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The Basic Physics of the Binary Black Hole Merger GW150914 Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 529, No. 1–2, 1600209 (2017) / DOI 10.1002/andp.201600209 Original Paper The basic physics of the binary black hole merger GW150914 LIGO Scientific and VIRGO Collaborations∗,∗∗ Received 5 August 2016, revised 21 September 2016, accepted 22 September 2016 Published online 4 October 2016 radiation can escape. There is a natural “gravitational ra- The first direct gravitational-wave detection was made by dius” associated with a mass m, called the Schwarzschild the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Ob- radius, given by servatory on September 14, 2015. The GW150914 signal was 2Gm m strong enough to be apparent, without using any wave- rSchwarz(m) = = 2.95 km, (1) c2 M form model, in the filtered detector strain data. Here, fea- tures of the signal visible in the data are analyzed using where M = 1.99 × 1030kg is the mass of the Sun, G = concepts from Newtonian physics and general relativity, ac- 6.67 × 10−11 m3/s2kg is Newton’s gravitational constant, cessible to anyone with a general physics background. The and c = 2.998 × 108 m/s is the speed of light. According simple analysis presented here is consistent with the fully to the hoop conjecture, if a non-spinning mass is com- general-relativistic analyses published elsewhere, in show- pressed to within that radius, then it must form a black hole [8]. Once the black hole is formed, any object that ing that the signal was produced by the inspiral and subse- comes within this radius can no longer escape out of it. quent merger of two black holes. The black holes were each Here, the result that GW150914 was emitted by the in- of approximately 35 M , still orbited each other as close as spiral and merger of two black holes follows from (1) the ∼350 km apart and subsequently merged to form a single strain data visible at the instrument output, (2) dimen- black hole. Similar reasoning, directly from the data, is used sional and scaling arguments, (3) primarily Newtonian to roughly estimate how far these black holes were from orbital dynamics and (4) the Einstein quadrupole for- the Earth, and the energy that they radiated in gravitational mula for the luminosity of a gravitational wave source.1 waves. These calculations are straightforward enough that they can be readily verified with pencil and paper in a short time. Our presentation is by design approximate, empha- sizing simple arguments. 1 Introduction Specifically, while the orbital motion of two bodies is approximated by Newtonian dynamics and Kepler’s Advanced LIGO made the first observation of a gravi- laws to high precision at sufficiently large separations tational wave (GW) signal, GW150914 [1], on Septem- and sufficiently low velocities, we will invoke Newtonian ber 14th, 2015, a successful confirmation of a prediction dynamics to describe the motion even toward the end by Einstein’s theory of general relativity (GR). The sig- point of orbital motion (We revisit this assumption in nal was clearly seen by the two LIGO detectors located in Hanford, WA and Livingston, LA. Extracting the full information about the source of the signal requires de- ∗ [email protected] tailed analytical and computational methods (see [2–6] ∗∗ Full author list appears at the end. and references therein for details). However, much can be learned about the source by direct inspection of the This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative detector data and some basic physics [7], accessible to a Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution general physics audience, as well as students and teach- and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is ers. This simple analysis indicates that the source is two properly cited. black holes (BHs) orbiting around one another and then 1 In the terminology of GR corrections to Newtonian dynamics, (3) & merging to form another black hole. (4) constitute the “0th post-Newtonian” approximation (0PN) (see A black hole is a region of space-time where the Sec. 4.4). A similar approximation was used for the first analysis of gravitational field is so intense that neither matter nor binary pulsar PSR 1913+16 [9, 10]. C 2016 The Authors. Annalen der Physik published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA Weinheim (1 of 17) 1600209 B. P. Abbot et al.: The basic physics of the binary black hole merger GW150914 Sec. 4.4). The theory of general relativity is a fully non- linear theory, which could make any Newtonian analysis wholly unreliable; however, solutions of Einstein’s equations using numerical relativity (NR) [11–13] have shown that a binary system’s departures from Newtonian Original Paper dynamics can be described well using a quantifiable analytic perturbation until quite late in its evolution - late enough for our argument (as shown in Sec. 4.4). The approach presented here, using basic physics, is intended as a pedagogical introduction to the physics of gravitational wave signals, and as a tool to build intuition Figure 1 The instrumental strain data in the Livingston detector using rough, but straightforward, checks. Our presenta- (blue) and Hanford detector (red), as shown in Figure 1 of [1]. Both tion here is by design elementary, but gives results con- have been bandpass- and notch-filtered. The Hanford strain has sistent with more advanced treatments. The fully rigor- been shifted back in time by 6.9 ms and inverted. Times shown are ous arguments, as well as precise numbers describing the relative to 09:50:45 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) on Septem- system, have already been published elsewhere [2–6]. ber 14, 2015. The paper is organized as follows: our presentation begins with the data output by the detectors.2 Section 2 describes the properties of the signal read off the strain data, and how they determine the quantities relevant for analyzing the system as a binary inspiral. We then dis- cuss in Sec. 3, using the simplest assumptions, how the binary constituents must be heavy and small, consistent only with being black holes. In Sec. 4 we examine and justify the assumptions made, and constrain both masses to be well above the heaviest known neutron stars. Section 5 uses the peak gravitational wave lumi- Figure 2 A representation of the strain-data as a time-frequency nosity to estimate the distance to the source, and calcu- plot (taken from [1]), where the increase in signal frequency lates the total luminosity of the system. The appendices (“chirp”) can be traced over time. provide a calculation of gravitational radiation strain and radiated power (App. A), and discuss astrophysical com- = / pact objects of high mass (App. B) as well as what one and estimating fGW 1 (2 t), without assuming a might learn from the waveform after the peak (App. C). waveform model. We plot the −8/3 power of these estimated frequencies in Fig. 3, and explain its physical relevance below. 2 Analyzing the observed data The signal is dominated by several cycles of a wave pattern whose amplitude is initially increasing, starting Our starting point is shown in Fig. 1: the instrumentally from around the time mark 0.30 s. In this region the grav- observed strain data h(t), after applying a band-pass itational wave period is decreasing, thus the frequency filter to the LIGO sensitive frequency band (35–350 Hz), is increasing. After a time around 0.42 s, the amplitude and a band-reject filter around known instrumental drops rapidly, and the frequency appears to stabilize. noise frequencies [14]. The time-frequency behavior of The last clearly visible cycles (in both detectors, after ac- the signal is depicted in Fig. 2. An approximate version counting for a 6.9 ms time-of-flight-delay [1]) indicate of the time-frequency evolution can also be obtained that the final instantaneous frequency is above 200 Hz. directly from the strain data in Fig. 1 by measuring the The entire visible part of the signal lasts for around 0.15s. 3 time differences t between successive zero-crossings In general relativity, gravitational waves are produced by accelerating masses [15]. Since the waveform clearly 2 The advanced LIGO detectors use laser interferometry to measure shows at least eight oscillations, we know that a mass the strain caused by passing gravitational waves. For details of how the detectors work, see [1] and its references. 3 To resolve the crossing at t ∼ 0.35 s, when the signal amplitude is point, we averaged the positions of the five adjacent zero-crossings lower and the true waveform’s sign transitions are difficult to pin- (over ∼ 6 ms). (2 of 17) 1600209 www.ann-phys.org C 2016 The Authors. Annalen der Physik published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA Weinheim Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 529, No. 1–2 (2017) Original Paper to the second time derivative of the electric dipole mo- ment. This is because the gravitational analog is the mass dipole moment ( A mAxA at leading order in the veloc- ity) whose first time derivative is the total linear momen- tum, which is conserved for a closed system, and whose second derivative therefore vanishes. Hence, at leading order, gravitational radiation is quadrupolar. Because the quadrupole moment (defined in App. A) is symmetric under rotations by π about the orbital axis, the radiation has a frequency twice that of the orbital frequency (for a detailed calculation for a 2-body system, see App. A and pp. 356-357 of [16]). The eight gravitational wave cycles of increasing fre- −8/3 quency therefore require at least four orbital revolutions, Figure 3 A linear fit (green) of fGW (t).
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