DOCSLIB.ORG

Hans J. Eysenck

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Hans J. Eysenck Hans J. Eysenck William Revelle Northwestern University Hans Juergen Eysenck (1916-1997) was one of the most influential personality psychologists of the 20th century. He was a champion of the scientific approach to psychology in general and to personality in particular. His approach emphasized the integration of basic psychological theory with an experimental approach to the study of individual differences. During his life, his work on behavior genetics, ability, dimensions of personality, and a biological basis to personality went from being disbelieved and controversial to accepted wisdom for the field. Hans Juergen Eysenck (born March 4, 1916, uate degree and subsequent Ph.D. in psychology. Berlin; died 4 September, 1997, London) was one of In contrast to the emphasis on experimental the most influential personality psychologists of the psychology at Cambridge, the so called “London 20th century. He was a champion of the scientific school” of psychology emphasized individual dif- approach to psychology in general and to personal- ferences. UCL had been the home of Charles Spear- ity in particular. His approach emphasized the in- man and subsequently, Cyril Burt. Both were tal- tegration of basic psychological theory with an ex- ented psychometricians heavily influenced by Fran- perimental approach to the study of individual dif- cis Galton’s emphasis on the study of individual ferences. During his lifetime his work on behavior differences and the inheritance of personality and genetics, ability, dimensions of personality, and a ability. Despite some initial language difficulties, biological basis to personality went from being dis- Eysenck fit in very well at UCL and took a first believed and controversial to accepted wisdom for class undergraduate degree working with Burt be- the field. fore continuing on for his Ph.D. also under Burt’s Eysenck was born in Germany to parents both of supervision. whom were renowned actors. Because they were His first appointment after his Ph.D. was as a re- frequently on tour, the young Eysenck was raised search psychologist at the Mill Hill hospital, the war mainly by his maternal grandmother. After fin- time home of the Maudsley Hospital which even- ishing secondary school in 1934, he realized that tually became the Institute of Psychiatry (IoP). His an academic career would require joining the Nazi subjects were primarily soldiers diagnosed with var- party, which he despised. Thus, at age 18, he em- ious psychiatric disorders. Working at the IoP pro- igrated to the UK where he did his undergraduate vided him with a golden chance to analyze the data and graduate work at the University College of Lon- already collected on the numerous patients. In con- don. Although most interested in physics, he did trast to other practioners of factor analysis of per- not have the necessary course work for the entrance sonality ratings or self reports, Eysenck used be- exam for physics and instead pursued an undergrad- havioral ratings, psychiatric diagnoses, and exper- imental measures such as those of hypnotic sug- gestibility. His goal was to marry the best of exper- imental psychology with the best of psychometrics. His first book, Dimensions of Personality (1947) did contact: William Revelle [email protected] just that. Based upon the factor analytic results, Version of March 1, 2014 Eysenck proposed support for a general factor of To appear in Cautin, R. and Lilienfeld, S (Eds) The Ency- neurosis with a second, bipolar factor that he con- clopedia of Clinical Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell sidered introversion-extraversion. This is the submitted LATEXversion and might differ from Eysenck continued to integrate what he per- the final published version. ceived to be the best theories from experimental 2 HANS EYSENCK psychology with his factor analytic results. A sub- vor and opposed to his theories and suggested that sequent book proposing a biological basis of per- personality was indeed moving towards becoming a sonality based upon classic learning principles, The paradigmatic science. dynamics of anxiety and hysteria (1957), met with In cooperation with a number of other individ- serious criticism, however a later model based upon ual differences psychologists interested in the study individual differences in arousal, The biological ba- of intelligence, the biological basis of personality, sis of personality (1967) was much better received and behavior genetics, Eysenck founded the Inter- and continues to be well cited. It was an ambi- national Society for the Study of Individual Differ- tious attempt to relate introversion-extraversion to ences and was its first president. In addition, he was the arousal dimension being studied by experimen- the founding editor of the journal Personality and tal psychologists such as Donald Broadbent. Re- Individual Differences. As evidence for his trust flecting the current physiological thinking, the pro- in the scientific process, at the first ISSID meeting posed biological mechanisms were the ascending after he critically reviewed the differences between reticular activating system and other parts of the his and Gray’s models of personality he cheerfully limbic system. Introverts were thought be have announced that Gray would be his successor at the higher resting levels of cortical arousal than did ex- Maudsley. traverts. With the assumption of an optimal level of In addition to his theoretical contributions to the arousal, the sensation seeking behavior of extraverts study of personality, Eysenck was also notorious for was explained as an attempt to compensate for their his strong critique of conventional psychoanalytic lower resting levels. therapy and his advocacy for what is now known This and his later theories influenced and were as behavioral therapy. Although mild mannered in- influenced by Jeffrey Gray whose theories of anxi- terpersonally, his writings could be bitter critiques ety and impulsivity reflected individual differences of the works of others. He wrote not just for the in sensitivities to cues for reward and punishment. scientific community but also wrote several very in- As is true of any developing scientific theory, many fluential critiques for the general public. He did not of Eysenck’s ideas have been shown during the sub- avoid controversy. From his political analysis of the sequent 40 years to be wrong or to be oversimpli- similarities of the far right and the far left, to his fications, but his general emphasis upon integrating critiques of psychotherapy, to discussions of racial genetic and biological principles within the study differences in intelligence, he was always willing to of individual differences has become the standard take unpopular views. model of personality. Eysenck has had a lasting impact upon the field Eysenck and Gray took a very different approach of personality not just because of the number of stu- to the study of personality than was common in dents trained at the IoP, nor because of his particu- the United States. They both emphasized a “bot- lar theoretical models, but due to his emphasis upon tom up” approach, going from basic physiological personality as a paradigm driven scientific endeavor principles and looking for behavioral correlates and that needs to integrate biological and social mecha- consequences. This was in contrast to the lexical nisms to understanding individual differences. approach favored by many in the U.S. In addition, both Eysenck and Gray emphasized that personality See also had to have a biological basis which then interacted Correlational Designs; Eugenics; Raymond Cat- with social experience to lead to the surface traits tell; Francis Galton; Intelligence Testing; Charles observed by others. Eysenck’s continued empha- Spearman sis upon biological and genetic mechanisms were in start contrast to the general attack on trait theory References that swept the US in the 1970s. Eysenck believed that science was a self cor- Further Reading recting process and that good ideas would supplant weak ones. His 1985 book Personality and individ- References ual differences: a natural science approach (writ- Buchanan, R. D. (2010). Playing with fire: the contro- ten with his son, Michael) reviewed evidence in fa- versial career of Hans J. Eysenck. Oxford England: HANS EYSENCK 3 Oxford Univeristy Press. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personal- ity and individual differences: a natural science ap- Eysenck, H. J. (1957). The dynamics of anxiety and hys- proach. New York: Plenum Press. teria; an experimental application of modern learning theory to psychiatry. Oxford, England: Frederick A Eysenck, H. J., & Himmelweit, H. T. (1947). Dimen- Praeger. sions of personality; a record of research carried out in collaboration with H.T. Himmelweit [and others] Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personal- . ity. Springfield: Thomas. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Eysenck, H. J. (1976). The measurement of personality. Nyborg, H. (Ed.). (1997). The scientific study of human Lancaster: MTP. nature: Tribute to Hans J. Eysenck at eighty. Amster- dam, Netherlands: Pergamon/Elsevier Science Inc. Eysenck, H. J. (1997). Rebel with a cause: the autobiog- raphy of Hans Eysenck (Rev. and expanded ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Hans Eysenck's Interface Between the Brain and Personality: Modern Evidence on the Cognitive Neuroscience of Personality
    King’s Research Portal DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.009 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication record in King's Research Portal Citation for published version (APA): Mitchell, R. L. C., & Kumari, V. (2016). Hans Eysenck’s interface between the brain and personality: Modern evidence on the cognitive neuroscience of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 74-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.009 Citing this paper Please note that where the full-text provided on King's Research Portal is the Author Accepted Manuscript or Post-Print version this may differ from the final Published version. If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. And where the final published version is provided on the Research Portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the Research Portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognize and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. •Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the Research Portal for the purpose of private study or research. •You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain •You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the Research Portal Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.
    [Show full text]
  • Hans J. Eysenck: Introduction to Centennial Special Issue
    Personality and Individual Differences 103 (2016) 1–7 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid Hans J. Eysenck: Introduction to centennial special issue Philip J. Corr City University London, Department of Psychology, London EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom first to criticise his views on the efficacy of psychotherapy (Eysenck, article info 1952, 1965) — perhaps there is something to Freudian projection after all! Lastly, it would be shamefully remiss not to acknowledge the pro- Article history: Received 13 July 2016 duction staff at Elsevier for their support and constant hard work, and Accepted 16 July 2016 Tony Vernon, Editor-in-Chief of PAID, for guiding the special issue to fruition. Such vital behind-the-scenes work is rarely seen and all too Keywords: often under-appreciated. Hans Eysenck There are 34 papers in the special issue, and although they span a History Academic and professional psychology wide range of topics and opinions, they fall into thematic groups that allow the convenient structuring of this Introduction. 1. Papers in special issue The year 2016 marks the centenary of the birth of Hans Juergen Eysenck (4 March 1916–4 September 1997). This special issue devoted Sybil Eysenck opens the special issue with reflections on her to his work and life is very timely and its publication in Personality and husband as a scientist, psychologist and family man. She shows the Individual Differences (PAID) most appropriate as this was the influential breadth of Hans's interests and the ways in which he was often journal he founded in 1983 — the year of his de jure, but certainly not de misunderstood.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Personality and Cognitions Underlying Entrepreneurial Intentions Benjamin R. Walker a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment O
    1 Personality and Cognitions underlying Entrepreneurial Intentions Benjamin R. Walker A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Management UNSW Business School March 30, 2015 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 6 Originality statement .................................................................................................................. 7 Publications and conference presentations arising from this thesis ........................................... 8 List of abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 9 Thesis Abstract......................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 11 Chapter 2: Assessing the impact of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory ...................... 20 Table 1: Articles with original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (o-RST) and revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) measures .......................................................... 26 Table 2: Categorization of original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (o-RST) and revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) studies in the five years from 2010-2014 ........ 29 Chapter 3: How
    [Show full text]
  • Article in Press + Model
    ARTICLE IN PRESS + MODEL International Journal of Psychophysiology xx (2006) xxx–xxx www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpsycho The role of theory in the psychophysiology of personality: From Ivan Pavlov to Jeffrey Gray ⁎ Philip J. Corr , Adam M. Perkins Department of Psychology, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK Received 16 June 2005; received in revised form 24 October 2005; accepted 5 January 2006 Abstract Psychophysiological approaches to personality have made significant progress in recent years, partly as a spin-off of technological innovation (e.g., functional neuroimaging) and partly as a result of an emerging theoretical consensus regarding the structure and biology of basic processes. In this field, Jeffrey Gray's influential psychophysiological theory of personality – now widely known as Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) – owes much to Pavlov, who devoted a large proportion of his later life to personality differences and their implications for psychiatry. In this article, we trace the influence of Pavlov on Hans Eysenck's and Jeffrey Gray's work, and then provide a brief description of RST in order to highlight some of the central problems – as well as some tentative solutions – in the psychophysiology of personality. Specifically, the importance of theory in personality research is stressed by the contrast of Gray's theoretically driven model with less fertile atheoretical (i.e., exploratory–inductive) approaches. The fecundity of RST, which has been in continual development over a period of thirty years, is discussed in the light of Karl Popper's views on the nature of science, especially the formulation of the ‘problem situation’, which sets up the theoretical and operational conditions under which hypotheses may be challenged and tested to destruction.
    [Show full text]
  • Ffamous Psychologists
    4/13/2012 Famous Psychologists G. Stanley Hall • G. Stanley Hall's primary interests were in evolutionary psychology and child development • Perhaps his greatest contribution was to the development and growth of early psychology. • By the year 1898, Hall had supervised 30 out of the 54 Ph.D. degrees that had been awarded in the United States • First APA President. • First Lab in USA 1 4/13/2012 Edward Titchner • Leader of Structuralism • Used Introspection • Studied under Wundt • With the goal to describe the structure of the mind in terms of the most primitive elements of mental experience. This theory focused on three things: the individual elements of consciousness, how they organized into more complex experiences, and how these mental phenomena correlated with physical events. The mental elements structure themselves in such a way to allow conscious experience. William James • Functionalism James opposed the structuralism focus on introspection and breaking down mental events to the smallest elements. Instead, James focused on the wholeness of an event, taking into the impact of the environment on behavior. • Stream of conscio u sness • Wrote Principles of Psychology. 2 4/13/2012 Edward Thordike-Behaviorism The law of effect basically states that “responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.” Original puzzle boxes with animals. Ivan Pavlov- Classical Conditioning Phobias, involuntary learning, CNS 3 4/13/2012 John Watson-Behaviorism • According to John Watson, psychology should be the science of observable behavior • Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science.
    [Show full text]
  • Behavior Therapy Is Behavioristic
    BEHAVIORTHERAPy ( 1972 ) 3, 609-613 I~ESPONSES AND I~EJOINDER Behavior Therapy Is Behavioristic HANS J. EYSENCK1 University of London This article tries to answer an objection sometimes raised by critics of behavior therapy, namely, flaat it is not "behavioristic." The objection is shown to be ungrounded and dependent on an outmoded use of the term "behaviorism." "Is "behavior therapy" behavioristic?" asked Locke (1971), and con- cluded that the answer is in the negative. One feels inclined to quote in reply Sir Francis Bacon (Dicks, 1955, p. 182), who wrote that it is "The first distemper of learning, when men study words and not matter." Locke brought into juxtaposition two terms, "behavior therapy" and "behavior- ism"; in order to form a judgment of their compatibility, one must first arrive at a definition of both which would not be arbitrary, but widely agreed. By using his own arbitrary definitions Locke was able to make a case; I shall try to show just how arbitrary the definitions are. According to Locke, the term "behavior therapy" was coined by Skinner and Lindsley (1954), and "has since been widely promulgated by Eysenck (1960, 1964)." This is incorrect; the term was "coined" inde- pendently by at least three people or groups, namely, the two mentioned above, and by Lazarus (1958). Its use by Skinner and Lindsley was con- fined to a Status Report to the Office of Naval Research, and never pub- lished; it was not familiar to either of the other two authors. Furthermore, it referred entirely to operant methods of treatment, a restriction which makes it clear that its use was quite different from that intended by Eysenck (1959), who explicitly established its present usage as referring to all methods of therapy which are based on modern learning theory-- thus including both the Skinnerian operant methods and Wolpe's desen- sitization method, as well as many others (Eysenck, 1960).
    [Show full text]
  • Personality Associations with Mood, Hoarding, Health and Well-Being Janet Katherine Spittlehouse
    Personality Associations with Mood, Hoarding, Health and Well-being Janet Katherine Spittlehouse A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychological Medicine University of Otago, Christchurch New Zealand 31 August 2016 Abstract Background: Personality has been of interest since ancient times. Hippocrates, also known as ‘The father of Western Medicine’ was possibly the first to document the association between personality and mental and physical health by describing the ancient medical theory of Humourism. Over the last 100 years the study of personality has been evolving and there are many different perspectives. Trait perspectives have become popular but they lack any underlying theory about how personality develops. Psychobiological models offer descriptions of personality and provide testable theories on how biology influences their development. A robust psychobiological model is Cloninger’s psychobiological theory and it provided the basis for this project. Objectives: This project explored the associations of personality in different mental health settings using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI; Cloninger, Przybeck, Svrakic, & Wetzel, 1994), the personality inventory developed by Cloninger and colleagues, that is suitable for measuring both normal and abnormal personality. The TCI was used to examine the impact of depression on personality measurement and personality associations to self-reported physical and mental health, mood disorders, hoarding behaviours and well-being. Methods: Participants for this project were from three studies. Two randomised clinical trials designed to examine predictors of treatment response for depressed outpatients using either antidepressant medication (N=195) or psychotherapy (N=177) were used to examine the impact of depression on measures of personality.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Political Psychology
    INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY This comprehensive, user-friendly textbook on political psychology explores the psychological origins of political behavior. The authors introduce read- ers to a broad range of theories, concepts, and case studies of political activ- ity. The book also examines patterns of political behavior in such areas as leadership, group behavior, voting, race, nationalism, terrorism, and war. It explores some of the most horrific things people do to each other, as well as how to prevent and resolve conflict—and how to recover from it. This volume contains numerous features to enhance understanding, includ- ing text boxes highlighting current and historical events to help students make connections between the world around them and the concepts they are learning. Different research methodologies used in the discipline are employed, such as experimentation and content analysis. This third edition of the book has two new chapters on media and social movements. This accessible and engaging textbook is suitable as a primary text for upper- level courses in political psychology, political behavior, and related fields, including policymaking. Martha L. Cottam (Ph.D., UCLA) is a Professor of Political Science at Washington State University. She specializes in political psychology, inter- national politics, and intercommunal conflict. She has published books and articles on US foreign policy, decision making, nationalism, and Latin American politics. Elena Mastors (Ph.D., Washington State University) is Vice President and Dean of Applied Research at the American Public University System. Prior to that, she was an Associate Professor at the Naval War College and held senior intelligence and policy positions in the Department of Defense.
    [Show full text]
  • Hans Eysenck's Theory of Intelligence, and What It Reveals About Him
    Personality and Individual Differences 103 (2016) 116–127 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid Hans Eysenck's theory of intelligence, and what it reveals about him Linda S. Gottfredson School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA article info abstract Article history: Hans Eysenck was a highly analytical, objective, independent-minded experimentalist. He personified the biolog- Received 18 March 2016 ical perspective of the Galton–Spearman ‘London School of Psychology’, which he led for many decades. His first Accepted 6 April 2016 (1939) and last publications (1998) were on intelligence. Returning to the topic in the 1960s, he formulated, tested, and promulgated the theory that general intelligence (g) is a biological phenomenon with broad social Keywords: consequences. I examine the status of Eysenck's theory, advances in the field, and social reactions to them during Hans J. Eysenck – – London School of Psychology the 1960s 1970s, 1980s 1990s, and since 2000. My perspective is that of a sociologist who, in testing alternative Intelligence theories of social inequality, was drawn inexorably into the intelligence literature, policy debates over fairness in g factor employee selection, and first-hand observation of the sort of controversies he experienced. Eysenck's 1979 and Intelligence theory 1998 textbooks on intelligence mark developments in his theory and supporting evidence during the first two Biological psychology periods. They exhibit considerable knowledge about the philosophy and history of science, and the nature of sci- Scientificcontroversy entific controversy. Advances in intelligence since 2000, in particular, from neuroimaging and molecular genetics, Social inequality vindicate his biological perspective.
    [Show full text]
  • Emotion As a Determinant of Lntegrative Learning: an Experimental Study
    EMOTION AS A DETERMINANT OF LNTEGRATIVE LEARNING: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY tl. J. EYSfN(‘K Institute of Psychiatry, University of London Summary-Twenty emotionally reactive and twenty non-reactive rats arc tcbted under tuo cclnditions of shock. The rills were required to learn the “rule” that food in a trough must not be eaten for 3 XC after delivery, under pain of being shocked; after this period the food could be eaten without any punishment being incurred. Eating withuut punishment was called the “normal” reaction: eating with shock was called the “psychopathic” rc:lction. and not eating, even when safe, was called the “dysthymlc” reaction. Thcsc terms were applied because of an explicit analogy with human bchaviour along the lines of the writer’s general theory of personality. It was predicted on the basis of this theory that non-emotion;\1 rats should show more “normal” reactions, emotional rats more “abnormal” reactions, under both levels of shock. It was found that emotional rats did in fact show more *‘dysth)mic” and more “psychop,lthic” rezctions than did non-emotional rats. Strong shock reduced both types of “,~bnormal” re,iction in both strains equally, as compared with ueak shock. It was considered that the results support4 the theory, and th:it alternetivc theories did not suffice to explain the observed facts. THE writer has developed a nosological and aetiological theory of neurotic behaviour M hicl~ emphasizes two independent factors (Eyscnck, 1957). 1 he first of these is emoiionality 01’ neuroticism; this is conceived as a largely inherited lability of the autonomic nervous system (Eysenck.
    [Show full text]
  • Personality and Experimental Psychology: the Unification of Psychology and the Possibility of a Paradigm
    PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Personality and Experimental Psychology: The Unification of Psychology and the Possibility of a Paradigm Hans J. Eysenck Institute of Psychiatry It is suggested that the scientific status of psychology is put in danger by the lack of paradigms in many of its fields, and by the failure to achieve unification, psychology is breaking up into many different disciplines. One important cause was suggested by Lee Cronbach in his 1957 presidential address to the American Psychological Association: the continuing failure of the two scientific disciplines of psychology—the experimental and the correlational—to come together and mutually support each other. Personality study in particular has suffered from this disunity, and the debates about the number of major dimensions of personality illustrate the absurdity of the situation. Examples are given to show that by combining methods and theories typical of these two disciplines, one can put forward paradigms that would be impossible without such unification. Such a paradigm is suggested for personality and intelligence. There is a good deal of agreement among philosophers of variance (Eysenck, 1964, 1965). I have also suggested that the science that a mature science is characterized by the existence failure of personality psychology to achieve paradigmatic status of paradigms, indicated by the presence of exemplars and disci- may be due to its failure to link findings and theories to the plinary matrices (Kuhn, 1974), that is, a scientific theory to- knowledge acquired by experimental psychology (Eysenck, gether with examples of successful and striking applications, 1994; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). In making these suggestions, used for teaching purposes (Putnam, 1974; Suppe, 1974).
    [Show full text]
  • The Outcome of Psychotherapy: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
    Te outcome of psychotherapy: Yesterday, today and tomorrow SCOTT D. MILLER, MARK A. HUBBLE, DARYL L. CHOW and JASON A. SEIDEL In 1963, the first issue of the journal Psychotherapy appeared. Responding to findings reported in a previous publication by Eysenck (1952), Strupp wrote of the ‘staggering research problems’ confronting the field and the necessity of conducting ‘properly planned and executed studies’ to resolve questions about the process and outcome of psychotherapy. Today, both the efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy has been well established. Despite the consistent findings substantiating the field’s worth, a significant question remains the subject of debate: How does psychotherapy work? On this subject, debate continues to divide the profession. In this paper, a ‘way out’ is proposed informed by research on the therapist’s contribution to treatment outcome and findings from studies on the acquisition of expertise. ‘If we want to solve a problem that we have never solved before, we must leave the door to the unknown ajar.’ Richard P. Feynman n 1963, the population of the states granting licenses to practice scientifc basis of Freudian theories United States was approaching 190 psychology was on the rise. In August, and concepts. Hans Eysenck (1952) million.I Te average worker earned just the same month that Reverend Martin published a review of 24 studies under $6000 per annum. A frst class Luther King delivered his, ‘I Have a which concluded that psychotherapy stamp cost 4 cents, a gallon of gas, 29. Dream’ speech from the steps of the was not only inefective, but Te national debt stood at $310 billion.
    [Show full text]