THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF HENRY SCHAEFER-SIMMERN' S THEORY AND RESEARCH LEADIN G TOWARD AN INTEGRAL THEORY OF ART EDUCATION Roy E. Abrahamson

Henry Schaefer-Simmern was fully aware of the sociological implications of his work. His theory of visual, artistic conceiving stated that people possess an inherent abi l ity to transform their perceptions into holistic (gestalt) formations expressed as works of art . They have this ability in varying degrees regardless of differences of sex, race, chronological age (above the motor scribble age), lQ (above 47) , socia-economic status, creed, and geograph­ ic location. He believed that society shou l d encourage the development and expression of this ability and that those of its members who are artistically active (whether children, adolescents, or adults) can uplift and transform society for the better. He saw the dehumanizing affects of industriali zation. He deplored the visual pollution which appears in portions of cities and towns in the U.S . A. Yet he noted the efforts made to bring visual art into communi ­ ties by such means as the WPA Art Proj ect, and efforts of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Extension Service. He guided students to be aware not only of the gestalt art forming ability within them, but also of the arts of societies past and present. Schaefer- Simmern ' s art education includes the handicapped and non-handi ­ capped in the schools, and also peop l e throughout the community. He reconciled opposites in art education: creative self- expression and cognitive-systems (neo-academic) while going beyond them to point a way toward an integral art education for soci ety an d for each individual member of that society. Henry Schaefer-Simmern, the cents (1966 , pp. 47-68 ) , and his noted late art educator and research­ Institute of Art Education in Berke ­ er, believed in the existence of an ley, California, also provided inherent artistic ability in wh i ch classes for art teachers, artists , people's perceptions of their visible and layman adults. His ideas and environment are transformed into accomplishments had appeal for peop le gestalt formations and expressed as of va rying personalities, psycho logi ­ works of art, no matter how simp l e or cal conditions, physiological sys­ camp 1ex those works may be. He tems, and sociological backgrounds hypothesized that most peop l e possess and attitudes. this i nherent ability regardless of John Dewey (1948) wrote in hi s race, sex, chronological age, IQ forward to Schaefer-Simmern's book (above 47), creed, socio-economic (1948) : status, geographic location, or time. Escape from the one -sidedness Schaefer-Simmern addressed which attends many philosophies people of all walks of life and his of sense, of reason, of bodily or art education extended beyond the physical action, of emotion, and traditional classroom. As discussed of doing and making, distinguish­ in his book, The Unfolding of Artis­ es the wor k reported upon the t ic Ac t ivity (1948), he worked with following pages. In their place the handicapped , the incarcerated, t here is constant observation of refugees, unemployed workers, and the wholeness of life and person­ professional people . Also, he workel! ali ty in which activity becomes extensively with children and adoles- artistic (p.x).

55 Gestalt works cannot be subsumed within an Format;on extreme, polar position. Schaefer-Simmern ' s approach to art To Schaefer- Simmern, a "gestalt educati on was not an atomistic one formation" (a concept taken from co ncerned with isol ated parts or gestalt psychology), is a ho l istic meanings . He was aware of the structure in art, i n which each part potential role of art i n society, and ;s interfunctional ly rel ated to every he referred in admiring terms to the other part and to the who l e. His WPA Art Project, art interests within research indicated that even young the Young Men ' s and Young Women's children, beyond the disorganized Chri sti an Associ ati ons, the art scribble stage, express simple classes of the International Ladies gestalt formations (also called by Garment Workers' Union, a New Yor k him "artistic forms"), which deve l op Physicians' Art Club, an American in increasing complexity with age and Physici ans' Art Club in San Francis­ continued artistic activity. The co, and various business people's art formations evolve according to clubs . He al so commended the art definite stages of unfolding. encouraged in rural America by the Referring to the gestalt formations Extension Service of the United in young chi l dren ' s art, Schaefer­ States Department of Agricul ture. He Simmern wrote i n his book, The was interested in such efforts for he Unfoldi ng of Artistic activity (1948, believed that they were essenti al to p.9), "Th i s unified structure , simp l e offset the dehumanization caused by though it is, ma y be recogn i zed as industrialization. He wrote about the -seed' of the artistic [gestal t] industrial ization of the 1800's and form." later, and of the unemployment of the Si nce the ability to transform 1920's and earl y 1930's: "Never did perceptions into gestalt formations the need for defending human worth is inherent, Schaefer-Simmern be­ seem so imperati ve as in those days lieved that the role of the art of indignity and degradationll (1948, teacher is not to impose rules and p. 4 ) . methods of achieving gestal t forma­ Schaefer- Simmern's approach was tions upon student, but rather to a gestal t approach to human nature, lead them to discover their own art, and society . Contrary to gestalt formations. Through teacher cri ticism (Wi l son, 1985, pp. 90-91) guided self- eval uations of their art classifying him as a romantic, a products, the students gradually are developmentalist, and a universalist, able to express and el aborate former ­ Schaefer- Simmern was beyond these ly suppressed gestalt formations. classifications insofar as the last Young children, however, do not have two imp ly an exclusive concern for a prob l em of uncovering suppressed i nborn traits or predetermined formations as these formations have natura 1 1aws . For he be i i eved that not as yet been blocked by teachers social and cu l tural influences and and parents who do not understand the va l ues as we ll as inherent gestalt artistic process in general, l et forming abil i ties influenced the alone the process of visual , gestalt quality of the artistic structure of form consciousness as defined by works of art. However, the inherent Schaefer- Simmern. gestalt forming ability in individu­ Schaefer - S;mmern's als was seen as of fundamental Soc ; olog;cal importance for the achievement of Concer n s artworks of high quality . He was a The psychologist , Howard Gard deve l opmenta l ist, a universal ist, ~ ~ ~ ner, in his book, Artfu l Scribbl es: a believer i n social va l ues and the Significance of Chi ldren' s cultural influences . His ideas and Drawings, (1980) made some wrong assumptions that Schaefer-Simmern had the other extreme position of social ignored cultural influences upon influences upon artistic education historical art. In regard to Schaef­ and production as the "philosophy of er- Simmern's hypothesis that artis­ Walter Smith," with its stress upon tic, gestal t forms exist in -histori c accuracy of representation and cop y and prehistoric ar t, Gardner wrote work . The creative sel f - expression that Schaefer-Simmern did not state view of the Progressive Education that all art of the past contains Movement fits the Rouseauian, devel­ gestalt, artistic forms. Because he opmental, and universal ist philosoph­ chose only selected examples as ic position attacked by Wilson verification does not belie his (1985). However, Anderson, unl ike point . Nor did Schaefer-Simmern deny Wilson, sought to reconcile these two social and cultural influences on extreme positions. Sti l l , in advoca­ gestal t forms. He stated in unmis­ ting a third position called a takabl e terms, socially defined approach, Anderson The unfolding of artistic activi ­ thought that accuracy of representa­ ty cannot be separated from the tion and copy work (stressed by nature of Man; it must grow out Smith) is acceptable because these of him as a unified process. The activities help students to l earn of essence of his bei ng shou 1d their heritage (inheri tance ) and he l p determine its course. Only then them gain skills to be used in wi 11 i t become a force in the creative self- expression. upbuilding of a world that is It is an interesting attempt at adequate to his nature" (1948, reconciliation and Anderson should be p.7) . given credit for it. However , from The "nature of man" meant to Schae­ Schaefer- Simmern's standpoint, there ferSimmern an artistically endowed is a flaw in such justification of human being whose nature includes his concern for accurate real ism and the fellow beings in a society and practice of copying the art of culture. However, as the above others. quotation indicates, the essence qf a Schaefer- Simmern pointed out not human being, that is, his or her only in his book (1948), but in hi s innermost aspect of personality, can teachings and l ectures that reproduc­ and shou l d exert itself through tive memory work and copying are creative, artistic activity to change conceptual thinking exercises that do society (the world) for the better. not develop the inherently endowed Therefore, more than the matter of a gestalt forming art ability which he balance of the artist's personal side believed is so important to develop. and social influences upon that side One achieves a gestalt art form i ng is involved. It is rather a matter abil i ty not by reading books on how of the individual and groups of to compose pictures; not by being individual s transforming the society taught rules, formulas , or methods i n in which they live. schools; and not by copying art or Tom Anderson, (1985) in his reproducing live models, still lifes, article, "Toward a Socially Defined or other objects from single limited Studio Curricu l um," nicely presented viewpoints. Instead, one needs to be the two extreme philosophical posi­ attuned (or reattuned ) to one's own tions in his expl ication of a social ­ inborn sense for ho l istic (gestal t ) ly - defi ned curriculum (pp. 16-18 ) . relationships with i n visual, artisti c· The indi vidual creative position in form of the basic art elements and art education is represented in subject contents (1948, pp. 197-199). Anderson's article by the creative Surely, the student learns of othe~ self-expression of the Progressi ve people's art ideas and styles, the i r Education Movement. He referred to materials and processes, by copy i ng

57 their art. We human beings learn imposed on them by their teachers? from each other and imitation is part What is the val ue of accepting such a of the general learning process. limited philosophy of art and society However, if such copying from society which stresses dependence on external is done to the detriment of the order instead of on one ' s own mean ­ individual's own ideas and style, his ingful sense for visual unity of or her own sense for gestalt, unified artistic form? Are there other art form relationships, and his or social values that far outweigh her expression of personal artistic ei ther Wi 1son 's, Gardner 's, or understanding, then such a teaching Smith's values? I would say that a practice becomes highly questionable. meaningful socially defined curricu­ Young children are attuned to lum involving studio experiences their inherent gestal t art forming would reconcile and transcend the abilities on a simple level, but opposite approaches of individual often lose touch with these abilities creative self-expression and social because either no art education is conditioning by achieving an innova­ given in the schools, or the ap­ tive rather than an eclectic third proaches to teaching art do not take way . That is, thesis and antithesis such artistic forming abilities into would be reconciled and transcended account. Yet, consciousness for to achieve a synthesis or integral artistic form can be regained if philosophy and approach. teachers know how to guide their Certainly there is a transaction students back to a sense of attune­ that takes place between the individ­ ment wi th themselves .<1> Fr om ual and his or her culture. The Schaefer-Simmern's position, it is artistic person creates according to not enough to accept Walter Smith's a consciousness for artistic form and viewpoint as presented by Anderson may, at the same time, respond to a (1985) and to try to wed it with prevailing artistic style within the creative self-expression. culture. Yet, the gestalt form A far better melding would instinct or ability ; s paramount in result if the socially imposed art each artistically active person, no lessons to be joined to the creative matter how highly controlled or self-expressions of a student were uniform the societal style. S/he may designed according to h;s or her absorb that style and "fuse" or stage of art deve l opment and level of integrate it with his/her own styl e visual understanding. A still better' and stage of artistic conceiving . joining or synthesis would take place Individuals are influenced in a i f the socialized art teachings were variety of ways, and in relation to designed and introduced according to artistic activities, the varyi ng each student's own stage of gestalt degrees range from complete interfer­ artist;c form conceptions, artistic ence with creative art formations to cognitions, and perceptual awareness. compl ete encouragement of same. These shou l d not be confused with Schaefer-Simmern tried to offset abstract, conceptual cognition. those social influences that blocked Nei ther the conceptual, academi c the expression of students I artistic, approach nor the creative self-ex­ gestalt conceptions. He influenced pression approach include, according his students through an indirect to my knowledge, recognition of an questioning strategy. In this way, inherent artistic gestalt forming he helped them to become attuned to ability in human beings. What good their own inherent endowed artistic is it to follow an old academic forming abilities. Schaefer-S immern approach and cause students to become provided an example for bringing confused by styles and forms foreign about the delicate balance between to their conceptions of the world and individual artistic form conscious-

58 ness and so cial or cul tural condi ­ i t has a branch growing out of its t ioning. He did no t advocate l etting head! " Sure enough , there was an students do as they pl ease wi th area where t he ancient artist had not creative self-expressions. Rather he solved the overlapping of a bird over subscribed to the notion of meaning ­ the end of a branch . Th erefore, the ful social influences being used and end of the branch wa s isol ated from transformed by people who are artis­ the rest of the branch and it created tically active. Th e concepts devel­ an illusion of coming ou t of the top oped by art students wi l l then be of the bi rd's head! Her e was a nine fused with their consciousness for year old boy in Berkeley. California, artistic f orm. It shou ld be evident criticizing, with justification, one that in no way is there any benign portion of a tomb painti ng from neglect for soci ety advocated here . anc i en t Egypt. How many children are A K;nsh;p Approach so guided to develop their gestalt to Our art forming ab ilities enough to see Art Her;tage such things i n the art of the past? As students in Sc haefer-S im ­ Not many, I fear. Un t il art teachers mern's art cl asses attained new are prepared to look at art works l eve ls of artistic form real ization, carefully and to make gestalt judg­ he wou l d show them reproductions of ments, we cannot expec t their stu­ art works from the history of art dents to be gu ided to do so. which were s imil ar to their own in Through the teaching procedure the organ ization of lines, shapes, just described, Schaefer-Simmern spaces, and so on. Thus, new disco v­ insti l l ed in his s tudents a deep eries of f orm were reinforced. visual comprehension of certain art Students could relate to the art works from societies of the past and works shown to them individually and also from modern soci eties. He they gained deeper understanding and showed art works from many periods ap preciation of those works. Thus, and places . Readers are referred to they gained in two ways: (1) rein­ the case of Miss E_ in Schaefer­ fo r cement in their own forming Simme rn 's book, The Unfoldino of processes, and (2) understandi ng of Artistic Activi t y, (1948) . She the larger artistic heritage. I discovered form solutions similar to rel ate t o this exp eri ence personal ly. her own in certain paintings from the While studying at Schae fer- Simmern's Italian Ren aissance. As was the case Institute of Art Edu cation in Berke­ with students in al l of Sch aefer ­ ley, Cali fornia, I began to paint Simmern's classes, such historical large ou tl i ned human figures filled wo r ks of art were seen after f orm in with flat colors. When I was discoveries were made in students' shown reprodu ct ion s of Romanesque art and not seen before hand and pa i nt i ngs of human fl gures , I was imitated. stunned . The forms were qui te SOCIETY AND simi l ar. I gained con fi dence in my AN INTEGRAL ART new art and an appreciation and EDUCATION respect for Romanesqu e art. Henry Schaefer-Si mmer n appreci­ Later, 1 saw a nine yea r ol d bo y ated the efforts within the United in Schaefer-Simmern's children ' s States t o foster interest in creative class draw a fi ne bird. Schaefer­ visual art. The Nazis in his home ­ Simmern showed him a slide reproduc­ land encouraged a kind of German tion of an ancient Egyptian tomb romantic realism that glorified the fresco f rom 2500 BC with birds in an so-called "Aryan Rac e ." Thus, he acacia tree. The boy liked it very could see clear ly and appreciate mUCh, but then he criti ci zed part of efforts toward a freer artistic it by saying, "Tha t bird looks li ke expression here. Ne verthel ess, he

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was disturbed by the di sharmony or discl oses character or lack of l ack of unified form of the typical character - to others. In itsel f, it Main Street, USA, with buildings of is only a spewing forth.1I (p.62). vastly different sizes and styles set However, there are certain kinds of side by side, advertising signs of self-expressi ons that would fit many colors plastered here and there Dewey's definition of experience as a along the business streets, weeds and unity or gestalt formation, (1958, trash in public places, and slum p.37). Yet, we need not be so housing and junk piles in poorer impressed by all statements that are sections of towns and cities. He cal l ed creative self-expressions for abhorred such visual pollution, but they can be very shal low and a mere he was appreciative of wel l designed "spewing forth" as is stated in the shopping centers, parks, apartment quotation above. complexes, and civic centers. When The opposites of creative he saw a well designed area, he would self-expression, on the one hand, and exclaim, "That makes sense!*' academic art instruction with its Society ;s a highly complex prescribed formu las and co ncepts, on organization in the United States, the other hand, do not offer students with many l ayers and facets to it. much because both ph il osophies and As visi ts to schoo l s and communities teaching approaches fail to include across the nation reveal, the art awareness of the inherent gestal t art that is displayed shows everything forming ab ility identifi ed by Gustaf from the tracing of adult prescribed Britsch, (4th ed., 1966), Egon images and copies of comic strip Kornmann (1962), and Henry Schaefer­ characters to creative self-expres­ Simmern (1948) and its stages of sions . We can see detailed realistic unfolding and development in people. works with or without organi zati on. Reconc;l; at;o n We can see works made with obvious and Go;ng Beyond ski ll . However, I have seen few art Opposites works of junior high and senior high Art does not merely reflect students that show artistic gestalt society. It has the potential to formations. Young chi l dren's art transform and up lift society. The works do show simple levels of dichotomy between creative self-ex­ gestalt form, and some older ·chil ­ pression in art and social ly defined dren's art contains it. and imposed teaching about arts Expressing oneself without some cognitive as well as studio modes can centering gestalt is emission and not be resolved and transcended . An expression in the best sense of the integral art education with a philos­ term. I recall a painti ng instructor ophy that contains these seemingly at a midwest university who tol d opposite views and yet goes beyond Schaefer- Simmern and others at a their limitations can be achieve d.<2> faculty party, "We live in a chaotic Anderson (1985) caught a gli mpse of age, and therefore, we must paint such an art education. Henry Schae­ chaotically." To that, Schaefer­ fer-Simmern gave us the ground work Simmern repl ied, "That is as absurd for it. An integral art education as saying, ~My house is on fire! wou l d take creative self-expression Quickly, let us put more fire on higher to a level of creative self­ it! '" Creative self-expression may disciplined expression governed by be organized or it may be chaotic or one's own inherent gestalt art degrees in between. Dewey wrote in forming abi lity which the research of his book, Art as Exoerience , (1958). Britsch, Kornmann, and Schaefer­ "What is sometimes called an act of Simmern made known. Art instruction se lf-exp ression might better be in society wou ld go beyond the termed one of sel f - exposure; it revival of ol d academic, conceptual

60 practices of single viewpoint seeing, task which faces all of us, the reproducing images, and copying old resurrection of a humanized world and new masters' works and styles to (1948, p.201). concept development based on each An integral art education cannot student's own visual conceptions and ignore either the individual stu­ stage of gestalt form development. dent's creative, gestalt f orming At the end of his book, The abil ity, or the society in which s/he Unfolding of Artistic Activi~ lives. The student ne eds to be met Schaefer-Simmern wrote: on his or her l evel, but shou l d be Art education that recognizes chall enged to go beyond that level in artistic act ivity as a general artistic cognition and in conceptual , attribute of human nature and abstract cognition. Society initial ­ that aims at the un folding and ly should be accepted for what it is, development of man's latent yet seen as a complex organization in creative abilities will then need of betterment. One instrument contribute its share to the great for this betterment may be art. References Abrahamson, R. (1980). The teaching approach of Henry Schaefer-Simmern. Studies in Art Education. 22 (I), pp. 42-50. Anderson , T, (1985) . Toward a socially defined studio curriculum. Art Education. 38 (5), September, pp. 16-18. Britsch , G. (1966). Theorie der bildenden kunst (4th ed.). Ratingen, West Germany: A. Henn Ver l ag. Dewey, J. (1958). Art as experience . New York: Cap ricorn Books, G,P, Putnam's Sons. Dewey. J. (1958). Foreword, in Schaefer- Simmern , H'. The unfo l ding of artistic activi ty. Berke l ey. California: The University of California Press, pp. ix- x. Gardner , H. (1980). Artful scribbles: The significance of chi ldren's drawings. New York: Basic Books. Kornmann, E. (1962) . Grundprinzipien bilderischer gestal tung . Ratingen bei Dusseldorf, West Germany: A. Henn Verlag. Schaefer-Simmern, H. (1948). The unfoldina of artistic activi ty. Berkeley, Californi a: The University of California Press. Schaefer-Simmern, H. (1966 ) . The mental foundation of art education in childhood. Child art : The beginnings of self- affirmation. Berkeley, California : The Diablo Press , pp.47 68. Wi lson, B. (1985). The artistic Tower of Babe l : Inextricable l i nks between cu l ture and graphic de velopment. Visual Arts Research. Spring, 11 (1), pp. 90-104. Footnotes 1 "Consc i ousness for artistic form"; awareness and understanding of organized artistic, created structures of basic art elements and subject contents ; n art works. 2 "Integral ": a synthesis containing opposite vi ewpoi nts and yet transcending the ir l imitat ions, while at the same time having a unique and dynamic standpoint. Roy E. Abrahamson is Head of Art Education and Art History, School of Art, Southern Il l inois University, Carbondale, I l l;nois.

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