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“Amphibian Biodiversity in Taita Hills, Kenya” “AMPHIBIAN BIODIVERSITY IN TAITA HILLS, KENYA” Dissertation Zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Naturwissenschaften Am Fachbereich Biologie Der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Kinyatta P. W. Malonza geboren am 1 April 1971 in Kitui, Kenia Mainz im December 19, 2008 ii CONTENTS 1 GENERAL SUMMARY......................................................................................................... 1 2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3 2.1 Declining amphibian populations .................................................................................... 6 2.2 Habitat alteration and biodiversity loss............................................................................ 6 2.3 Effects of anthropogenic habitat disturbance on amphibians ......................................... 7 2.4 Thesis aims and structure ................................................................................................. 8 3 IS THE LOW AMPHIBIAN BIODIVERSITY IN THE EASTERN ARC MOUNTAINS DUE TO FOREST LOSS?............................................................................................................ 10 3.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 10 3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................... 13 3.2.1 Study area: Taita Hills, Eastern Arc Mountains ..................................................... 13 3.2.2 Species data............................................................................................................. 15 3.2.3 Forest area and rainfall............................................................................................ 17 3.2.4 Species richness ranking......................................................................................... 17 3.2.5 Amphibian species richness and similarity estimates............................................. 17 3.2.6 Test and analysis methods ..................................................................................... 18 iii 3.3 RESULTS....................................................................................................................... 18 3.3.1 Species richness response to forest area, rainfall, elevation and distant from Indian Ocean 18 3.3.2 Amphibian species richness ranking....................................................................... 19 3.3.3 Matrix comparison and amphibian community predictability................................ 24 3.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................ 27 3.4.1 The role of rainfall and forest area on amphibian species richness ........................ 28 3.4.2 Amphibian species richness ranking....................................................................... 29 3.4.3 Amphibian community predictability and the uniqueness of Taita Hills ............... 30 3.4.4 Conclusions............................................................................................................. 32 3.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 33 4 AMPHIBIAN SPECIES DIVERSITY ALONG ELEVATIONAL AND HABITAT DISTURBANCE GRADIENTS................................................................................................... 34 4.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 34 4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................... 37 4.2.1 Study area................................................................................................................ 37 4.2.2 Site description....................................................................................................... 41 4.2.3 Site selection ........................................................................................................... 41 iv 4.2.4 Sampling methods................................................................................................... 42 4.2.5 Transect design and sampling................................................................................. 42 4.2.6 Trapping with pitfall traps along drift fences ......................................................... 42 4.2.7 Timed limited searches (TLS) ................................................................................ 42 4.2.8 Taxonomy of the specimens ................................................................................... 43 4.2.9 Species richness and amphibian similarity estimates ............................................. 43 4.2.10 Environmental variables ......................................................................................... 43 4.2.11 Statistical methods and analysis.............................................................................. 44 4.3 RESULTS....................................................................................................................... 46 4.3.2 Species response to abiotic parameters, disturbance level and amphibian community predictability....................................................................................................... 50 4.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................ 57 4.4.1 Response of species to habitat disturbance, elevation, rainfall and temperature.... 57 4.4.2 Matrix comparison and amphibian community predictability................................ 58 4.4.3 Implications for conservation management............................................................ 61 4.4.4 Conclusions............................................................................................................. 62 4.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 63 5 TAITA HILLS’ AMPHIBIAN SPECIES ACCOUNT......................................................... 64 v 5.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 64 5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................... 65 5.3 SPECIES ACCOUNT.................................................................................................... 66 5.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................ 95 5.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 97 6 LIFE HISTORY OF A BREVICIPITID FROG, CALLULINA SP.: (AMPHIBIA, ANURA, BREVICIPITIDAE)...................................................................................................................... 98 6.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 98 6.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................. 100 6.2.1 Taxonomy ............................................................................................................. 100 6.2.2 Study area.............................................................................................................. 100 6.2.2 Methods................................................................................................................. 101 6.3 RESULTS..................................................................................................................... 101 6.3.1 Species diagnosis .................................................................................................. 101 6.3.2 Population and habitat characteristics................................................................... 102 6.3.3 Distribution and forest size ................................................................................... 102 6.3.4 Influence of rainfall, temperature and altitude...................................................... 103 6.3.3 Breeding and other behavioural characteristics .................................................... 106 vi 6.4 DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................. 106 6.4.1 Conservation and management strategy ............................................................... 108 6.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 109 7 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................... 109 7.1 Conservation and management implications................................................................ 111 8 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 112 9 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................... 133 10 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... 165 vii 1 GENERAL SUMMARY Species richness varies greatly across geographical regions along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients. Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) of Kenya and Tanzania is one of the global biodiversity hotspots due to
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