucius (Lung Yu), The Book of

Mencius (Men Zi), The Great Learning (Da Xue) and The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong

Yong). In Chinese society, prior to the twentieth century, these four classics were among the books for those who planned to take the imperial examination which selected officials for the imperial government” (1). Another piece of writing, which captured Confucius thinking and which is still remembered and valued, is called The Book of Changes.

Chinese education has always focused on the individuality of a learner and his or her merits for others, most importantly for the whole empire. The needs and desires of a Chinese student used to be suppressed and surpassed by the desires and requirements from the family, society and the empire. Consequently, students had to carry the weight of responsibility n their shoulders. To resist and deal with such a pressure coming from spheres of life was not easy and the impact of stress is still captured deep down in some students‟ minds.

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2.2. Thomas Jefferson and John Dewey

2.2.1 Thomas Jefferson

The Encyclopaedia Britannica introduces Tomas Jefferson, who was born on April 2,

1743 and died on July 4, 1826 as a “draftsman of the Declaration of Independence of the United

States and the nation‟s first secretary of state (1789-94), second vice (1797-1801), and, as the third president (1801-09), the statesman responsible for the Louisiana Purchase. An early advocate of total separation of church and state, he also was the founder and architect of the University of Virginia and the most eloquent American proponent of individual freedom as the core meaning of the American Revolution”.

Thomas Jefferson exerted his influence not only in politics and philosophy but also causes of his action left a fundamental impact on the system of developing education. He believed that the origin and background one came from does not influence talent and intelligence. James Bryan Conant introduces Jefferson‟s idea of a plan called „for the selection of the youth of genius from among the classes of the poor‟. Jefferson declared, „we hope to avoid the State of those talents which nature has sown as liberally among the poor as the rich, but which perish without use, if not sought for cultivated‟(44).

As a result he was opened to the possibility of providing education for everyone talented. Jefferson believed in the “paramount importance of careers freely open to all the talented”. Besides the democratic principles of Jefferson‟s education, he was the one who also spread the idea of universal schooling (Conant, 44). Jefferson‟s methods of the education was based on democratic principles, e.g. equality of opportunities, and thus laid the foundations for a future democratic approach in education.

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Conant wrote about Jefferson belief that: “„The ultimate result of the whole scheme of education would be the teaching of all the children of the State reading, writing and common arithmetic…‟. These words of Jefferson‟s delivery may now not give the impression of describing a degree of general education so small as to be negligible. Having been written those words expressed a revolutionary doctrine - a strong belief that every potential citizen in a democratic republic should be provided at least with a minimum of formal instruction. With these words the campaign against illiteracy had begun in earnest” (Conant, 45).

Jefferson was convinced that everyone has the ability to develop him or herself if they are provided with necessary resources. He also believed in freedom of education with a minimum intervention from the State. Conant presented another of Jefferson‟s principles.

“Jefferson believed in capability of any boy or girl to benefit from the rudiments of education and by acquiring them they would be made a better citizen”. His ideas of “keeping open the door of future opportunity to the extent that a poor boy of ability should not be debarred from continuing his education”. … With regard to citizens, Jefferson supported the idea of maximizing “the equality of opportunity. In terms of the State, he was convinced of a minimum compulsion and interference compatible with all its citizens” (Conant 45). Jefferson was the supporter of freedom of mind, who believed in a uniqueness of individuality and equality of education. Some of his ideas and methods rooted the principles of today‟s education in America.

2.2.2. John Dewey

John Dewey, who was born Oct. 20, 1859 and died June 1, 1952, is introduced by the

Encyclopaedia Britannica as an “American philosopher and educator who was a founder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology, and a leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States”.

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Dewey‟s educational theories focused mostly on morality. Sim in his piece Dewey

and Confucius: on Moral Education quotes Hall and Ames who held an idea that all

education principals introduced by Dewey are moral because their aims are “to realize

common goods” and “sensitize individuals to goods-in-common (12). Besides the moral

code Dewey also took the social aspect of schools into a consideration. According to Sim,

Dewey believed in all of us as social creatures, who were born into families that ingrain

particular habits and beliefs to us. Subsequently, we, social creatures, are shaped by

education gained in schools using their own methodologies and goals. As a result, we

gradually begin to participate in the larger world of commerce and polities, in institution

from parishes and social clubs to cities, states, and nations (1).

Some similar aspects of Jefferson„s philosophy of education can be identified in

Dewey‟s educational methods. Jefferson as well as Dewey wanted to realise the idea of schooling for every child. In his work Among School Children Kidder introduced Dewey‟s idea of providing every child „an embryonic community life‟ and, for the nation, „the deepest and best guarantee of a large society which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious‟ (299). Dewey also highlighted the moral and social aspect of school that involved the development of democracy and lead to the economic independence. “Dewey stressed the social and moral nature of the school and believed that it should serve as a „miniature community, an embryonic society‟, especially on that actively fostered the growth of democracy which was being under minded by urban industrial society” (Kidder 179, 180). Sim comments on Dewey‟s encouragements to the kind of education that reflects liberalizing modernizations (science, technology, trade and travel). He highlighted an education for „social efficiency‟. According to Dewey education is significant to lead to economic independence by enabling one to earn his own living, and to use effectively the products of industry. Essential, one must also obtain civic efficiency by learning how to make and obey laws. Above all, individuals must be

8 educated to become unique individuals carrying the ability to make intelligent choices among a diversity of goods (6)

Differences in Jefferson‟s and Dewey‟s educational approaches are worth mentioning as well. Dewey in contrast to Jefferson did not sympathise with extreme followers of a child- centred educational approach. This approach can be identifiable in Jefferson‟s studies. Apple and Teitelbaum claim in their essay John Dewey, 1859-1952 included in “Fifty Major

Thinkers on Education” “Dewey strongly disagreed with the more extreme proponents of child-centred progressivism. He made it clear that a crucial role was to be played by teachers in helping to link children‟s interests to sustained intellectual development and to experiences.

Thus for him, education was the construction and reorganisation of experiences that add meaning and that increase one‟s ability to direct the course of subsequence experiences.

Freedom for children in classroom, for example, was not to be an end in itself” (Apple and

Teitelbaum 180).

American education was always perceived as a way to democracy, as evident in both

Jefferson‟s and Dewey‟s perspectives of education. Both educators tended to stand for the possibility of schooling for everyone. Social aspects of schooling and approach to individuals can also be considered to be a seed for democratic system of education. Having an educated citizen meant for America to be an independent country, which is capable of competing with other economically powerful countries as, for instance, the United Kingdom used to be.

Comparing the historical development of education in the United States and China with a consideration of thinkers mentioned above, some parallels can be noticeable. Sim comments on the subject matter: for both Dewey and Confucius, the importance of moral education for self- development represents the fundamental aspect of education as well as the importance of social relations for moral education. … They also have the same opinion that a

9 cultivated self is an expanded self who identifies his own good with the well- being of others

(2).

The moral values occurrent in Chinese education are based on long time traditions, which have been preserved for many centuries and have been inherited from generation to generation. The morality includes, firstly, to obey and to take care of the family, then the community and, last but not least, the empire. Those moral codes have rigid principles that have been followed for many years. Only in the last few years with the spread of western influence have they started to be modified and slightly changed.

The American moral values are, on the other hand, a little different. The family does not have such an important impact on an individual as it has in China. Individuals do not have to get the best education because the whole family depends on them but because they, as individuals with different interests, will bring the opportunity for democracy to grow. Sim states: “Though Dewey and Confucius agree on the necessity of a good political system for moral education, they differ on what kind is desirable. For Dewey, a democratic form of government is the best since it allows for a greater diversity of interests and freer interactions between social groups. This diversity and freedom provide more opportunities for moral growth. Confucius, on the other hand, finds rule by an exemplary individual to be ideal.

Modelling polities after the family, he believes in the rule of a virtuous emperor, who loves his people like children” (5). As well as Dewey, Confucius too emphasizes the significance of tradition in the moral education of the individual, and maintains his aim to education, which is to extend one‟s care of his family to others in the community (Sim 12)

3. Current family structure

Family has always created an important environment, a vital background for an individual to become a part of the society and find the place one belongs to. Zeepedia.com 10 uses a term "The backbone of society" to emphasize the significance of family. The diversity of a family role differs in every culture. In most European states family represents the basic unit, which provides support, safety, and care for every member of the family.

According to Josef Langmajer and Dana Krejčířová, the authors of Vývojová psychologie, several functions of a family can be defined.

Reproduction: The family is perceived as the basic unit of producing new generations and

preserving human kind.

Economic production: Each family should hold a business and teach children how to

manage the household, work and produce some products, i.e. the family creates an

economic team, which produces necessary supplies for surviving. This function is currently

weakening and in most cases the family functions as a unit of customers.

Emotional: The family environment provides emotional satisfaction for each member, to

create a balance within the family.

Socialization of children: The family is the first and most influential subject in children‟s

socialization. Children are taught how to behave and they are introduced to the cultural

norms and habits (171,172).

3.1. Chinese families

Chinese families were considered to be the most significant unit for each member, in which everyone learnt the moral code. The family used to be organized into the patriarchal system with a man having all or most of the power in the family. Mauria Freedman in her essay The Family in China, Past and Present included in online journal “Pacific Affairs”

11 claims that the family was looked at by the state as the first unit of social control. Very often the family included a large number of kin men and their wives under the control of a patriarch imbued with the Confucian values of propriety and order (323). Very tied relationships in the family clearly indicated the fact that if something happened, for instance a death in the family or someone disobeyed the conventions the action affected not only the individual person, but also involved the whole family. As a result, in some of the cases the causes could lead to the decrease of the family status in society, which could result in irreversible situations such as suicide.

Chinese families used to be perceived as „segments‟ of the bigger social units, which related together, formed an entire complex. According to Freedman even the total polity might be regarded as one massive family so as family relationships should be predominated in their potency over all other kinds of relationships. The emperor is thus treated as a patriarch of the blown-up family (323).

3.1.1 The role of women in society

In regard to relations between members of the family, the gender inequality which used to occur between men and women, is worth mentioning. A woman was considered not to be as „valuable‟ for the family as man was, i.e. they were labeled as a liability. Everything changed when they reached the age of marriage when they were literally sold away. The marriage was prearranged and the groom‟s father had to pay a bride price, which was set by the bride‟s father. Freeman mentions the fact that after the marriage, a woman was cut off from her own family and the rights over her were transferred to her husband. She was also expected to engage her desires as inevitable part of husband‟s interests including the family interest of the whole family (328). Women were raised as the ones who would be restricted to

12 their homes, taking care of children as well as husband and obeying his orders. There was not much of an expectation from women in relation to education.

With the passing of time, the inequality between genders started developing with benefits for women. According to the online article Women in Chinese Culture provided by

Globerove, the movement of the position of women in society occurred in three periods of time. During the republic years the first real change was initiated. Women living in major cities were provided the opportunity to seek formal education, which basically meant the opportunity for women to study alongside the men. This step was cherished by many women.

During the early Communist area, women were given equal opportunities to seek education and hold jobs. Some of them even stepped up to hold prominent political positions and managed to exercise their influence in various domains. The modern Communist period brought back and forth movements. For instance, women were not as much involved in political power as they used to be in the early Communist area under the Mao rule. On the other hand, the influence of foreign music, movies and culture opened the door of freedom for

Chinese women. In the 1990‟s in connection to travelling Chinese women developed a sense of freedom, which had an enormous impact on the development of China towns across the world (Globerove ,Women in Chinese Culture)

3.1.2 The role of men in society

Religion always played a significant role within the Chinese family. The family structure, social order and moral code taught in families were inspired by the philosophy of

Confucius. The father used to be the head of the family and the functioning of the family was beyond his control. The orders he made, had to be obeyed by children as well as his wife.

Consequently, men used to play the major role in a child's upbringing. A father was also responsible for the education, which is why even against the child's wishes decisions were

13 made. Some aspects of Chinese culture, which preserved till current times are presented in the online article Chinese Culture Family Life contributed by Globerove: “For instance the father is still the maintainer, provider and protector of the family. He may still have a final say in the important matters concerning his children but no longer does the man of the enjoy absolute control over his family members. The children of today‟s Chinese family are more or less free to choose the career they want to pursue but are required to consult their elders for advice”

(Globerove, Chinese Culture Family Life)

3.1.3 One child policy

The economy plays a crucial role in current China, which influences not only the changes and development in society but more importantly in families. The traditional family that included up to six children represent more of a remnant rather than a realistic concept of life. These days are full of options even for young Chinese people together with the growing influence from the western countries the vision of lucrative working position and successful career gradually overweighs the traditional union of marriage. In some cases, the younger generation prefer focusing on career development rather than setting down with a family.

Another burning issue, which lies on the government‟s shoulders, is the one child policy. The one child policy is, according to the Pletcher, the author of One - child Policy the online article, “an official program initiated in the late 1970s and early 1980s by the central government of China, the purpose of which was to limit the great majority of family units in the country to one child each. The rationale for implementing the policy was to reduce the growth rate of China‟s enormous population” (Plether, One - child policy). Besides the attempt to regulate the rapidly growing population, the government also intended to reduce the drain that was placed on the country‟s resources (Globerove, Chinese children Culture)

Pletcher describes the process of developing as:

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A voluntary program was announced in late 1978 that encouraged families to have no more

than two children, with one child being preferable. In 1979 demand grew for making the

limit one child per family. However, this stricter requirement was then applied unevenly

across the country among the provinces, and by 1980 the central government sought to

standardize the one-child policy nationwide. … September 25, 1980 … has often been cited

as the policy‟s “official“start date. ( Pletcher, One - child policy)

The one child policy was strictly enforced but - as presented in the online article The New England Journal of Medicine by Hesketh,et. al - only for minorities living in urban cities, such as the government and the citizen. In rural areas the second child was allowed under some conditions such as a fee for instance. The whole system of the policy of One Child is based on rewards and penalties (Hesketh,

T., et. al The New England Journal of Medicine).

The one child policy has a fundamental impact on children‟s perception of life from a very early age. The preference of male children, especially in rural areas, inflicted the disequilibrium between the two genders and put women under the pressure of inferiority and inequality. Moreover, every child bears in mind the fact that the whole family depends on his or her action and results. Their failure could badly influence the whole family. As a result children are encouraged to succeed in the best results and diplomas. For the good overall development of children, they are enrolled into several spare time actives, which, in most cases, include physical activities, e.g. sports, athletics, gymnastics or taking art or music lessons.

Considering the psychological and sociological aspects of the one child policy, a child is constantly under supervision of his/her parents or grandparents, i.e. he or she is always paid attention to. As a result, children have to follow regulations at all times. As stated in Chinese

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Children Culture: “This fact can lead to a deviant behaviour as the child grows up”

(Globerove, Chinese children Culture)

Other fundamental influences that affect a child‟s development are interactions with other children. Nurseries, kindergartens, and schools, without a doubt, provide children with the opportunity to experience playtime, friendship and cooperation. Back at home children are surrounded only by grown-ups and they are also treated in a different way, and he or she is expected to be better behaved, than the same-aged children in America for instance.

Even in some of the Chinese family institutions the reflection of

Confucianism can be visible. However, with an increasing influence from the West many traditional habits have been updated, for instance the custom of prearranged marriages. Also the one child policy underwent a renovation. Having realised the inevitable side effects, such as aging of the population or unbalanced ration of men to women, the government resolved to relinquish it from the strict regulations. Kazunori

Takada, the author of China Eases Controversial One Child Policy, an online article, states: “Under the new policy, couples will be allowed to have two children if one of the parents were an only child. Previously, a couple could generally only have a second child if both parents were an only child. The plan was envisioned by the government about five years ago, with officials worried that the strict controls were undermining economic growth and contributing to a rapidly ageing population China had no hope of supporting financially” (Takada, China eases controversial one child policy).

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3.2. American families

The concept of the American families does not have such a traditionally based foundation as the Chinese does. There definitely has been a process of developing the structure and relationships within the families.

In the past the leading position of the family used to belong to a man and the rest of the family members, wife and children, had to obey his decisions and regulations he set, nevertheless, regulations were not as strict as those in China. On the other hand, the inequality between sexes occurred in the United States as well as in China. Ann - Marie Imbornoni, the author of the online Timeline of key Events in the America Women’s Rights Movement, highlights a few significant years, which left a footprint in the progress of developing women‟s emancipation. The attempts at women‟s emancipation go back to the 1840's when a

Declaration of Sentiments, which outlines grievances and sets the agenda for the women's rights movement was signed and began the fight for women‟s equality to men. The year 1893 brought acceptance of an amendment granting women the right to vote. In upcoming years some states such as Colorado, Utah, Washington and many others followed the adoption of the amendment. 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution, granting women the right to vote, is signed into law. In March 22, 1972 The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is passed by

Congress and sent to the states for ratification (Imbornoni, Women's Rights Movement in the

U.S).

Bernard Bailyn in Education in the Forming of American Society, states that the family structure used to be similar to the Chinese one. A few generations lived together as one unit. However, those units were, under several circumstances e.g. the starving period in

Jamestown in 1610s (23), forced to split in order to increase the chances of survival. Bailyn also claims that families became materially independent and they were slowly able to leave

17 the patriarchal households and set their own living (23). Consequently, in today‟s American families there is not such a pressure exerted on young people to aim for the best provided education, or well paid and innovative jobs in comparison to China. Young people become their own guides in the matter of life experience. Parents are no longer in charge of their children‟s decisions as they used to be and the focus in no longer on the family as a basic union but on an individual personality. Based on the online article People contributed by The

USA online “In the early 21st century, the ideal family is a vehicle for self-fulfillment and emotional satisfaction” (People).

Most American families includes a mother and father and one to three children. Most of the parents are working fulltime while their children are at schools, daycare facilities or are taken care of by a nanny or au pair. In many cases a family consists only of children and one of the parents. Once a child became a teenager and graduated from high school, he or she becomes independent, leaves the home and lives their own life.

As stated in the article People, a phenomenon occurs in America, children are staying at home until later in life. AS mentioned above, most American children are trying to become independent in their teens but unfortunately some of these adult children are forced by high rents, low entry-level wages, divorce, single parenthood etc. to come back to their parents‟ places (People).

One of the burning issues in American family‟s life is the fact that every year fewer and fewer children are being born. This situation has been caused by many factors such as constant economic transition, an unsupportive political attitude towards paying maternity leave, and also the wide range of opportunities.

The outset could be, according to Patrick J. Buchanan, the author of The Death of the

West, dated to the 1950s. At that time after the Second World War the “baby boom” generation

18 was born. Having experienced the terrors of the war, parents wanted the best possible for their children. These children spend much more time in the convenience of their parents‟ home.

The baby boomer generation reached university age in 1964 and represented the first generation of Americans who had the freedom and opportunities to choose the life they wanted. Together with the influence of the ideas of the Frankfurt school, which were based on criticism of Christianity, capitalism, hierarchy, authority, loyalty, sexual inhibition etc., and the invention of birth control, the young generation started considering the family institution as an old-fashion relic. Most of the adolescents preferred to experience life through travelling, or they would rather establish a working career rather than settle down and start a family (45,

46,)

The consequences are very well identifiable, even nowadays. The freedom of choice and individual approach is still preserved, the American population suffers from aging and moreover the immigrations are taking the American working places over.

Regarding the aging population, America always has to be the country in which the elderly were able to take care of themselves, i.e. people have savings for the times when the help from daily care centers is necessary. Hence, there is no need for their children to take care of them.

3.3. Summary of American and Chinese families

Chinese culture is substantially based on the philosophical foundations, which are closely linked to the historical development of the culture itself. This fact provides a significant effect on the way Chinese people contemplate viewing the world, the purpose of their lives and also relationships in general. On the contrary, American culture lacks this fact of ingrained „cultural heritage‟ as American history is dated back to the 15th century.

Therefore, the long term development of philosophy and the struggle between several 19 philosophical streams did not contribute to the creation of rigid habits. Subsequently, the relationships do not occur under such pressure as found in China. Chinese families are also constantly placed at risk of losing the beloved only child. When this situation happens, not only the sorrow of the mother is inconceivable but also the family loses the hope for better future. These anxieties are transmitted to Chinese children. Under such enormous pressure and threat of failure, China has to deal with a non negligible number of suicide attempts.

4. System of Education in USA and China

A system of education can be perceived as a reflection of values, habits and purposes of a certain culture. Every educational system provides students with a different range of opportunities, has different rules and regulations, and also every system of education focuses on diverse fields of studies. As high illiteracy affects the number of specialists and experts in various areas and thus enables the increase of the state economy, education is, in general, considered to be one of the significant pillars of a state's development.

4.1. Chinese system of education

Based on the online article Education in China, the Chinese system of education consists of four parts such as basic education, secondary/technical education, higher education and adult education (Education in China [online] 2011). According to Kao, et al. the authors of Teaching in Primary Schools in China and India, the system of schooling differ across provinces, as in some of the provinces a six-plus-three model was adopted, while in other less financially secure provinces the five-plus-four model was implemented. Primary education, a period of five or six years, is compulsory for children at the age of six or seven. Obligatory education continues in junior secondary education for a minimum of three years and it is

20 followed by an optional study provided by senior secondary education for future period of three years (4).

As China Education Center Ltd. states in its online article Primary and Secondary education, “Through compulsory education, students are required to take end-of-term examinations and tests or check-ups at the end of each semester, school year and of before graduation” (China Education Center Ltd., Primary and Secondary education).

Moreover, Lauren Mack, the author of the online article School in China: Introduction to School and Education in China mentioned that Chinese citizens at the age from six to fifteen are provided with a required and free education. However parents must finance the schoolbooks and uniforms for their children. After middle school, parents are also required to pay for public high schools though the vast majority of families living in cities can afford the modest fee. Many students, who come from the rural parts of China, stop their education at the age of 15 (Mack, School in China: Introduction to School and Education in China).

The online article China's Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign

English Teacher, contributed by MKL (Middle kingdom Life) provides some pieces of information about an arrangement of the academic year in China, which is designed as a two- semester system, fall and spring. The school year begins in early September and the spring semester, which is dedicated to the lunar calendar, starts in late February or early March. Each duration in total lasts 20 to 22 weeks (five - day week), including a winter break for the

Spring festival and summer break containing July and August. In contrast, the typical length of vacation for primary and secondary school students is only three weeks (MKL, China's

Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English Teacher).

21

In addition, Chinese schools, as Mack introduced in his article School in China:

Introduction to School and Education in China, demand morning classes in science and math on Saturdays morning. Many of the students attend lessons or cram school in the evening and on weekends or other courses called 補習班 (buxiban). These schools also offer lessons of additional Chinese, English and Math that are similar to West tutorials. Schools also contribute to after schools activities, which include sports and music lessons. These activities are, in contrast to the West, not as extensive (Mack, School in China).

A description of a typical day in life of a Chinese student can be found in the article

China's Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English Teacher.

They generally wake up around 6:30 to 7:00 in the morning and begin classes by 8:00

a.m.... They will typically attend between four to five 40- to 50-minute periods in the

morning, and as many as three to four 40- to 50-minute periods in the afternoon with a ten-

minute break between each period. Primary and secondary schools usually close between

4:00 to 5:00 p.m., and many of these students will then attend some extracurricular activity

such as music lessons after school before returning home and commencing their homework.

...The amount of daily homework they receive tends to be massive and students report

usually having to stay up until 11:00 p.m. to midnight in order to complete it. Children will

often be severely punished by their parents if they are caught "wasting time" by engaging in

recreational reading (quite unlike the reaction many American parents would have if they

joyfully discovered that their children were reading anything other than the daily TV

program listings) (MKL, China's Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign

English Teacher).

Chinese schooling, especially within the primary and secondary years, demands students for many requests. Consequently, children spend the vast majority of the day studying or revising for the next lesson. If the child is not occupied with his or her studies, they are very likely to be engaged in some art or sport activities. These activities are presented

22 by parents as an attempt to balance the school requests. However, playing the piano, for instance, for less than three hours is not considered to be adequately completed.

4.1.1 Primary education

Based on information acquired from the online article named Overview of the

Education System in China, primary education is based on a division of the system into two parts; pre-school education and elementary education. The length of Pre-schools or kindergarten can be up to three years, until the age of six, when a child usually enters elementary school. Regarding the system, elementary schooling begins with the first grade proceeding either through grade five or six. Each of the two semesters, which the academic year is based on, has a duration of 19 weeks, which results in 38 weeks of teaching sessions and interaction for a year. In addition, there is one week “in reserve” if some additional time is necessary. The rest of the remaining 13 weeks are allotted to vacations and holidays

(Overview of the Education System in China).

4.1.1.1 Teaching Methods

The area of teaching procedures belongs, besides the acquiring and following the moral codes, rules and regulations, to the spheres, which were mostly shaped by the tradition of

Confucianism. The authors of Learning and Teaching in the Chinese classroom Phillipson and

Lam claim that the context of Chinese education is broadly reverberated by the Confucian philosophy. The main content is based on collectivist values, an emphasis on education, and will, power and a reliance on memorization (194).

Pupils are expected to learn everything by heart without much secondary thoughts and considerations of a subject. One of the side effects is the deficiency of creativity that students lack and which is more perceptible in secondary education and at universities on the contrary

23 to American education. Phillipson and Lam mention the issue of memorization with a connection to repetition, which could be fundamental for the memorizing process.

Nevertheless, the memorizing process can even be intensified by passive and rote learning.

This method is usually utilized when a teacher needs to quicken the schooling process. The memorization is even enhanced by the fact that students are not encouraged to express diverse view points and creative thinking (27).

Mack also provides an image of Chinese lessons, which seemed to have a very similar structure. The transmission of schoolwork is based on the relationship between teachers and pupils. Unfortunately, there are not many opportunities for students to express their intention and enthusiasm to be educated as they are overwhelmed by recording the information presented by the teacher, who is lecturing all the time (Mack, School in China: Introduction to

School and Education in China).

Comparing the Chinese teaching methodology to the American, according to Mack, memorization is the most significant distinction besides an extensive test preparation for middle school, junior high school, high school and college entrance examination Mack,

School in China: Introduction to School and Education in China).

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4.1.1.2 School regulations

Regulations have always been presented not only in the field of education. Rules have been created to help maintain discipline and focus on a particular task. In relation to education some of the regulations are similar in most cultures. For instance, raising a hand before one is allowed to talk or speaking after one is selected by the teacher. Other principles might be distinguished with a connection to the education policy. For example, the rules mentioned above are in China even more intensified by the fact that pupils have to stand up while speaking.

As Echo Lu, a Chinese student studying at Indiana University, pointed out in her online article 3 Big Differences Between Chinese and American Classroom Culture that students in China are trained to obey their teacher 100%. Chinese students are also required to nod or bow every time they meet their teacher. This behaviour is a symbol of propriety. As this career is the most respectful, students can never argue the opinion a teacher holds about the topics cover by book. There might be a short time for discussing the issue but after the debate students will still be required to answer a question in a test the way the teacher explained the subject matter. With a connection to this issue, Chinese students are also trained not to present their opinions and raise any discussion that argues a different point of view to that presented by a teacher (Lu, 3 big differences between Chinese and American classroom culture).

4.1.1.3 School curriculum

After spending three years in kindergarten, pre-primary education, where children are taught how to sing, act and also play games, they enter at the age of six or seven a primary school. The school year consists of 38 weeks (five - day week) of teaching and 13 week for holiday. 25

There is a variety of subject prescribed at primary schools. Besides the „basic‟ subjects such as Chinese, Math and Moral Education children also can enrol in sport or art lessons including Dance, Music and Villon. The opportunity to Study English is offered in the senior primary as well as I wider range of subjects including science, Information and

Communication Technology, History, geography etc.

Pupils are also tested during the school year. Besides casual written and oral tests

Juwei Zhang in his online article China’s Skill Assessment System states that there are term and end tests at primary schools and also primary school graduation. All of these are aimed at examining pupils‟ qualified levels. Math and Chinese are the testing subjects, the rest of the subjects are only checked (Zhang,China‟s Skill Assessment System).

Echo Lu comments on the structure of the examination that the exams are similar to memory tests. They are composed to evaluate how well a pupil memorised the textbook contents and the key words. The regulation in format, range of literature, structure of the article and occasionally a title of the article are placed on the writing essay part (Lu, 3 big differences between Chinese and American classroom culture).

There is a fundamental examination between junior and senior high school as well. As the online article China’s High Stakes Exam, written by John Richard Schrack, states students take the zhong kao, 中考 or “middle test”. As in the rural areas there are not many experienced teachers present, it is possibly that half the students fail the exam which it is necessary to pass to guarantee the movement into senior high school, secondary education. As a result, those students will continue their future education in industrial training or agriculture.

On the other side, students attending schools in developed area do not have problems with passing zhong kao. A high number of them will successfully enter the senior high school and

26 pass gao kao, 高考 with a score high enough to enter a university (Schrack, China‟s High

Stakes Exam).

4.1.2 Secondary education

Secondary education in China is another important step for students in their dream aim of attending the most prestigious universities and secure well paid jobs. According to the article Education in China, secondary education is based on academic secondary education and specialized/vocational/technical secondary education. Academic secondary education consists of junior lower/junior middle school (children aged 12 - 15) and upper/senior middle school (children aged 15 - 18) (Education in China)

Academic or regular junior middle schools, with regard to the online essay Overview of the Educational System in China, contain either three or four years of schooling concerning the system (6 - 3 or 5 - 4). In the vast majority of cases, schooling at senior middle schools has a duration of three years resulting in a 5 - 4 - 3 or 6 - 3 - 3 system of elementary/primary school - junior middle school - senior middle school Overview of the Educational System in

China. As the online article Education in China from 国家留学网‟Scholarship Network‟ states there is also a possibility of combining primary education and junior middle school in case of integrated curriculum of nine years (Education in China).

China education Center Ltd. provides details about the length of the junior secondary schooling period, which contains 39 weeks of teaching with one spare week in readiness. The other 12 weeks are allotted to holidays and vacations. The senior secondary school period of academic year is based on 40 weeks of teaching and an additional one or two weeks. There are also 10 or 11 weeks dedicated to holidays and vacations (China education Center Ltd .

Primary and Secondary education).

27

4.1.2.1 Teaching Methods

Regarding the teaching methods, which are used at secondary junior as well as senior middle schools, there are not many differences in contrast to primary schools. The main teaching method remains memorization. Students are compelled to remember the content of a subject or a book in order to pass the required exams successfully.

As Phillipson and Lam claim, the teacher-centered approached dominated to the whole lesson. Within the “non-exam” years, the content of the lessons is more casual, whereas in the examination term the main focused is placed on test preparation. Consequently, students take many notes, complete an enormous number of model tests and memorize many texts (27).

The online article China’s Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign

English teachers provides pieces of information connected to the subject of teaching methods matter. “Teaching methodology basically consists of force feeding copious amounts of required information directly out of textbooks (often teachers will simply read directly from the text) and students are discouraged from asking questions, particularly if those questions challenge ideology or anything regarded as factual. Teachers, … mostly teach directly to the exams and „sample‟ questions are usually distributed (or former versions of the tests are downloaded from the internet) and the students are expected to memorize both questions and the answers” (MKL, China‟s Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English teachers).

As Phillipson and Lam point out the phenomenon of Chinese females lacking confidence is still present. Women have the tendency to attribute their achievements or failures to having or lacking luck. Importance of career success is a personal goal for Chinese women (180). In general, the attribution of ability according to Chinese students include

28

„being smart‟, „having a good memory‟, „be able to think quickly‟, „learn easily‟ and „work hard‟ (Phillipson and Lam 95).

To Manhong Lai, the author of Teachers Development Under Curriculum Reform included in the journal “International Review of Education”, mind “teaching and learning should be a process by which students actively construct knowledge and should be perceived as active and independent learners” (619). In 2003, in mainland China a curriculum reform for improving the quality of senior secondary education was initiated with the main purpose of shifting the focus from the teacher-centered to the student-centered approach (Lai 613).

4.1.2.2 School regulations

Secondary schools students must followed the same rules as students at primary schools. For instance, they must obey the teacher‟s orders and respect him or her. Students are also not allowed to raise any questions, which could interfere with a teacher‟s explanation.

The opportunity to work in pairs or small groups is very limited as well. Nevertheless, while working in groups, students are required to mute their voices.

According to the online article by Fred Kayes, a student studying in China, during school time students are not allowed to leave the campus without a teacher‟s permission.

Missing classes, leaving early or being tired is considered to be the cause of student‟s lower score. Students are also encouraged to behave appropriately and respect teachers. Moreover, they must obey the class rules and not disturb the teacher whilst they are speaking. There is also a strict regulation on using electronic equipment, i.e. MP3, MP4, laptops, mobile phones and any other electronic device are forbidden to be used within the class. Computers and pads are divested and students are allowed to use them only for an hour every night (Kayes, My

School's Rules (In China)).

29

4.1.2.3 School curriculum

As secondary education is divided into two forms, academic secondary education and vocational education, each range of subject is oriented to different fields. The aim of academic secondary schools and their curriculum is to prepare students to attend university. As

Manhong Lai claims there was a new curriculum established in China. This curriculum was based on eight learning areas, an elective course and unit system. Taking 116 compulsory units was obligatory for students as well as the requirement of 144 units necessary for graduation (618).

In accordance with China Education Center Ltd, “The current curriculum of senior secondary schools consists of two parts: subjects courses and activities. Subjects taught in secondary schools are divided into obligatory ones and optional ones. Out-class activities and practice activities are included” (China Education Center Ltd Primary and Secondary education).

In relation to the online article Education System in China, compulsory secondary education is besides Chinese, Mathematic and Moral education, based on subjects such as

Chemistry, Biology, Physics, History, Geography, Foreign Languages and Physical education

(see Table.1) (Education System in China)

30

Table. 1 Typical Senior Middle School Class Schedule

Source: Middle Kingdom Life, . N.p.. Web. 18 Mar 2014. . As claimed by Manhong Lai, the main aim of vocational schools and their curriculum is to prepare students for work (Lai, Teachers development under curriculum reform).

Graduates of vocational schools should be ready for engaging in the forefronts of science and technology (Education in China)

Harry Fozzard, the author of the online article China Educational System - Ensuring a

Brighter Future through Quality Education, claims that in China there are two systems of grading, the fourth and fifth scale, utilized.

The fifth scale system is based on the Latin letter grades:

A - Excellent 优秀

B - Good 良好

C - Average 中等

D - Satisfactory 及格

31

F - Unsatisfactory (Fail) 不及格

The Fourth scale system consists of Latin letter grades as well:

A - Excellent 优秀

B - Good 良好

C - Satisfactory 及格

D - Unsatisfactory (Fail) 不及格

Occasionally, the numerative grades, which are reported on the 0 - 100 scale, are used, especially at universities (Fozzard, China Educational System - Ensuring a Brighter Future through Quality Education).

Within the academic year, based on the piece of Juwei Zhang, students take several term-end tests and year-term tests. At the end of senior middle school studies the graduation examination and the national university entrance examination are settled (Zhang, China‟s

Skill Assessment System).

In accordance with the online article China - Secondary education, there are two fundamental examinations performed. The first of them is the graduation test. Taking the graduation test students are obligated to pass the exam in the following subjects: Chinese,

Mathematics, Foreign language, Physics, Chemistry, Political study, History, Geography,

Computer science, and biology. In different years students are required to pass each subject.

The grades for these exams are provided on the 100 point scale and then students receive grades from „A‟ to „E‟. After passing all the classes, students acquire a graduation certificate and are eligible to apply for the entrance examination (State University, China - Secondary education).

The second exam is the National entrance examination called gao kao 高考, which is the most important exam in China, as the result determines which university, if any, a student 32 will attend. As evident from the article China-Secondary Equation, the score of this test belongs to the main criteria while applying for a college or university. As a result, the last year of the high middle school is dedicated to preparation. The exam itself takes place from July 7 to July 9 and it is based on seven various subjects (State University, China - Secondary education). According to John Richard Schrack, the author of the online contribution China’s

High Stakes Exam, the exam takes nine hours and is taken under high security. While entering the test hall, students are scanned to prevent them from using any electronic devices. The whole room is screened by cameras during the test-writing period (Schrack, China‟s High

Stakes Exam).

There is a declaration where students have to announce during the last year of senior high school which of the fields, either humanities or science regarding the choice of college or university, they are going to take the exam. Students oriented to the humanities stream are tested in history and political study, whereas the science students are examined in physics and chemistry. Above all, students are also obliged to take examinations in Chinese, mathematics and a foreign language. As the competitive environment between students is abnormally extreme only 25 percent of high school graduates are able to continue directly to higher education. Students whose score is not essential for admission at university and lack the financial support for private education begin to work without future education (State

University, China - Secondary education). In the opinion of John Richard Schrack, the students' life after failing the gao kao will be difficult and not only this failure affect them but also his or her family (Schrack, China‟s High Stakes Exam).

In relation to the online article China’s Education System, Chinese Students, and the

Foreign English Teacher, students are put under tremendous pressure because of the eagerness to succeed that is determined by being responsible for the whole family, teachers are directed to carefully observe for any sight of depression and withdrawn behavior among

33 the students. Failing the gao kao can have a fundamental impact. In China suicide is the major cause of death among young adults between 18 to 35. College/ university students represent the fastest growing segment of suicides. In 2008, 63 students ended their lives because of the pressure caused by academic studies, feelings of social isolation, “peer ridicule”, and also the fear of being unemployed in the future (MKL, China‟s Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English Teacher).

Unfortunately, there is another issue closely connected with the gigantic pressure and that is the addiction to technology; internet or gaming. Based on the article China’s Education

System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English Teacher the most affected social group are people aged from 13 to 30. The number of addicted is even higher among university students aged 18 to 23. Addiction is so intense that the ban on using Internet Cafes has been increased.

(China‟s Education System, Chinese Students, and the Foreign English Teacher).

4.2. American system of education

Formal education in the United States of America is obligatory from the age of 5/6 to

16, with slight variations in each state. The period of schooling begins in most cases with the elementary/primary schools. After primary school. middle/ junior high school ensue, followed by high school. The whole system finishes with colleges and universities (see Fig. 1). The academic year in most cases runs from September to June.

34

Fig. 1 The scheme of American education Source: Corsi-Bunker, Antonella. N.p.. Web. 20 Mar 2014. .

The system of education is in contrast to the Chinese one more variable and its structure depends on each state's policy. Antonella Corsi-Bunker, in his electronic piece Guide to the US Education System, claims that “every state has its own department of education and laws regulating finance, the hiring of school personnel, student attendance, and curriculum. …

Federal government contributes almost 10% to the national education budget, education is primarily the responsibility of state and local government” (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US

Education System).

Regarding the structure of American education, Corsi-Bunker states that formal schooling in America lasts for 12 years, till the age of 18. However, compulsory schooling is in most of the states completed by the age of 16. In the rest of the states students have the obligation to attend schools until they reach the age of 17 or 18. The opportunity of free 35 public schooling is provided in the United States. … The terms K-12 is regularly used with reference to all primary and secondary education, “from kindergarten prior to the first year of formal schooling, through secondary graduation” (Bunker, Guide to the US Education

System).

There are four kinds of educational pattern (primary school, middle school, high school) used in the USA:

1. Pattern 5+3+4

2. Pattern 6+3+3

3. Pattern 8+4

4. Pattern 6+6

4.2.1 Primary education

Primary schooling includes kindergartens, which children can start to attend at the age of three as well as elementary/primary schools. The age of entering the school vary, according to each state, from 5 to 7, most commonly the children start formal education at the age of six.

Based on the online article United States of America contributed by EuroEducation the term

“grades” is used in a reference to a school year. “The length of primary education varies from four to seven years, i.e. grades 1-4, 1-7, etc. Each state determines what grade range constitutes primary education, called „elementary education‟. According to its length, elementary education may be followed (or not) by a number of years of middle school education (generally three years)” (EuroEducation, United States of America). To Corni -

Bunker mind, the typical idea of the elementary schools is to provide students with the same classroom and the teaching by the same teacher within most of the day. The education at

36 elementary schools is in almost all of the cases “co-educational”, i.e. boys are mixed together with girls (Bunker, Guide to the US Education System).

4.2.1.1 Teaching Methods

Teaching methods in America are dissimilar to those in China. The main difference is the focus on the individuality of a student. Thomas J. Brown, the author of Ten

Commandments for Success in Teaching, presents Erickson‟s belief in the necessity of establishing trust and legitimacy between a teacher and pupils as a basic platform for effective education. „Assent to the exercise of authority involves trust that its exercise will be benign.

This involves a leap of faith - trust in the legitimacy of the authority and in the good in riots of those exercising it, trust that one‟s own identity will be maintained positively in relation to authority, and trust that one‟s own interests will be advanced by compliance with the exercise of authority…‟(15).

Tracy Kidder in his work Among School Children claims that “treating children equally often means treating them very differently. But it also means bringing the same moral force to bear on all of them…” (19). Children are very often divided into groups according to their abilities (28).There is also an attempt to explain the core of the issue for students to understand.

William Glasser, the author of Quality School: Managing Students without Coercion distinguishes between two kinds of teachers: The first one is an “effective lead-manager”.

This type of teacher does not use persuasion to complete a task. He or she provides the necessary information and the realisation of benefits for students as well as for the teacher depends only on the students themselves (41, 42). The aims of the “lead-manager” teacher is to get hard work out of the students but, nevertheless, he or she always bears in mind the needs of the students (52). He or she teaches in groups using cooperation, which can

37 consequently cause a noisy environment. On the other hand, the fact that students learn more by interaction was to be proved (53). The “lead-teachers” always try to get to know their students and find the most essential way of teaching. They also believe in the informative purpose of a grading system, i.e. to demonstrate a student‟s knowledge (53). The second type is a “boss teacher”. This kind of teacher is not as concerned with the students‟ needs as the

“lead-manager teacher”. He or she applies a system of rewards and punishments as the best tool of motivation. A teacher also bosses students to do their work (49). The boss teachers constantly overlook the students‟ needs and place the results of their hard work in the first place. They believe in them being the one providing students with sadness, pain, frustration on one hand and pleasure, happiness, and satisfaction on the other. As a result, they constantly make an effort to find new sanctions or rewards (43).

In the 1970s, a fundamental development in teaching procedures began and lead today‟s well-known policy: No Child Left Behind. According to the online article

Elementary and Secondary education Act, OSPI, ”The Elementary and Secondary

Educational Act was passed in 1965 as a part of the „war on Poverty‟. ESEA (The Elementary and Secondary Educational Act) emphasised equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The law authorizes federally funded education programs that are administered by the state. In 2002, congress amended ESEA and reauthorized it as the No

Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)” (OSPI, Elementary and Secondary education Act).

“The No Child Left Behind Act authorizes several federal education programs that are administered by the states. The law is a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act. Under the 2002 law, states are required to test students in reading and math in grades 3-8 and once in high school. All students are expected to meet or exceed state standards in reading and math by 2014.” (OSPI, No Child Left Behind Act).

38

With regard to the article online No Child Left Behind Act, the main goal of the No

Child Left Behind is to provide children with the same equal opportunity to acquire a high quality education. Four pillars, which are highlighted by the U.S. Department of Education

(OSPI, No Child Left Behind Act) :

Accountability: to ensure those students who are disadvantaged, achieve academic

proficiency.

Flexibility: Allows school districts flexibility in how they use federal education funds to

improve student achievement.

Research-based education: Emphasizes educational programs and practices that have

been proven effective through scientific research.

Parent options: Increases the choices available to the parents of students attending Title

I schools.

4.2.1.2 School regulations

As stated by Mareth Wilson in online contribution School Discipline Basics, all students must follow the rules and regulations prescribed by school officers and teachers

(Wilson, School Discipline Basics). Based on Rules and Regulations of Shepherd School, every students must be at school by 7.30 am latest. The students are required to obey the school call bell. Students also must attend at least one academic club or society. Positive as well as negative behaviour of students is recorded and available in a performance register

(Wilson, School Discipline Basics)

4.2.1.3 School curriculum

With regard to Antonella Corsi-Bunker‟s online Guide to the US Education System, students during their studies at either elementary or middle schools spent in the classroom

39 from 6.5 to 7 hours on average. Elementary schools provide the significant skills of writing, reading and mathematics. Furthermore, history and geography (as a part of social studies), music, crafts, science, art and physical education are taught. High schools used to be the first institutions offering the opportunity to learn a foreign language. Nowadays, in some states, courses for learning foreign languages are being offered during the last few years of elementary schools (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education System).

Students are also required to do homework, although home activities are becoming easier and rare. Regarding examinations, students are tested during the academic year as well as at the end.

4.2.2 Secondary education

Secondary education begins with students at the age of 12 and ends at the age of 18 followed by colleges or universities. Secondary education is in most cases divided into junior

(also called middle school for pupils aged 11 to 14) and senior high (pupils aged 15 to 18).

However, according to Antonella Corsi - Bunker, “in some districts, attending the combined junior and senior high schools or attend a middle school until 14 before transferring to a four- year-senior high school is possible” (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education System).

4.2.2.1 Teaching Methods

Teachers make an effort to create a positive environment for students to feel comfortable in. There is not such a strong leading persona of a teacher as in the Chinese educational system. Teachers treat students as unique individuals, who need a guide for self- development and gaining knowledge. The student-centred approach is clearly noticeable from teachers‟ procedures. Thomas Sowell, the author of Inside American Education, states: “… what we really learned from Moss Silver was that we were worth listening to, that we could

40 express ourselves and that an adult would listen, even if we were wrong. That‟s why Miss

Silver will always be our favourite teacher. She made us feel like we mattered, like we were important. … I want to be real in the class and be human being. … And I want my students to know that they can be themselves and I‟ll still listen to them. I want everyone of them to have a chance to express himself or herself those are my priorities” (5).

The role of teachers is besides other things to help with developing self-esteem and gaining self confidence, as an educated, self-confident, and unique individual is the best basic element for democracy. Thomas Sowell quotes a statement of Carl Rodgers “who spoke of

‟helping students to prize themselves, to build their confidence and self-esteem,‟ of ‟teachers who are real personas‟ and who „humanize their classroom‟” (6).

4.2.2.2 School regulations

There is not such a fundamental distinction between rules at primary and secondary education. The fact that there might be some differences in regulations between every state is important to mention. In general, in most schools a particular dress code is ratified, thus students are required to wear a particular sort of school uniform.

Based on the online article Rules and Regulations, rules that help students with good behaviour are perceived as something positive, which all of the students can benefit from and which also enable freedom. Students, faculty and parents participated in establishing the regulations in order to facilitate successful working relationship between students and their teachers as well as between students themselves. Attending school regularly is recommended for academic success. However in the cases of “personal or family illness, death in the family, religious observance, required court appearance and school approved supervised trips”. Those students who were absent required an absence note, which in the case of illness should be written by a doctor and a teacher is expected to sign the paper and provide the student with an

41 opportunity to work extra time. Students are also forbidden to carry any electrical devices.

(Cobble Hill School of America Studies, Rules and Regulations).

According to the online article School Rules and Regulations published on Westlake

Boys High School webpage, students‟ responsibility is to respect not only teachers but also their classmates regardless of ethnicity, religion or gender. Also any form of bullying is forbidden (School Rules and Regulations).

4.2.2.3 School curriculum

Subjects included in the curriculum of secondary education vary from each state and are more flexible in contrast to primary education. Students contemplating the possibility to go to the university or college are advised and guided to choose elective subjects/courses, which focus on the particular academic field. As Corsi-Bunker claims students planning to study at college or university select courses from the area of “science (biology, chemistry, physics) or mathematics (algebra, geometry, physics), advanced English literature, composition, social sciences and foreign language” (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education

System).

Besides the elective courses there are certain subjects, which are most like to be required among the majority of secondary schools across the country. These subjects include, as Corsi-Bunker states, “English, mathematics, general science, health, physical education and social studies or social sciences (which may include American history and government, geography, world history and social problems)” (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education

System).

Based on US School System, an article published on web portal of The Fulbright

Commission, obligatory subjects are likely to be set by the state, however students will still be

42 provided with the opportunity to decide which level of classes they want to enrol in (US

School System).

Students are given grades during their studies for all courses they attended. Those grades are recorded and at the end of the 12th grade they are averaged out to provide the information known as “GPA or Grade Point Average” which is in most of the cases included in the criteria college or universities base entry on (Corsi-Bunker). According to the online article Structure of the U.S. Education System: U.S. Grading Systems provided by U.S.

Department of education, a variation of grading systems is used in American education.

Hence the authority of a school institution makes the choice on what system of grading to use

(U.S. Department of education, Structure of the U.S. Education System: U.S. Grading

Systems).

NORM-REFERENCED GRADING SYSTEMS

Norm-referenced grading systems are based on a pre-established formula regarding the

percentage or ratio of students within a whole class who will be assigned each grade or

mark. The students, while they may work individually, are actually in competition to

achieve a standard of performance that will classify them into the desired grade range. For

example, a faculty may establish a grading policy whereby the top 10 percent of students

will receive a mark of excellent or outstanding, which in a class of 100 enrolled students

will be 10 persons. A norm-referenced grading system might look like:

A (Excellent) = Top 10 % of Class

B (Good) = Next 20 % of Class

C (Average, Fair) = Next 30 % of Class

D (Poor, Pass) = Next 20 % of Class

F (Failure) = Bottom 20 % of Class

43

CRITERION-REFERENCED GRADING SYSTEMS

Criterion-referenced grading systems are based on a fixed numeric scale, usually equated to a letter mark, from which the faculty assign grades based on the individual performance of each student. The scale does not change regardless of the quality, or lack thereof, of the students. For example, in a class of 100 students there might be no one or any number of students who score high enough to achieve a grade of excellent, or who fail. Criterion- referenced systems might look like:

A (Excellent) = 95-100 or 90-100

B (Good) = 85-95 or 80-90

C (Fair) = 75-85 or 70-80

D (Poor) = 65-75 or 60-70

F (Failure) = -65 or -60

ALTERNATIVE GRADING SYSTEMS

Pass-Fail Systems. Some U.S. faculties, schools, and institutions use pass-fail grading systems, especially when the student work to be evaluated is highly subjective (as in the fine arts and music), there are no generally accepted standard gradations (as with independent studies), or the critical requirement is meeting a single satisfactory standard (as in some professional examinations and practica).

Non-Graded Evaluations. A number of U.S. faculties, schools, and institutions do not assign numeric or letter grades as a matter of policy. This practice is usually based on a belief that grades introduce an inappropriate and distracting element of competition into the learning process, or that they are not as meaningful as measures of intellectual growth and development as are carefully crafted faculty evaluations. Many facults, schools, and institutions that follow a no-grade policy will, if requested, produce grades or convert their student evaluations into formulae acceptable to authorities who require traditional measures of performance (U.S. Department of education, Structure of the U.S. Education System: U.S. Grading Systems).

Regarding test and exams students are evaluated continuously thought the academic year “via a combination of tests, homework assignments, classroom participation, group work, projects and attendance” (Fulbright, US School System)

As Corsi-Bunker argue “students in 12th grade take „SAT‟, scholastic Aptitude Test, or

„ACT‟ American College Tests” (Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education System in the

United States).

44

For ACT apply students in years 11 or 12 to prove their ability to continue in post- secondary studying. The tests are based on evaluation of reading, mathematics, English language and science skills and optional writing sample (U.S. Department of education,

Structure of the U.S. Education System: U.S. Grading Systems). According to Corsi-Bunker,

ACT in based on multiple-choice section and writing test, which is optional (Corsi-Bunker,

Guide to the US Education System in the United States).

SAT is also taken by students in years 11 or 12 and its function is similar to ACT. The

SAT test I based on two parts. The first part includes “the SAT Reasoning Test measuring reading writing and quantitative skills; and the SAT Subject Tests measuring knowledge and reasoning ability in various subjects” (U.S. Department of education, Structure of the U.S.

Education System: U.S. Grading Systems). The test takes three hours and forty-five minutes

(Corsi-Bunker, Guide to the US Education System in the United States).

4.3. Summary of Chinese and American system of Education

Comparing Chinese and American education, a few significant differences are worth mentioning. Firstly, the purpose of education plays a different role in students‟ lives in each of the countries. For Chinese students, the possibility to gain and be able to afford a quality education represents a unique opportunity achieve a dream future, help his or her family and in general to build a better live. Education in China can be said that it includes a higher meaning for Chinese students. It does not only carry the required obligation to learn how to behave, to educate and to self-develop but there is the responsibility for other members of family, who are dependent on the student - in most cases the only child and only hope. On the contrary to American education, where the importance of education is found more in creating a strong democratic system based on equal opportunities regardless of gender, nationality and 45 age. In America, students normally do not have responsibility for a better future for their families as in China. The families provide a suitable environment for children‟s education and when they reach graduation age most of them feel independent enough to start living on their own and taking care of themselves. There is no such a threat for them that without essential education they will not find a job and as mentioned above the families are not as closely tied as the Chinese ones.

Secondly, the system of education differs with connection to the previous fact. The

Chinese education system is based on rigid and firm form from elementary schools onward.

All students are required to take the same subjects and spend a high number of hours studying and pre-reviewing for their next lessons. School activity are commonly enhanced with spare time activities such as sport, art or music, with playing piano or violin being the two most popular. Those activities should balance the pressure caused by school, however parents place a great deal of importance on them as well. As a result primary and secondary students have only a small period of time to spend with their friends and their choice of school subjects and hobbies is limited by the decision of their parents.

On the contrary, the American educational system can be said to be more relaxed and flexible and there is no rigid format or curriculum form for subjects to take. This enables students to have the privilege to choose which subject or school activities they want to participate in. They are not forced to face such a pressure and can experience an ordinary childhood growing up in the company of their friends.

Regarding the exams, Zhang L., et al. claim in the article The Comparison Study of

Chinese and American Secondary School Students’ Knowledge Structure - an Experimental

Research Based on Concept Map Assessment Technique as Chinese students take exams and tests much more often than American students, their attempts at the tasks is more serious,

46 strong and the students produce higher scores. In the USA, the frequency of testing is not as high as in China. As a result, students take fewer tests and the results are lower than the

Chinese ones. However, Chinese students lack the general knowledge and the creativity as the main study approach is based on memorization. On the other hand Chinese students are better in “mastering discipline knowledge and knowledge application” (Zhang L., et al.

296,286).

Also there is higher competition between Chinese students, which enhances the determination for being the best and earning a place at the best universities. This eagerness comes also from the fact that almost a quarter of the students applying for post-secondary studies is not accepted. In America, there is not such a high distinction between students applying for places at universities and the number of students who are accepted. Even if a student is not as successful in his or her studies, there is still a possibility of admission to college or of taking some additional courses. Consequently, students are not under such depression and stress.

The last but definitely not least point of the comparison is based on the teaching methods, procedures and approaches, which are applied in both countries. Besides other fields, in Chinese teaching methodology the Confucianism is strongly obvious. The position of a teacher is highly respected and cannot be doubted in any matters. Teachers are those who transform the knowledge and educate. There is mostly no interaction between students and the teacher. Students are required to record all the information a teacher mentions and learn everything, including book content by heart, i.e. the teacher-centered approach is the basic pillar for Chinese education. The results of memorizing are that Chinese students have the theoretical knowledge or reach high scores in tests. On the other hand, it is very difficult for them to apply the gained knowledge in practical situations.

47

American teaching methods are more widely open and free. Students experience working in a group, they have the chance to ask the teacher, discuss with the class and express their opinion. The teachers give the impression that the personality of a student matters and it is important to develop every one of them. In American education the individual student is the center of education, i.e. the student-centered approach is relevant for most of the schools and universities.

5. Conclusion

Having finished the comparison of discipline and competition among Chinese students, it seems to be a powerful engine that drives the growth of the economy. The rigid standards in behaviour and school curriculum provide an excellent platform for the development of that power. Also the factor of hard-working people, who are willing to sacrifice everything they have just for sake of their families. The weight of this responsibility on the shoulders of young children can result, in some cases, in depression and even death, and is the price China pays.

In contrast, America with its not such established traditions offers more relaxed and equal opportunities for everyone. Even though the school curriculum is based on individual requirements of every state, it is based on the same goal, namely to create a strong democratic system.

Regarding the option of more suitable teaching methods, neither of the systems can be considered to be ideal. The Chinese as well as American system of education includes pros and cons, even though the Chinese system could give the impression of a more essential system because of the quick economical development.

48

Discipline and obedience are the important components that are not incorporated in

American schooling the way they should be. Consequently, American students do not achieve as high scores as Chinese students. On the other hand, the student-centred teaching approach enables American students to expand their personal development and produces more creativity and practical usage in contrast to Chinese students, who are lacking the ability of creativeness.

By putting the discipline and student approaches together, some essential methodological methods could be established to help the state situation to change and develop.

49

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