Alcedo atthis -- (Linnaeus, 1758) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- -- ALCEDINIDAE Common names: Common ; European Kingfisher; Kingfisher; Martin-pêcheur d' European Red List Assessment European Red List Status VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread kingfisher is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable under Criterion A in both Europe and the EU27. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Andorra; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; ; Ireland, Rep. of; ; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; ; Poland; ; ; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; ; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK) Population The European population is estimated at 97,500-167,000 pairs, which equates to 195,000-334,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 68,200-115,000 pairs, which equates to 136,000-229,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 13.2 years (three generations). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology This species prefers still or gently flowing water with plenty of small fish, and with reeds, rushes or shrubs on the banks for perches. Streams, small rivers, canals and ditches are favoured to open waterbodies, but it also uses lakes, ponds and flooded gravel pits. In winter it becomes more coastal, also using estuaries, harbours and rocky seashores. Egg-laying occurs from March to July with laying time peaking in April in Britain and in May in Sweden. Suitable banks for nesting required in breeding season, but nest-sites can be over 250 m from foraging waters and can occur infrequently in walls, rotten tree stumps, concrete tunnels in canal banks, terrestrial termitarium, or in the burrow of Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) or water vole (Arvicola terrestris). Clutch size can be from three to ten eggs but typically six or seven. In Europe, the main prey is fish but will also consume aquatic insects, flies (Diptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), amphibians (Rana), crayfish (Astacus), prawns (Palaemon), shrimps (Gammarus) and isopods in winter. Very occasionally it feeds on berries (Rubus, Sambucus) and stems of reed (Phragmites). In areas where freezing conditions occur in winter, it regularly migrates south, but generally stays within the species's breeding range. Southern populations are usually sedentary (Woodall 2001). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable non-breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable non-breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable non-breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breeding Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens suitable breeding Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens suitable non-breeding Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas suitable non-breeding Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline suitable non-breeding Marine Intertidal - Tidepools suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) major breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) major non-breeding Altitude Occasional altitudinal limits Threats Hard winters are thought to be a significant threat to this species (Tucker and Heath 1994), particularly northern populations (Woodall 2001). Severe winters in 1961–1962 and 1962–1963 caused the species to be almost entirely extirpated from parts of Europe. Long term declines are thought to be due to chemical and biological river pollution. The two main sources of this are most likely industrial waste disposal and agricultural chemical runoff. Canalization of streams and clearance of emergent vegetation to improve drainage result in loss of nesting and feeding habitat and declines in fish numbers (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also at risk locally from persecution to protect fish stocks (Woodall 2001). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact (persecution/ control) Stresses Species mortality Climate change & Temperature Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather extremes Past, Likely to Majority (50-90%) Very Rapid Declines Past Impact Return Stresses Species mortality Natural system Other ecosystem Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications modifications Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Indirect ecosystem effects Pollution Herbicides and Timing Scope Severity Impact pesticides Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact Declines Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Pollution Industrial & military Timing Scope Severity Impact effluents (type Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact unknown/ Declines unrecorded) Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects Conservation Conservation Actions Underway Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Directive Annex I. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed Preservation of rivers and streams must be mediated through industry, agriculture and water authorities (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research to investigate the importance of individual threats and mitigation measures against these is also important. Bibliography Hagemeijer, W.J.M. and Blair, M.J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T and A D Poyser, London. Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge. Woodall, P.F. 2001. Common Kingfisher ( atthis). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/55801 on 2 March 2015). Map (see overleaf)