THE INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN

THE INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN

THE INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN

ERWIN O. CHRISTENSEN

INTRODUCTION BY HOLGER CAHILL

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY: NEW YORK SMITHSONIAN . NSTITUTION. WASHINGTON. D. C.

19 5 0 Allama Iqbal Library

4435

form without per- All rights reserve*! —no part of this may be reproduced in any wishes to quote mission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who magazine or newspaper. brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in

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After a few limits had been decided upon, the chosen In this book we examine the crafts and popular and to plan. A folk arts of the as they have been recorded plates had to be grouped according some by the Index of American Design. The objects range few minority groups like the Germans, from well-known museum specimens to new discoveries the Shakers, and the Spanish in the Southwest were made by the artists who did the watercolors. Almost singled out and presented in connection with the back- four hundred plates were selected from the many thou- ground out of which they grew. What they produced sands contained in the whole Index collection. Not only stands out in contrast to the dominating Anglo-Saxon furniture, silver, glass, ceramics and textiles arc included culture. In the first of the book (“Our Wide but also tavern signs, figureheads, cigar-store Indians, Land ’) we have the arts of transplanted groups and carrousel horses, toys, pots and pans, and many other other more acclimated works in a geographic arrange- items. A sewing machine and an early phonograph are ment. To balance this geographic section there is an characteristic novelties of the era when the crafts gave historic arrangement of subject matter at the end of way to the machine. the book (“The Years Pass”). In the middle section Painting, practiced as a home art, is included as well (“About the House”) are the objects associated with life as the work of sign painters and decorators who painted at home. What fits into the sterner living of the first walls or produced easel pictures in their leisure hours. part of the nineteenth century, frontier life, shipping,

There is little stone sculpture, but much of the and business of the towns (“Pioneers and Traders”), carving is virtually sculpture. precedes the section on the house. Aspects of the more Objects known to have been imported have mostly comfortable living of the later nineteenth century (“For been omitted. You will find no Lowestoft china, no Staf- Profit and Pleasure”) come after the house section. fordshire ware, no "Gaudy Dutch," and no textiles of The question is often asked, “What is the American Revolutionary subjects, printed in or London. Ob- element in our folk and popular arts?” In some crafts vious foreign-looking toys, presumably from Nurcmt there developed a type of functional design which is or Berchtcsgadcn, were also avoided. But occasional!) truly American. On the other hand, some time mav imported article has been included and a few may I: elapse before we can define what is peculiarly American slipped in unrecognized. On the other hand, if a na in many of the objects here reproduced. At times, sim- of old Mexico painted a chest of a superior qualit' plification stands out as a common New denominator, in such Mexico, or if a settler from south Germany m diverse objects as Shaker furniture and carved a clock bultos that still looked Germanic, chest and clock h from New Mexico. Simplification is basic to the coun- been admitted as long as they were produced wit try; it grew out of the native the environment. borders of the United States. Another question, “Is it good art?” can be With riches to choose from, settled the decision as to wl more readily, anil often the figurehead answer is definitely in or which quilt to include was the made lar, affirmative. In the last analysis on the basis of the it is their artistic quality artistic merit of the original w, that makes these The craftsman objects worth-while. who made the chest, the housewife v A number of |«rsons stitched the quilt had have given valuable thought of its usefulness assistance as s in as connection with the its beauty. Now that they preparation of the . have become collect items, atc ul, acknowledge we are concerned with y the help given me artistic considerations, ... £ by Ann tor W , who the renderings, only has assisted in the various those of superior quality « editorial tasks included, relating to the in any case. Where text, including checking and several renderings of proofing and has same type and of also made equal merit constructive criticisms in were available, the connection was selected ;v'< h the select, of that fitted best with on the plates and the other drawings on preparation of same h he page or in the same dummy, also thank . my assistants lean Watkins. 'rginia Holland, Elizabeth Benson, Martha Parker,

( and Nancy Leech for their able checking and proof- Joseph B. Eggen have contributed various suggestions. reading, and Nancy Leech for her work on the index For constructive criticism the on whole manuscript I to the text. am particularly grateful to my wife, Edna Florance

1 am indebted to Holger Cahill for his detailed and Christensen. expert criticism: to Faulkner Lewis and Cecil Scott, of 1 am also indebted to each person who answered

The Macmillan Company, for many helpful sugges- questions on particular details, to the in the tions on the selection of the illustrations and on the , and finally to the many research workers, text: to Penrose Berman, of the Beck Engraving Com- not otherwise mentioned, who in the days of the projects pany. who was responsible for the color plates; to Dr. sought out basic information on many of the objects

Preston A. Barba for his critical reading of the sections here reproduced. on Pennsylvania German art; to Dorothy Vaughan for The real creators of this book are the men and women

introducing me to historic Portsmouth (N. H.); to who made the extraordinary renderings from which

Estella T. Weeks for information on the Shakers. Joseph the illustrations were reproduced. It is they who made Downs, Adolph C. Glassgold, Macgill James, June this book possible, and their names will be found in the H. Gardner, Romana Javitz, Frances Lichten, Jean List of Illustrations on page 197.

Lipman, George S. and Helen McKcarin, Pauline A. Pinckney, Charles Messer Stow, Alice Winchester, and Erwin 0. Christensen

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

to friends who by their The wishes to express his gratitude the many book, and knowledge and advice have helped him in the preparation of this

in particular to those listed below: Hitchcock, Mid- ton Museum of Fine Arts; Henry Russell John H. Bailey. Davenport (Iowa) Public Museum; Flor- Norwegian-Amcrican dletown, Conn, O. M. Hovde, Berger, Wadsworth Athcneum. Hartford, Ginn.; ence P. Histor- Museum, Dccorah, la, Alfred F. Hopkins, Chicago Carl Bcust, Dayton. Ohio; Harry MacNeill Bland, New York DeWitt V. Hutchings, Riverside, Calif.; Borne- ical Society: Mrs. City; Mrs. Davis Bohon, Lexington, Ky.; Henry S. Mass, R. P- A. L. W. Jenkins, Peabody Museum, Salem, Pennsylvania German Society; E. Boyd, Los Angeles: man, Madison, Wis, Johnson, UA. Forest Products Laboratory, Hartford, Conn, Alfred Mansfield Brooks, M. B. Brainard, Society, Mass, Marion E. Kent, Concord Antiquarian and Historical Association. Cape Ann Scientific, Literary Folk Museum. Reidar Kjcllbcrg, Director, Norwegian Bruce, Old State House, Boston: Gloucester, Mass.; James L. Orleans; Mrs. Oslo, Norway; L. V. Landry, New Charles F. Bvgdo, Bywaters, Museum of Fine Arts, Dallas; American Jerry F. Mangels, Clair F. Luther, Amherst, Mass, W. Setzlcr, Frank A. Taylor Carey, Herbert W. Kriegcr. F. M. N.Y.; Horace Museum of Public Recreation, Brooklyn, Institution: Lucien jnd Malcolm Watkins, Smithsonian Doyles.own, Pa, Mann, Bucks County Historical Society, Charles Christenson. G.unty « Cazcbonne, New Orleans; M. of the City and Janet Pinncy, Museum G.leman, Grace M. Mayer Wis.; Laurence V. Ph. « Historical Room. Racine, Pa, E. Miller, York; John D. Meyer, Tyrone. J. D.C.; New of Museums, Washington, Society; M- American Association R.I. Historical dclphia; Clifford T. Monahon, T. Davis, Wor- Yor Colnik, Milwaukee; Mrs. Elizabeth Newton, New Cyrol York City; Roger Hale Western Nason, New Alberta Thorne Daywalt, Wash- cester Historical Society; National Museum, City; Mendel L. Peterson, VS. E. Drake, New Congress, Society, Cleveland; J. Libraryr of Reserve Historical N. H. Randers-Pehrson, ington, D.C, ^ New York City; A. N. City; Kenneth H. Dunshce, Missouri H,s,°r,<* 1 y York Charles van Ravenswaay, A jdlda Seldcn Fisher, Rochester N .; Schaffer Flo' f Orangeville, Idaho; J. Chicago; Nile C. Dvcr, both Wells Robertson. Maine; Charles P. Fox, Ocono- W- P- Frost, Kittery. S»», Joseph Museum, Gainesville; J. D. Old Mission, Santa Suee Rev. M. Geiger. O.F.M.. Bennmg.on (Vl.) H, mowoc, Wis, Memorial; John Sp.ego, Milwaukee Pubhc Mu- Slate Phd dd Elmer A. Coessl, B. Thommn. Barbara. Calif, and An Galle,,; William Green, Middle- Museum Peru, Ind, Samuel M. se, m; George Graf. H. Tripp, Whaling Historical phia; am Haddon, Ma.ta.uc ; hG.net Mrn^ „,w„. Conn, Rawson W. Kennehm*,,, King Philip Ma^; El^elh Conn, R- F. HafTcnrcfTcr H. Wal Society. Watcrbury, Ullman, Tarrytown, N.Y., J H.imlin, Gdumbia rencc J. . 1 1 u . ilbot F. . Hope. K.I.,| T Bethcsda, Md. Museum. Mount Mrs. Donnell B. Young, Museum. Ncwnort.Newport N.Y, , • t P Hill Mariners Townsend, Bos- Hipkiss'and Gertrude SrS; uZ I. [vij CONTENTS

PREFACE v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v > BY Huu.er (Nihil ix

Our Wide Land

xviii 1. BIRD AND TULIP

2. WORK AND FAITH H

3. SAINTS AND SADDLES 28

Pioneers and Traders

4. LIFE ON THE FRONTIER 41

5. FIRE 47

6. THE IMAGE AT THE PROW 54

7. AT THE SIGN OF THE WOODEN INDIAN 63

About the House

S. WEATHERVANE AND HITCHING POST 71

9. FROM PARLOR TO PANTRY 82 10. PITCHER AND TUMBLER %

11. THE LINEN CHEST 103

12. FURNITURE FROM FARMHOUSE AND MANSION 120

For Profit and Pleasure R AND 135 14. PLAYTHINGS 143 15. CIRCUSES AND CARROUSELS 152 16. GADGETS AND MECHANICAL DEVICES 160

The Years Pass

17. RUSHLIGHT TO KEROSENE LAMP 16S 18. A CENTURY OF COSTUME 176 19. SYMBOLS OF A NATION 185

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 197 INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN: SUBJECT LIST 209 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX 219 223

INTRODUCTION

prising diat the American artifacts most admired at the The Index of American Design is a record made by Exposition were trotting wagons, agricultural imple- artists of a chapter in American history which is largely ments and clocks, all of which were more clearly related anonymous. It is the story, told in pictures, of articles to handicraft traditions than to our rapidly developing of daily use and adornment in this country from early machine technology. There were some exhibits of early colonial times to the close of the nineteenth century. In American furniture and utensils. A house, built in "imi- the main it is devoted to the craft traditions which dominated American production for more than two tation of a New England log house” of 1776, contained, hundred years and left their heritage to our developing among other things, Peregrine White's cradle, John mass-production technology which has impressed its Alden's desk, Governor Endicott's folding chair, chests forms upon our contemporary culture. Phases of this of drawers, bedsteads, quilts and kitchenware. Twenty technology are represented in the Index, especially from ladies in costumes of the Revolutionary period con- the second half of the nineteenth century when mass- ducted visitors through the house "explaining with cour- production methods were in the making and the ma- tesy the wonderful articles of furniture and cooking chine was taking over even the more complicated utensils whose very simplicity made them incomprehen- handicrafts. sible to the victims of modern improvements.”

The Index is the result of a conjunction of circum- Interest in early American craftsmanship was not al- stances during the depression of the 1930's. It was or- together new in the 187U's. Museums had concerned ganized in response to several needs: the need of artists themselves with it to a degree, though the primary in- for employment, the need of the Government work pro- terest of most was history, natural history, or ethnology. gram to devise projects which would maintain the Among these institutions one may mention the Charles- skills of the unemployed, and public need for pictorial ton (South Carolina) Museum founded in 1773, the information on American design and craftsmanship. oldest institution of its kind in the country, the Massa- Demand for information on this phase of our history chusetts Historical Society (1790), the Albany Institute been had growing for some years before the Index came of History and Art (1791), the New-York Historical into being. It made itself felt insistently during and Society (18(H), the American Antiquarian Society in after the First World War, partly because of the rapid Worcester (1812), the Peabody Museum and the Essex expansion of visual education, partly because American Institute in Salem, the Pennsylvania Historical Society, industry realized during the war its too dose depend- in , and various state and city museums ence on European design. and historic houses. Behind these developments and sustaining them was vv.nuij a wide uociupmciu interest in American decorative and domestic art were such men as Dr. Henry Chapman Mercer which had been steadily of building up since the seven- Doylcstown, Pennsylvania, who gave ties and up archaeology eighties when the work of early American “l,CC,ing Carly craftsmen Amcrican material in the began its journey from farm sheds, town X1880 s Dr. Edwin Alice Barber, attics, carly writer on and secondhand dealers’ storerooms ceram- toward the ics and glass, effective discoverer an museum. The of Pennsylvania Ger- Centennial Exposition at Philadelphi man pottery and Bennington Ware m 1876 had something to and founder of the do with it, but its contribute collections that was bear his name at in the spirit of the log the Philadelphia cabin tradition fixed in po Mu- F Art: ular ,0 n Cotton Dana consciousness since > Sunder of the . the campaign of the first Pres Newark Z°() ,J;( dent Harrison. Museum and of the The Centennial, like most first library picture America collections taus in this country; was devoted to contemporary Mr. and Mrs. enterprise an Robert W 0rCSt f modern ' Undcrs ‘he improvements.” In a ^ American Wing period when the desig ^ ; of the Met- of ropolitan articles of everyday use Museum of Art; was at a low Henry Kent f k ebb it is not su, W scum's activities in the early American field; R. T. quality of primitive, folk and popular art. The Haines ethno- Halsey, Henry W. Erving, Eugene Bollcs, and logical collection exerted an influence on the early de- other collectors and writers who were calling attention velopment of modern art. Study of the art of primitive to the American tradition in design before the turn of peoples led to an interest in the art of peasants, artisans the century. and amateurs. These ideas made themselves felt in the In the early 1900 s great impetus was given by such United States in the second decade of this century in the events as the Boston Museum's important exhibition work of and writings of artists returning from European colonial silver in 1906; the Hudson-Fulton celebration study, in small collections, and in the pages of such in New \ ork in 1909 when the Metropolitan magazines Museum as R. J. Coady’s The Soil, and The Arts exhibited a collection of early American decorative art; founded by the painter Hamilton Easter Field, one of the foundation in 1910 of the for Society the Preserva- the early collectors of American folk art. Between the tion of New England Antiquities, whose editor, George mid-twenties and the mid-thirties folk and popular art Francis Dow, did pioneering studies of arts and crafts; was brought into the focus of national consciousness

the Wcrfyund exhibitions at the Newark Museum through such notable collections as those of Mr. and

(1912 and 1922) that brought to this country the mes- Mrs. Elie Nadelman, Mrs. Isabel Carleton Wilde, and

sage of an organization which was one of the most im- Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and through a series of

portant links in the progression from William Morris exhibitions at the Newark Museum, the Whitney

to modern design; and the activities of collectors like Studio Club, the , the Whitney

Mr. and Mrs. De Forest, Francis H. Bigelow, Howard Museum of American Art, and Colonial Williamsburg.

Rcifsnyder, Judge Alphonso T. Clearwater, and Henry These various developments provided a matrix for

F. du Pont. The "manufacturer and designer” exhibi- an index of American design. They also pointed up the

tions begun in 1917 at the Metropolitan Museum under need for it. Despite the enthusiasm of collectors, and

the direction of Richard F. Bach, and the survey of possibly because of it, American material in the arts has comprehensive American resources in industrial art by Charles Russell always been widely scattered. No really as found in Germany Richards at the beginning of the twenties, while they collections exist here such one

before World War II and may still find in Sweden. took note of all resources no matter what their origin, to scattering of American material is due in part served to call attention to the quality of the indigenous The the factor of distance, the extent of the country as com- contributions. In 1924 when the American Wing of the pared with European nations, the wide separation of Metropolitan was founded the most conservative mu- early the Colonics, and transportation difficulties in seums were beginning to sec that early American fur- days. More fundamental reasons were the comparatively niture, ceramics, glass, silver, metalware, textiles, , diver- broad base of patronage in colonial times and the and utensils were worthy of serious attention. The tri- one and the sity of traditions that existed here at centennials beginning with that of Jamestown in 1907. nc time. England tricentcnnials of the twenties , and the New around Hie rapid growth of interest in visualization projects like 's Wayside Inn. and thirties, gather century led public libraries to Williamsburg resto- turn of the opened in 1928, and the important and meet the needs of education 1927 were torial information to ration begun by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in library collections lustry. The first of these public the late 1920's it was high points in the development. In Cotton was organized by John which had documentary pictures unusual to see early American furniture not at Springfield, Denver in 1891, and later generations before sold for many na at been disregarded two Jersey, and at Newark, New 1929, issachusctts, in 1898, At a New York sale in April, thousands of dollars. Library set up is 1916 the New York Public Philadelphia pieces were bid 1903. In three eighteenth century ideas. Though following Mr. Dana's event ture Collection collectors. Another New York pic* to 5103,000 by subjects these up to American was the devoted exclusively appealing to the general public of 1929 more ,o answer ions wee tolled upon for the benefit of c colled of early American art held book. exhibition the preface of this filar to those asked in the Girl Scouts. recognizably Amcna American? Is there anything folk and popular art, Appreciation of American Where can S * from Indian material? j* categories of the Index ,e , major bee > « forms one of the visitors had which of it?" European , a picture slowly. It has two mam probab 'hat Design, grew more It seems of American questions for a long time. has made us h collection which what is sources: the ethnological self-consciousness about ne of our our own Western «» horizons beyond fashions wh.c aware of design the stream of £ Je from ,s mvols d of modern art. Each our own, . tradition, and the rise and appropriated as helped edm ted thc other. Modern artists European visitors me extent in the questions asked by : d by to the esthetic the museum public cat- ethnologists and ,

history of the useful and with view neglected chapters in the nineteenth century and repeated middle of the attention to in the United States and called orld War. During popular arts growing insistence after the First \V in research, in education, what still needed to be done more and more Americans were asking them, the 1920's Important con- the organization of collections. designers and educators, but and in not only collectors, artists, these various fields were made by such men keenly aware of the drying tributions in also manufacturers made Farnum, Leon L. Win- war. The as Fiske Kimball, Royal Bailey of European design sources during the up Theodore slow, Valentine Kirby, Henry Turner Bailey, New York Public Library Picture Collection in its re- Ebcrlein, William Laurel of the increas S. Woolscy, Howard D. ports during the early 1930's makes note others. the difficulty Harris, George Leland Hunter, and ing demand for American material and When the Civil Works Administration was set up in in meeting it. 1933 unemployment in many professions was severe and The idea for an Index of American Design crystal-

severe than in the arts. 1 he first large lized into a plan in the spring of 1935. It was not a new nowhere more for artists, organized in December, idea. European nations had made large collections of Government project the Treasury their native design material and published richly illus- 1933, and directed by Edward Bruce under Civil trated on the subject. With us well-illustrated Department through a grant of funds from the publications have been few until recent years. Pioneers Works Administration, employed mainly painters, in this type of publication in the United States were his- sculptors, and printmakers. Although it also employed torical museums, private collectors, and amateurs. Some designers and craftsmen the basic problem of unemploy- of the earliest documentary drawings of American arti- ment among commercial artists remained. The Civil facts—of Benjamin Franklin s stove, for instance—were Works Administration and various State Emergency published in The Transactions of the American Philo- Relief Administrations tried to meet it through setting sophical Society in the last quarter of the eighteenth up handicraft and recording projects. The most valuable century. A hundred years later one finds William C. recording projects were the Historic American Build-

Prime writing on pottery and porcelain (1878); John ings Survey carried out under the direction of the De-

H. Buck on old silver in 1888; Dr. Edwin Atlce Barber, partment of the Interior through a grant of funds from writing on American ceramics, glass, and the tulip ware CVVA and later from WPA; and a record of American of the Pennsylvania German potters as early as 1893; Indian design begun by Frederick Douglas at the Den

Irving W. Lyon on colonial furniture in New England, ver Art Museum in 1932 which employed Government

1891; R. T. Haines Halsey on pottery, 1899, and on sil- project artists from 1933 until its work was completed ver, 1906; Luke Vincent Lockwood on furniture, 1901; in 1938. Another recording project, planned before the Frances Clary Morse; and Alice Morse Earle who began Index but organized later, was the Historic American writing in the nineties and probably did more to popu- Merchant-Marine Survey, which was under the joint di- larize early New England than any other writer. N. rection of the and WPA. Other Hudson Moore and Clarence C. Cook also were writing similar projects were proposed in 1935. One such project, on American domestic art, and many of those for recording named decorative iron and bronze in New York, were collecting it before the turn of was the century. One of put before Mayor La Guardia's Municipal Art the important collectors and writers of the early 1900‘s Committee by Peter Larsen, who later carried it on un- was Alexander Wilson Drake, who wrote on American der the Index of American Design. copper and brass in 1907 and showed a collection of These projects were the immediate forerunners of samplers at the Cincinnati Museum of Art in 1909. the Index, but it did not grow out of them. The Index Frederick William Hunter’s book, on Sticgel glass, idea as it was later developed by the WPA Federal which Art had wide influence, was published in 1914. Project resulted from discussions between Romana Among the historical societies, that of Bucks County lavitz, head of the New York Public Library's Picture in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, brought out pioneering Collection, and artists who came to the Library for illustrated books on the re- decorative stove plates of search. the This was in the early spring eighteenth of 1935. Miss Javitz century, the art of illuminated writing and the Picture Collection staff had recognized among the Pennsylvania for some Germans, and ancient carpen- lime the need for a comprehensive ter s tools. source record These books, written by Dr. Henry of Chapman American design. Mercer, Prominent among the were published in the artists who par- twenties. Also published ticipated in the discussion m the twenties at the Library were Albert H. Sonn’s was Ruth work on early Reeves, American a textile designer and wrought iron, B. Kerfoot’s painter. She brought J. book on Ameri- he Index .can idea to Mrs. Frances p^vtcr and the early Poliak, head of writings of Mrs. Rhea Mans- Educa- P,0,C"S (0r Knittle on handicrafts N™ Yo-k City west of the ™ Em„gc „c, . Alleghenies Re lief Administration, These and other and suggested admirable publications that artists employed brought into Government pro,ects carry it out. Later Miss Reeves xi) who was the missionary of the Index idea, brought it the Index, it is surprising to the how little duplication attention of officials took WPA in Washington and to place. In choosing objects for Edward Bruce, head recording priority was of the Section of Painting and given to material of historical significance not previ- Sculpture. Mrs. Poliak immediately the Index as a ously studied, which, for one reason or another, solution for the problem stood of commercial artist unemploy- in danger of being lost. Regional and ment and asked local crafts were Miss Javitz to formulate a plan. This emphasized; for instance, crewel work, plan Shaker design was completed in July. 1935, but because of diffi- and the early colonial crafts in New England; the culties folk in finding public sponsorship, the Index re- crafts in Pennsylvania and in the Southwest; pioneer mained largely in the planning stage until after the furniture, tools, and utensils in the Middle West and in organization of the Federal An Project in October of Texas; early Mormon textiles in Utah, and various com- that year. munity crafts in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and other states. The Index of American Design was organized as a In carrying on their work, research staffs received gen- nationwide activity in two meetings of the Federal An erous help from museums, private collectors, and dealers Project national staff. December 7 and 8, 1935. Certain who owned the material recorded by the Index. activities of the nascent Index in New York City were • In January, 1936, a preliminary Index manual was ruled out. It was felt that Indian Arts should be left issued by the Washington office of the Federal Art to the ethnologists who had been making pictorial rec- Project outlining the scope of the new activity, its pur- ords in that field. The Index was limited to the practi- pose, plan of organization, methods of recording, re- cal. popular and folk arts of the peoples of European search, classification and filing, together with specimen origin who created the material culture of this country copies of data sheets to accompany each drawing. The

as we know it today. Architecture had to be ruled out research methods and data sheets were drawn up by

because two other Government projects were concerned Phyllis Crawford, research director of the New York

with it. the Historic American Buildings Survey and City project, in collaboration with Miss Javitz. Two

the Historic American Merchant-Marine Survey. The months later a supplementary bulletin on techniques

Index was placed under the direction of the Washington was issued. This was based on the teaching of Suzanne

staff of the . Constance Rourkc was Chapman who was loaned to the Massachusetts Index

appointed national editor and Ruth Reeves national co- project by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Miss Chap- Lindon ordinator. A small central research staff was set up in man had studied methods worked out by Joseph Museums Washington. A larger research staff had already been set , who made pictorial records of the meticu- up under the New York City project. In the spring of Egyptian expedition. Mr. Smith had devised a painting in water color. 1936 C. Adolph Glassgold succeeded Ruth Reeves as lous technique of documentary taught Index artists this “Egyptologist s national co-ordinator of the Index and he was succeeded Miss Chapman by Benjamin Knotts in 1940. technique." its objective their re- The Index plan as finally worked out in State Index projects of any size set up own research proved well with the his- and techniques of recording and staffs made up of persons familiar search The program of the Federal Art Project. in some particular suited to the tory of American crafts or expert with finding was Project was charged by the Government Where employment was small the research field. referred to useful employment for thousands of artists supervisor or by the artists them- done by the project country. agencies throughout the sur- the WPA by local function of research staffs to make selves. It was the on the Project could earn- on depended objects to be What work the to select from it the veys of local material, they might acquire skills of these artists, or skills which their history and authenticity. recorded, checking on basic directive of t e through in-service training. The to an artist for recording object was assigned of skills. There Before an whole WPA program was maintenance and all infer- by the research supervisor approve ro)cets j, was examined Congress did pot P whteh were other directives. on the data sheet enterprise. i. entered with private (nation concerning which were in competition completed drawmg. .rksome. the back of the this opposition would he pasted on Some project supervisors found Washington cheeked on the quality would scarce!) office in fact. wise. Unemployment The Index but it was. in en- assisted in employ had work and if Government of local protect have been relieved instance, . hat ob|«:t. employed * be found, for with othem search. I. might gaged in competition wtde areas and , the pro were duplicated over commerce, industry or the same kind wage levels in Index mmetnl. eieeumstances .ha, the P was in these

.he duplication. Cons.denng be served by .be Williamson, and Charles O. Cornelius in New it with Graham private enterprise through providing did, benefit of these were expert in various held* material on Amen- York. Many of of pictorial and research a reservoir helped con- American design. A strong supporter who can design and craftsmanship. the Index was the late today was vince collectors of the value of The Index of American Design as it exists editor of the magazine Antiques, to which Homer Eaton Keyes, produced by a great collaborative enterprise tech- which he founded in 1922. hundreds of persons contributed talent, ideas, begin- devoted A third difficulty was with the artists. In the niques, research methods, and persevering, the Index was dead copying. mentioned in Mr. ning many artists felt that effort. Some of these persons are become Index artists had to discipline themselves to meticulous Christensen s list of illustrations. Others will rendering techniques and to the objects they recorded. known to a wider public as more Index drawings arc- They could not express themselves through the free use published. The names of some, especially of those art- perfected of form and color and so felt cheated of the creative ists, research workers and supervisors who assignments they had expected from the Federal Art the techniques of the Index and guided it through its Project. But they discovered that documentary art may beginning years, are recorded only in Government become a free creative activity even within severe disci- archives. In its early stages the Index met with many limitations. the artists’ attitude difficulties. Since its drawings were to remain Federal pline and This change in

property they could not be allocated in the states where was brought about by the steady improvement of proj-

they were made. This virtually eliminated local spon- ect standards and the missionary work of supervisors

sorship. No Federal project could be set up in the states on the Washington stall of the Federal Art Project and

without the consent of the WPA administrations in- in the states: Richard C. Morrison, Gordon W. Smith,

volvcd and so it became necessary to win the support of Suzanne Chapman, Elizabeth Moutal, Ingrid Selmcr-

the state administrations for a project which would Larsen, Lawrence Peterson, and Alfred Smith in Massa-

show no contribution to their sponsor's funds. WPA chusetts; Dorothy Hay Jensen in Maine; Donald Dono-

was required by law to show local contributions in cash van in Rhode Island; William Warren in Connecticut;

or kind ranging from 10 per cent in 1935 to 25 per Lou Block, Lincoln Rothschild and Tillie G. Shahn in

cent in 1939. Projects which had a high percentage of New York; Frances Lichtcn in Pennsylvania; Hilde-

sponsors' contributions had to support projects which garde Crosby Mclzcr in Illinois; Sylvester Jerry and had little or none. This difficulty considerably Paul McPharlin was ag- in Michigan; Elzy J. Bird in Utah; gravated when the Federal program came to an end Donald Bear in Colorado; R. Vernon Hunter and E. and the states took over administrative control of the Boyd in New Mexico; and Warren Lemmon in Cali- Arts Projects. It must be said, however, to the great fornia.

credit of WPA State Administrators, that with few ex- The Index prospered in New England and the Mid- ceptions they agreed to carry the Index both in its early dle Atlantic states where a great deal of early American stages in 1935-1936 and after the dose of the Federal material was available for recording and artists of the period in 1939. highest competence could be employed. It lagged in the Another difficulty was with museums, dealers, a South and some parts of the West because of lack of private collectors who owned material which the Incl material to record, but mainly because personnel trained sought to record. At first many of them were scepti* in the techniques which the Index required could not of Government projects and saw little value in the be employed under Government regulations. The situa- dex. Even they when admitted its worth they though) Mimcwnar oy lending might artists from better be carried out by what they considered t Massachusetts, New York, and other northeastern cheaper and more states expeditious method of photograpl to teach Index techniques in the South and Museums were won West. This over when they became convinc was a complicated procedure involving of the sound the agreement purpose of the Index, the quality of of two state administrations, drawings problems of quota, per and its careful research methods. Dealers a diem and travel allowances, and rates of collectors followed. Important pay which in winning this supp differed considerably in for the various parts of the Index were Constance Rourke, country Ruth Reev Another reason why the Index developed Mildred Holzhauer, Nina slowly in the Collier, C. Adolph Gla was “ that states like North gold, Thomas C. and South Carolina Parker, Pauline Pinckney, and Ka Virginia, Tennessee, enne Mississippi, and Caulkins from the Washington Florida were lead- office of i ers in the Community Art Federal Art Project; Center movement. Richard C. Morrison and Gord Most WCFC ° W. Smith in Pl ycd in teacl,in and Massachusetts; Phyllis Crawford, R in bring- Hcl 1ing art to the T Ca general public. Because an R°SCnWald Alinc of these circum- ’ Bmwrin. Carol stances some W*oon, Milhaum- ^ states in the South Davenport, Elizabeth had no Index projects T. Riefstahl, Sc However, excellent Index drawings were made in W xiii l ] ginia. Kentucky. Louisiana, and Texas. In the West and maintaining complete fidelity to the object, have the Middle \V est where the problems of quota and pay rate individuality which characterizes works were not of an. To find so difficult many states bcnehttcd by the eastern their peers in American an we must go back to the still- experience. Others did not, either because trained per- life of William Harnett and the trompe-l’ccl painters sonnel could not be hired or because their Index mate- of the nineteenth century. The lesser drawings represent rial was duplicated in other states. The Index project steps in the training of anists who later produced better was finally set up in thirty-five states and employed an work. This training was carried on by expert super- average of three hundred artists from the time it was visors, in Boston, New York, Philadelphia. Chicago and organized in December. 1935. until it was closed down the larger Index projects generally. Miss Chapman and shortly after the United States entered the war in 1941. her pupils in Boston taught their technique throughout While expert supervisors from the metropolitan cen- New England and were called upon to teach it in other ters assisted many Index projects throughout the coun- parts of the country. Techniques were also taught try. the best results achieved often depended on purely through touring exhibitions of the best drawings, and local developments. An example of this is Utah, a state of drawings in various stages of completion illustrating

with a small art project and a good source of material the method step by step.

in the Relic Halls founded by the Daughters of the Utah The technique recommended in the Index manual Pioneers. story told The is by Elzy J. Bird, under whose (WPA Technical Scries, Art Circular No. 3) for most direction the Index did some of its best drawings: categories of objects was a transparent water-color

method. The object was first carefully studied and a “When I became director of the project I had been light outline drawing made. The lighter passages of working on an Index plate and I remember the washed gradually working up to the amount of sweat that went into the finished product. color were then in. darkest passages. One wash might be applied directly Most of the artists seemed to feel as I did. that it was over another, allowing the first wash to dry thoroughly, merely work and didn't give free rein to any- or a glaze might be applied and new washes of color thing creative. laid in over the glaze. High lights and shadows were “At first I think the only artist who took the Index simplified and accidental reflections and cast shadows seriously was William Parkinson. I remember one Index eliminated. Another method described in the artist doing a remarkable textile piece—just one. He which manual was the opaque water-color method in said he'd sooner starve than do another. Finally I first, then the darkest undertone passages were laid in our silk screen department and found some raided accents lighter tones, with the darkest and lightest of the boys who were very skillful with their hands. technique of the Utah ced out last. This was the Frank Mace. Frank Maurer and Paul Vaughn were variant of this method, under- sts. New York used a really enjoyed doing Index drawings. the ones who the color over this ning in Chinese ink and laying in printer, \aughn a metal Mace was a journeyman for cer- nochromc wash. Oil technique was preferred cx-Marine. I put craftsman. Maurer a and recording to- of objects. Michigan used it in , types Parkinson and together they de- them to work with in recording Penn- conists' signs and Pennsylvania painting of textiles, working in veloped the wonderful Another method favored ania German folk art. transparent and opaque water textiles from dark to light with certain kinds of v York and New Jersey for Truelson Another of the group was Florence with a steel pen color. scratchboard done by scratching of producing textile and wax devised her own method into the soft chalk who ,ugh a water-color wash and went an time to time others came paper. Pen and ink. textures. From ace of a prepared drawing cowboys who could important Pho- were, for instance, several where color was not There cil were used leatherwork or an that photog- days over a drawing of critics argued sit down for •aphv was also used. Some type: How- were the saddle and spur employed exc^ve1 old spur or gun. They should have been liy of an textile but you could Index was part^ cuught dead doing a the fact that the wouldn’t be •, aside from someth, of were out of trouble wtth ng for artists, there certainly keep them ilovment program

channel Index tech- UetdTral' Art Project tried to one teehn^ of quality, but no iques in the d,section msisted upon was str. upon. What was , as insisted drawing, clarity of co~ ibjccfivitv. accurate

e color as c\osc )-« ‘ S. match which creates

xiv f 1 technology even for developments in our machine of so many products of early but the characteristic beauty Siegfried Giedion and John approximat- in the nineteenth century. American craftsmen. Color photography history of Kouwcnhoven in their researches into the drawings is an expensive pro- ing the quality of Index mass-production methods have have not been fully mechanization and cess with many problems which have forgotten about the devel- perishable, while water shown how much we solved. The color photograph is which have given contemporary durable of art media. opment of techniques color is one of the most American civilization its character. Erwin Christensen's text describes the Index accom- of of American is As we study the drawings the Index plishment in such interesting detail that there no first two may ask Design we realize that the hands that made the need to discuss it further here. However, one

Its hundred years of this country's material culture ex- certain questions about its values and shortcomings. pressed something more than untutored creative instinct most obvious value is historical. The Index, in bringing vigor of a frontier civilization. This need together thousands of particulars from various sections and the rude

surprise us if forget the ageless tradition that of the country, tells the story of American hand skills only we of the sim- and traces intelligible patterns within that story. In may lie behind the making and decoration documenting the forms created by the tastes, skills, and plest article of everyday use. The artifacts recovered at needs of our ancestors it brings a new vitality and Jamestown are far from crude. The earliest houses at warmth into their everyday history, whether they were Plymouth have a direct and simple manner of con- the founders of colonics and states, or political, religious, struction which shows that they were built by men who or economic refugees who came here to find a new free- knew exactly what they were about. While the tradition

’ way of life, “a chapter of harmony and perfection in of the early American craftsman is basically English, it

the relations of men. shows in its beginnings an interweaving of influences

In one sense the Index is a kind of archaeology. It made more complex by immigration and intercolonial

helps to correct a bias which has tended to relegate the migration. This helps to explain the variety of handi-

work of the craftsman and the folk artist to the sub- craft and popular art styles in certain sections, in Penn- conscious of our history where it can be recovered only sylvania, New Jersey, New York. Virginia, the Caro- by digging. In the past we have lost whole sequences linas and the settlements to the west. Pennsylvania out of their story, and have all but forgotten the unique Germans settled some towns in New England. The contribution of hand skills in our culture. As early as Moravians and other Palatine Germans followed the the eighteenth century little remained above ground of Shenandoah Valley through Virginia and into North seventeenth century Jamestown. When the Williams- Carolina and thc Ohio River Valley to the west, carrying burg restoration began in 1927 a good with deal of the re- them their typical handicraft skills. search into that eighteenth century town had to be done Thc English tradition itself is far from single, even by digging in old sites. These excavations recovered m thc work of thc artisans and craftsmen who came than more forty tons of material other than brick, from in- Britain before thc middle of the seventeenth cluding fragments of ceramic ware, glass, bone, iron, century. These men were trained in ways of doing brass and . Colonial Williamsburg is authority things that go back through late medieval times in for the statement that an accurate reconstruction “would Britain, France, and Thc Netherlands into Gothic not have been possible without this very intensive and even Romanesque times. This medieval tradi- archaeological exploration, just as it could not have been tion lived a long time in Britain. Some done without phases of it the most intense sort of research work with were in existence in the hill towns surviving documents of Gloucestershire and records." “Artifacts arc of as late as the twenties of this century; in the inestimable value in giving United us a broad over-all impres- States it lasted well sion into the nineteenth century. of the culture and taste The of colonial people.” In the men who damp carried this tradition in early earth of the peninsula between colonial times the York and the and through lames the recurring primitivisms rivers, wood, textiles, leather, of the expand- clothing, and floor ing frontier were sometimes covenngs disintegrate quickly. specialists and sometimes Consequently some of jacks-of-all-irades the history not only because of the of Jamestown and Williamsburg exigencies of is lost and hfc can in a new land but also be reconstructed only because their training from conjecture and analogy made or flexibility. supported by and shipwrights surviving written documents. could turn their The same hands may be to architecture, the making said of other early of furniture, and towns. Some of the houses the carving of tools Plymouth, before and utensils. Some of they could be restored, had the carvings to be which they treed from made as shop signs constructions laid over and ships decora- them through the •ion we now recognize 5 ' Th as our “ ^ °f digging earliest sculpture. int° thc African Carnage pastPast hashas"!!been makers and house necessary not only and sign painters for the early period knew how to design and coats of arms, shop signs. JndsCapcs - some of which may still be oun 1 und on the1 overmantels inflUCnCC °f °nC of eighteenth tr3dition u n another century house P° is reflected Sm 2 y 5 lhe ,ndeX qU that ' Thc Sha thc portraits of ^> most austcre'of 1670 s , which h . K f°? raghteemhT T and nineteenth °Pment that century craftsmen, cul™nated in the were eiLueenfe gb eemh Enghsh mam,grants. Their century came out design may be of this anonymous and traced m Eng- U CVCrC imCgnty P ' LikC CaHy in handlln '"ate- Amcrican “*>« of 8 ervdas rialsTTdlscardinT of7 y T 8 ornament in favor Portraits reflect a tradition e of unadorned “f of shop surface ract.eer f and its sense of fitness I which^looks and function it back is as through Tudor painting much to a forerunner of modern medieval ideas as it is a reflection and Books of Hours. of the But they past. Pennsylvania look forward also German and Spanish Colonial to our e.ghteenth century which masters, are related rckc to peasant art seem further and Copley and Earl. asvay from us Yet, in their feeling for There surface and their stimulating is this double aspect in the work of the crafts- influence upon our all but lost sense of vivid man who is the bearer and dear of folk memory in the arts. This color in articles of everyday folk use they have much of value memory, which is amazingly tenacious, is a store- for the contemporary designer and the craftsman. house of the technical and symbolic innovations of thc Today we are surrounded by so many past, and such power- and on more than one occasion has prepared thc ful evidences of mass-production technology that way for we are new developments. For this reason the Index apt to forget that this technology was born in a handi- of American Design which records American crafts- craft tradition. The forgetfulness may be an expression manship is more than a backward look. There is in it of our passion for obsolescence. It is one of thc accidents also the Davy Crockett "go ahead principle." It tells the of our history that modern design in the United States story of creativeness and inventive change when tradi- has developed in almost complete isolation from tradi- tional design failed to meet problems. new Dr. Henry tional craftsman's skills. Here thc Index serves in thc Chapman Mercer, in his valuable study of early car- role of interpreter, calling our attention to thc unique penters' tools, says that Amcrican tools do not appear and irreplaceable contribution which these skills have as inventions but as European heirlooms “modified made, and may still make, in our culture. We can sec

rather than transformed by a new environment.” And many ways in which contemporary design has been in-

yet the book in which he makes this statement gives fluenced by thc hand skills of thc past. Perhaps we may

evidence of real transformations. One is that of thc even be permitted to wonder if in thc design of such

Amcrican ax whose quality, both as and as design, modern things as the steamboat and the automobile,

was admired by European visitors to thc Philadelphia lustiest offspring of our mass-production economy, we shipwrights and Centennial in 1876. As early as 1828 Fenimorc have improved upon thc work of the Horatio Grecnough admired had noted thc superior form, neatness and “precision of the wagonmakers whom ago. Nikolaus Pevsner has pointed out weight" of the Amcrican ax. In all previous European a hundred years of thc to overestimate the contribution , with their heavy bits, thc weight was poorly dis- our tendency and thc art- engineer and underestimate thc craftsman tributed so that the ax wobbled in delivering oblique need not follow factors in modern design. We blows and was both tiring and dangerous for thc woods- ist as Crane and insist that handi- William Morris and Walter man. Some time between 1744 and 1776 there developed arts. But it is no true root and base of thc distrib- craft is thc one thc American ax in which the weight has been that thc hand skill is one new mere Luddism to maintain poll is heavier than the bit. This uted so that thc not only in broad This is true today and much of the main roots. “precision of weight” made thc ax steady fur- have a craft base, textile* areas of industry which blade made it easier effective. Thc thinning of thc and the budd- more glass, utensils, printing, niture, ceramics, thc first half of withdraw after thc blow. Later, in production and in to in design for mass ing trades, but also came the lean and delicately the nineteenth century machine itself. the making of the changes come about r that handle. How did these American craftsmanship curved The wide interest in by thc needs of an centum, they were stimulated quarter of thc nineteenth Undoubtedly in thc last ever, developed a lores, frontier where agricultural civilization in Po^bl, to be cleared of trees. of farmland had acre wedgtn a, the eastern Pennsylvan, useful hints came from Perhaps the two had no cutting edge. ax which a even, we ave hereJ- indepen, lently. In any instrument o ments came come an tool and beau aJ |he hand something more useful into everyday u . tool transformed articles of kcn ^ mas anything in its ancestry. tiful than t0 or that reshapes The inventiveness sum environment and the ^ a changing tl)C need, of ] the prob- far, is the best kind of answer to of shop practice, Index thus craftsman had learned in the dialectic available. I he of making its information easily materials and his knowledge of their lem his sympathy with important, for the Index has Index of American question of availability is possibilities and limitations. The the not for the designer, the craftsman and the skills of craftsmen who value only Design is a repository of more for the historian, the itself; it may manufacturer, but even thought out their design in the material general public. As the late a source of re- educator, the student and the well become a steadying influence and students of ideas to life Constance Rourkc, one of the soundest freshment to the designer who brings his the craftsman who models American culture, has phrased it: "Not the least of on the drawing board and the revelations of the Index may be those offered to the and tools the pattern. American social history. Fresh light may be is largest and most nearly student of The Index, as it stands, the

it upon ways of living which developed within the comprehensive collection of its kind in the world. But thrown brought the highly diversified communities of our many frontiers, is not complete. The Second World War in turn give us new knowledge of the activities of the project to an end before its work was and this may

temperament. Finally, if the mate- done in any state and before much had been accom- American mind and offer plished in the South. The first need of the Index is rials of the Index can be widely seen they should for completion. The second is a wider distribution of its an education of the eye. particularly young people, pictorial information. The National Gallery of Art has which may result in the development of taste and a tried to meet this through making Index material avail- genuine consciousness of our rich national inheritance.” able to students through exhibitions. The present mag- nificent volume, which is the fullest presentation of the HoLc.tR Cahill spr.i |. h.irilicnw.irc Dish.

proluhly i (icor^ 1 IuIkikt. OUR WIDE LAND

I 1*1 } i tm in 2. Earthenware l’l.uc (detail), sgr.iflitu«lccor.ition. IVnnsylv.ini.i (

1. Bird and Tulip

The colonics on the eastern seaboard had been settled technique. The artists depended on talent rather than largely from Fngland and eventually the Anglo-Saxon academic training. tradition became the predominating influence every- Folk art is not linked to the current historic styles as where. But here and there, East and West, there were exemplified in architecture, sculpture and painting. other racial groups. Smaller in number, they were held Being chiefly rural and isolated, it is unrelated to the together by a common faith, and developed styles that changing period tastes that ruled the towns. Philadel- differed from the prevailing pattern. The fact that these phia might have its Chippendale, its classic revival, its groups lived in regions or communities isolated from the Victorian Gothic; Rucks County and Berks. Montgom- rest of the population favored artistic originality. ery, Lancaster. York, Dauphin, Lebanon, One Schuylkill, Le- of the most exuberant of these local styles is the high, and Northampton continued the traditions of Pennsylvania German. their The Spanish art of the Southwest forefathers. These independent, freedom-loving is farmers ornate, but it can also be severe. No other region pro- adhered to their cultural duced heritage as tenaciously as they a folk art so fresh and homogeneous in character conserved the fertility of the soil. The rich farms, Here we have a style with that is pleasantly decorative; it their large barns, today enriches reflect the conservative trend of surfaces, it is colorful and at times childlike in their owners’ thrift and husbandry, its untutored simplicity. the wish to keep what they have and to provide for the As if eager to decorate, the future. In the design spreads across the same way a desire to cling surface, freely to what is theirs reveals and boldly. One feels itself the luxurious rich- n«s •n the continued and unchanged of gay colors, yellow, use of the same motifs. intense green, purple and fl.unmg This adherence to tradition red, that seem to speak is shown in the use of the of a delight in the good tulip as a floral motif. thmgs of hfe Applied to It occurs on chests objects of everyday and boxes, it is use-, the art found on wood, f e Pennsylvania Germans tin, cast iron and paper is wholly utilitarian. I, is In the chest true folk art, largely painted to order by unconcerned the itinerant decorator, with the niceties of ba| ’"S,na l " r marnage certificate illuminated bv a

> I I schoolteacher or village pastor, and even in earthenware ware. Bod, crocks and were for display rather stove plates purchased than for use from pottery or found- and ret, resented but a portion ry we recognize a of the common common artistic homemade pot- expression. It is this ter). In -decorated expression, rather pottery, the than origin or purpose, slip, a white clay that produces mixed with me water, was applied character of folk art. to the surface to form various designs in lust as the relief. In sgraffito decoration language of the Pennsylvania Germans the con- is cave surface was entirely a German covered with slip, and dialect, interspersed with the de- English words, so is sign was scratched into this covering ' lcl art an "tfspring coat. A lead glaze, of a European tradition. y From transparent and yellow, 1683 softened the slip and U t0 the * brought P t mc of the Revolution these newcomers out the red of the clay. took The potteries were small and up land in the eastern and southern counties of largely concentrated in Montgomery and Bucks Pennsylvania. Leaving counties villages in which the native crafts near deposits of suitable clay. Here and there in the state were flourishing, they transplanted a European peasant arc the remains of early kilns, and the ruins of furnaces style to the new world, where it lived on undisturbed that once produced the stove plates may still be seen f" at r a century and a half. Traditions isolated from outside Durham, in Bucks County. influences were kept intact and strengthened through In furniture, the dowry chest and bride’s box have a fresh immigration, as the first arrivals were joined by special significance. The young bride took her chest friends and relations. filled with household linens to her new home. At the The motifs used were not inventions of the artist. time of the wedding, the groom gave her a smaller, They belonged to a common stock handed down from often oval-shaped box, made of thin strips of pliable one generation to another, and were used by all who , for personal belongings. Chest and box were gaily practiced the arts. Simple shapes and dots, lines, circles, decorated in color on the exterior, and so were salt stars, chevrons, rosettes, and even flowers and birds, ap- boxes, chairs and cupboards. pcar in the designs of many peoples at various times. Fraktur, so called after the name of the Gothic type,

These motifs came to Pennsylvania with the immi- is the art of illuminated writing, elaborated with pen- grants. who brought them from the Palatinate, the upper drawn decorations in color. The elements were taught

Rhine, Swabia and Switzerland. Though the same mo- in the schools, and this art was widely used for various mar- tifs are used, the decorations differ from one county to documents, including certificates of baptism and blessings for wall another, to differences in the styles of indi- riage, pious inscriptions used as house decorations of vidual decorators. decorations, bookmarks, valentines, and

Pottery, chests, painted tin called tolcwarc, illumi- songbooks. people created, to bring the joy and nated manuscripts or Fraktur writings, and cast-iron What these sturdy lives, is now of artistic expression into their stove plates are here illustrated. There arc two kinds of satisfaction collectors. treasured by public museums and private pottery, the so-called slip-decorated and the sgraffito

German; lathe-turned, and painted 3. Salt Cup. pine, Pennsylvania 1860-1 MO. by Joseph Lchn. Lancaster County; "

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Di ' Vi ' h Ed c « ' -hcnwarc. sgraffito Water dccorati* °n J , Whistle, ' ' earthenware, SVlv ' ,ni '' ( ’ crmjn: made bv IWvIvania 11 Samuel ' Umim-' in Wl ninetcemli in Montgomery County; century. dated July 17, ls’j.

In this oval dish the compactness of the design con- high. When used i, is filled with water and is blown leas -ugh the head, ng. The light strokes the length of the of the letters of the neck govern,,,*. the inscrip, pitch. on form a delicate I he zigzag hne of border, subordinated the saw-tooth edge to the main cent ,s an decoration. decorative mottf, As on Htibencrs dish, and color applied it reads: “From day to the g| ,,, •nd many kS sk.Hs the potter fashions ^ what he wills * ‘Wivunia The whistle, shaped like a :“r hen, is about ten inches (icrni..n: inad_c sgraffito decoraiion. IVnnsylv.ini.i (,. Pit Pl.itc. e.irdiemv.irc, SII '>- by Johannas Nets/; dated I m,ir T tier's Purl, in Montgomery County,

for the ,ump^ European folk-art tradition animals and bn based on a rtprcstni.il ion of ' 1 Correct .ui.iixinic.il throughout P°Pular c^"’' horse is well known inltrtsl of folk art. Never- am. d-d. figures Iks Ik yon. I the over hd. reads: "I have ridden line inscription fresh an.l sponi.mtous. die theless, il.c drawing is and ... contours of horse and ruler unhesitating ... (lit Continental sold.tr floral sprays. The the frcclv drawn rider. be sprays .mil Washington. Tins n.oi.f may to be George ,, believed w ;

£*** ^ i£“3 ///. •own; eighteenth century.

In troughs of this type the dough was put to rise be- What is so attractive about the design fore being kneaded on the box is into loaves. Articles of use when sum ,uous vigor. produced P A few shapes are used, through the handicrafts were and lar-c often elaborated masses with with sharply rendered contours painted decoration. Stylized stand out m tulips growing out of boldly rendered sprays. This vases were though, to box is carefully constructed be as suitable for a dough trough as he sides arc for a dovetailed and the bride s box. Christian upper rim is rounded Seller takes high rank among to •' ro°ve be chest 8 for the lid. Tulips.se, painters. Though he frequently °7 into panels and used the same urclcs. motifs, form a well he constantly varied considered decorative his adaptations. The trough scheme and stand out ,n striking ' S tWCmy -ci contrast 8l « inch« and gives against a light some idea of the ground amount M°re dlCsts of baking which was ‘«'awcrs and dressing done. The food and good tables were ,n 0"' c«»kmg of the Pennsylvania ChWtS a,Ul Germans have Smal1 were used. become al- ThoseTl OSC most legendary, theff 7br.deI rece.vcd and bread was the on her staff of life. wedding day were s aborately painted and became valued possessions.

[ 5l in Pennsylvania German: made dccor.ition, Pennsylvania (icrnian; 10. Howl, earthenware, 9. Dish, c.iri liciiw.irc, slip by century; probably designed I75S-1S1 ). Bucks County, nineteenili made in Ducks County hy David Spinner ( 1 D.ivid Waring. Signed.

with a kind of howl the surface is |>erforatcd shapes is shown In the Appreciation of a fine relationship of dis- potter thereby suggestive of . The of the dish openwork the way the inscription, borders and birds in contents of the dish. H»a£ played his skill so that the another. The facile stroke that harmonize with one would show their e'. or purple grapes, the adjacent red apples out the potter's name is echoed in on he lid, spells acorn forms the knob against the clay. An tulips arc laid in lightly wavy-line border. Birds and wickerwork. An ">>' the handles suggest cake. In applying and like sugar icing on a typical of eighteen with white slip, forms in art is natural and other from which the creamy fluid ihe slip, a cup was used clay. quill onto the reddish trickled out through a .< glaze; the outer appear in the lead peacocks are .e Splashes of green County. Doves and hvery morning caster inure inscription reads: artist was more is orange. The The Border tulips and blossoms. Spume . with sour gravy. D. cat fried sausage | like to

I*- ] 1

11. Dowry Chest, Pennsylvania German; from Lancaster 12. Dowry Chest, Pennsylvania German; County, inscribed from Berks with the name of the first owner, Jacob County; dated 17S-4. Rickert; dated 17X2. s|X)ts of bright color than in making the flowers and exceptionally elaborate. The surface is covered with birds lifelike. A decoration a in two panels was no doubt splendid array of intricate designs. There is boldness in suggested by the intrusion of the wrought-iron key plate the large floral shapes and delicacy and the space reserved in the leaves and for the name. The low base and branches that fill the panels the narrow in a closely spaced carpet- lid, in their contrasting colors, call attention hke design. Unicorns, symbols of to the chest's spaciousness. the Virgin Mary in The effect of the design de- medieval art, arc characteristic of pends on the plain, unbroken Berks County folk surface, in which one feels On the lid we the restraining find a star, a design also hand of a person sensitive used on to the beauty the barns where that ,« was meant to lies in simplicity. keep out evil spirits. Designs of The such art.stry are the most ornate of Pennsylvania works of itinerant crafts- marriage chests men, who traveled from come from Berks County. one farm to another, The one illustrated here often is accepting food and lodging in payment.

1 7 1 \ Runted Wooden Splint Box, Pcnnsylv.ini.i German: eighteenth century.

Painted splint This box, about sixteen inches long and less than a this box belongs to rural Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania arc sometimes mistaken for foot wide, was intended for keeping wearing apparel. boxes, that attractive German, were also imported. As they were The cheerful decoration, the red frocked man with cane and no doubt valued and practical for storage purjwscs, and tricorn hat, suggest the festive character of the occa- over with reasons, many must have come boxes were known as gift boxes, dressing for sentimental sion. for such rccogmzci immigrants. They can be tradition of the baggage of the boxes, or brides' boxes. They continue a character of the decoration. by the more professional jieasant art: similar boxes painted by expen- European artist, t e was painted by an amateur Austria, and Though this box cnccd craftsmen are found in Bavaria, -wn.mgj responsible for Fraktu. layman is usually no. was a center of manufac- Switzerland. Berchtesgaden with the q Fraktur writing was executed with splint The text in also furnished the toy industry and embel- ture that pen -drawn ornaments, pen, elaborated with containers. boxes as designs in color. lished with painted character of the drawing. Judging from the awkward («] H. Birth .uni Baptismal Certificate, ITaktur Writing*, Penn h. Water Color, on paper, hy Heinrich Otto, Pennsylvania sylvania (icrm.m, Whitehall Township, Lehigh (tumurlv (itrman, aster Line l ounty; eighteenth century, last splatter. Northampton) Cmmtv; dated ISOS.

Manuscript illumination dial out in Europe after the by the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, but not by adoption of printing with movable type, but it lingered sectarians like the Amish or the Mcnnonitcs, and others on in Pennsylvania and in other states till about the who did not believe in infant baptism. This certificate middle of the nineteenth century. It received particular attests to the birth of Eli/abetha Schlosscr, January 10, emphasis at the Ephrata Cloisters, where we may s|»e.ik ISOS, and her baptism by the Reverend lohannes (ieb- of a revival. rccht. Religious precepts are written into the two smaller I his example shows a fine appreciation for style in its hearts. decoration, and its skill suggests the professional writer. 1 he pcacock-and-parrot design Such certificates may be a pattern for a were made by itinerant writers, usually Uicm decoration. The some drawing is accomplished, and the time after the event. Calligraphy was also an ac- elegance and precision of line arc due to the complishment of the schoolmaster, who practical was expected luml of the to experienced artist. This write a good hand. Baptismal design, like many certificates were favored •tlicrs. demonstrates the love of folk art for symmetry.

17. Chandelier, tinned sheet iron, Pennsylvania German. P>. Hinge, wrought iron. Pennsylvania German. IS. Patch-box front a Kentucky Rifle, brass, Pennsylvania German; about 1790-1810.

In the days of feeble candlelight, several candles were greased leather or cloth wrapped around the ball to grouped for better illumination in a chandelier sus- keep it out of contact with the pended barrel. Thereby less from the ceiling. As tin was inexpensive, it was cleaning was necessary, making faster shooting possible. used in wide bands which make the a trifle The Kentucky rifle that helped to conquer the wilder- bulky; but the narrow strips, bent ribbonlike into curves, ness was made in Pennsylvania; Rive it got its name through it a fantastic character. The shapes as well as the association with Daniel Boone after his return motifs punched into the from the tin are appropriate to the mate- country beyond the rial, Cumberland Mountains, then as tin bends easily anti called takes impressions readily. Kentucky. More the days of standardized, interchangeable parts In the wrought-iron hinge, each handmade the medieval Gothic tradi- flintlock rifle was different. The ornate tion persists. In the scrolls, we sense brass hd of the patch-box the delight of the with its scrolled design, cut craftsman who could and chased, was the malleable metal also individual. A patch into is a piece of fantastic shapes. [] from tphrata* 20 .iikI 21. Tulcw.irc I5rc.ul Tray and Coffee Put, from 22. Utility l5o\, wood: Pennsylvania German, Lclunon, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania: about ISUO.

the deco- At a later period the quality of The term japanned tinware or tolewarc is applied to larger market. \' i° the hands of inferior artists such household utensils as trays, coffee |>ots, tea caddies rations deteriorated at used stencils. and the like made of thin sheets of tinned iron painted. using Mowers, bright color and bold decoration, are executed in color on The These decorations these tradition. In bands, and dots, are in the folk-art almost black ground. Chinese vermilion, yellow, opaque, surface m a motifs that cover the Orig- I, road, expansive green-blue, white and bronze powder arc used. a European still feel the flavor of it directions, you was introduced from China; • inally tins technique belonged to a tarn well Ik that it once States, where it design. It may spread to Euro|>c and the United in Pennsylvania- probably it was ma.le nineteenth cen- house, and greatest popularity in the designs on 1 achieved its the simple Characteristic of folk art arc after the Civil War. wa tury, lasting until bands and stars, t |x't: flowers, wave was also imported coffee eighteenth century, toleware |„ r he U^menngfctshee^rftinin^^^ firm line and sure handmade, England. The designs sl.ovv the Though from the angular profile. for a molds, hence artisan who worked touch of the experienced 2l 2i ' C Ilc l>1 "'

foreshadows a later machine age, since here the crafts- sign reflects European peasant art. in spite of classical man is concerned with rapidity of manufacture. scrolls and rosettes. These designs Toleware, were added to painted commonly called Pennsylvania German surfaces and stenciled often borders through a shows this type of expert mechanical brushwork in the deco- transfer from prepared paper, called ration. Such painted decalcomania, a tinware was used by the Pennsyl- process much in vogue vania in the early sixties. In Germans; the brilliant color 1867 a cer- and the light weight mm Louts Fitzmaier patented an made ,t popular. Like improved method of "Gaudy Dutch" Staffordshire pot- transferring a design from tery, it was lithographic imported from England paper to a metal and sold to the surface. Though industrial l ennsylvania farmers. methods of circumventing nr,ISt S h: The n,l,work ‘lil1 humble basin is so much «> debase taste, striking, in its i„ this blaze of ; color, instance, at one hardly least, the combination questions its of techniques appropriateness. This still de- retains its effectiveness [;] 26. Religious Inspirational Drawing. Shaker; made by Polly Reed, New

Lebanon, New York; April 11. 18-17.

as the) the tender branches droop down These fascinating though little known “spirit draw- rlosurc, and free prisonlike box. so that the 8-47 ucct the sidewalls of a ings" belong to a period ( 1 837— 1 ) when the Shakers c mingle with the rigid and systematic. were gripped by an intense emotionalism that expressed ind natural rather suggesting writing inc, threadlike and brittle, itself in elaborate rituals, in visions and various psychic beauty. han drawing, breathes a sensitive, delicate experiences. What the Shakers' millennial laws ordinar- religious symbolism, drawing is steeped in express itself in pious The whole ily would have banished could Father William, of Father James and these drawings were rhe names symbolism. Those who made ^tn are placed beside corked with Mother Ann Lee, inspired recipients of “divine gifts," ex- jv looked ujHjn as to the Scr of shewbread relate rees. Altars and tables in graphic form. Here a tal- pressing spiritual messages love bmp universal symbol of ares; the heart is a revealing a yearning heart seeking ent bursts its bonds, and doves little b. J andles mean heavenly light; in art, veiled in mysticism. of

2. Work and Faith

A rich heritage of the arts and crafts has come to us settlement secluded itself from the outside world, leav- from the religious communities established in America ing to the church trustees all matters of commerce and largely after the Revolution and in the decades before finance, the sale of produce and the purchase of supplies. the Civil War. As we have seen, the Pennsylvania Ger- However communities might differ in name, they all mans at Ephrata established one of the early religious advocated a return to the ideals of primitive Christianity settlements. Toward the end of the eighteenth century and to a new conception of the dignity of labor. 3 few English Shakers founded the first of their com- The founder of the Shaker church in this country, munities in America. Among the settlements that fol- Ann Lee, came from England in 1774, with eight fol- lowed were a Swedish one at Bishop Hill, Illinois, which lowers. After an early settlement at Niskeyuna, later had a short but dramatic existence, and a German one named Watervliet, near Albany, the first Shaker colony at Zoar, Ohio. was founded at New Lebanon, New York, in 1786, and Only in a country that offered freedom from perse- it became the seat of central authority of all Shaker cution and so- poverty was it possible to form these inde- cieties. Between 1825 and 1850, at the time of greatest de- pendent, self-contained communities, where those of velopment, there were six thousand members in about the same faith might live, work and worship together. twenty settlements in seven Communal states. The name “Shaker" settlements of various religious groups were came from the group dancing, a scattered from part of the religious Maine to Pennsylvania, west as far as service, the pur|>osc of which was Oregon, and to shake sin out of the south through Kentucky into Tennessee. body through the finger tips. The official A fertile soil provided name of the sustenance, and an atmosphere of Shaker group was the United Society tolerance encouraged of Believers in experiments in reforms. As all Christ s Second property Appearing. was held in common, the welfare of every Of the various Shaker societies member was assured, only a few and he could consecrate members himself remain, but the wholeheartedly contributions the to labor in the Shakers made to spirit of religion. Each American culture have endured. Their furniture, par-

[ ticularly, represents a native American style of distinc- were of immediate benefit to all, but their Shaker lion and originality. origin has frequently been forgotten. Among the many inven- It was a Shaker belief that “True Gospel simplicity tions credited to the Shakers arc the , the . . . naturally leads to plainness in all things" This af- screw propeller, a new type of wood stove, a washing fected their designs for architecture, furniture and tex- machine, a windmill, and numerous other machines tiles; to make these things simple was a kind of worship. and devices used in home and shop. Beauty was not consciously sought, but was synonymous Shakers The were known for their integrity and for with utility. The Shakers cared nothing for art; orna- the quality of their goods. The demand for their prod- mentation was considered superfluous. Their walls had ucts was such that thriving industries were developed no pictures, but their floors were immaculate and their for garden seeds and medicinal herbs, for canned fruits rooms were kept in the best of order. Work and faith and vegetables, as well as for chairs, benches, footstools,

were linked in Mother Ann's saying. Put your hands brooms and other things.

to work and your hearts to God.'* Another religious community was that of the Jans-

To promote the comfort and happiness of their fel- sonists, of Bishop Hill in Henry County, Illinois. Start-

lows was also the aim of the craftsmen. Once a form had ing with four hundred settlers who came from Sweden

been found that best served the purpose no further ex- in 1846, under the leadership of Eric Jansson, the colony

perimentation was needed. Hence Shaker design had a increased to eleven hundred in two years. Their econ-

basic permanence; individual preferences were subordi- omy, too, was based on agriculture, and their crafts fur-

nated to the religious principles sanctioned by the group. nished not only field implements and household furn- them. This meant a degree of uniformity in the search for ishings but also the tools with which to make of bricks burnt standards of excellence. Buildings in the village were constructed kilns and cut from black walnut Essentially this is also the modern point of view. Be- in community the neighborhood. Home-grown wool fore a machine age hail given a new meaning to the trees common in were spun into thread and woven into cloth. idea that form should follow function, the Shakers were and flax and women worked together in fields and shops, applying this principle, and our methods of production Men surplus. own necessities and selling the brought back the ideal of simplicity that makes us supplying their have who do not know the names of the individuals sympathetic to the kind of beauty found in Shaker We pitchforks, but from made the beds, chairs, and wooden design. several skilled in their their work we can see they were did, they did well. They be- Whatever the Shakers the reproduced are still in God trades. Some of the objects using to the fullest extent the gifts that lieved in or private col- buildings; others are in museums Personal ingenuity and tal- original had given each individual. under Separatists of Zoar, Ohio the lections. The German consecrated to practical use. Whether in ents were later called B.mc Joseph Michael Baumler. building of a house, or their leader improvement of agriculture, the bench and an represented by a peasant avoided waste o lcr. arc here construction of furniture, they the brmo the Dating from the time most economical elaborate calendar. materials. Ever seeking the from the Man labor and Illinois, a rcl.c were settled at Nauvoo. they invented many labor-saving solution of a problem, rcpr

century. made by .be Shakers; ninc.een.h 28. Man’s Beaver Ha., Dressmakers' Counter, and pine. Shaker; Watervlict, New York; nineteenth century

Works of the Swedish settlers at Bishop Hill find a Construction is light but sturdy, and as inlays and counterpart in another work of Scandinavian origin, a veneers were thought to be deceitful, they were never large carved altarpicce from Decorah, Iowa. This Nor- used. Instead, Shaker furniture depended on proportions wcgian-Amcrican example is of a later date, and not and the natural grains of the wood, as in the connected with contrast of a religious communal settlement. Of ungrained maple posts against pine these panels and curly works, it is the only one that represents the estab- maple drawers. lished church and a religious subject. Like all early settlers, the Shakers made But more important than their own subject matter were the wearing apparel. As their advancing convictions that inspired economy, with the religious communities and their labor-saving inventions, permeated the whole yielded more than they mode of life. In the case of the could consume, the surplus was sold in the Shakers, these moral precepts open market gave direction to the They produced the craftsmen raw materials, llax, wool, who produced the style and hides', we admire today. from The which they manufactured drop-leaf top, the tapered anything from carpet- legs, and the red color ,ng h°rsc blankc,s of the > w°rstcd dressmakers' counter arc doth, and checked linen typical Shaker ; , L features. to felt hats.

7l ‘

Basket nineteenth century. New Lebanon, New York; 31 Shaker ; JO. Interior wiili Siovc, Shaker; in Haoeock. M-*h«« Stool, pine, Shaker; made ninclcenih ccniury. a. nineteenth century.

Baskc.-makmg used die be,, tool,. cheerful. Pegboards line and c Shaker rooms .ire sober bur which ihey smaller industries in apparel and for hang- many „ They are for wearing of various iyi>« the walls. much produce, baskets [here was so cleaning time. Plain o s chairs off the floor at some were made , in,, always in need, and exhibit the Shaker usual moldings. Stoves drawers *ejl* lack the give access ,o high that is I™ To besi in a design o for simplicity a, its or three steps fe genius Stools with two arc can be handled w,.h * 8 so .hat heavy log, arc and horizontal, struction. The steps shel . cross-braced or reinforced and is in the Shaker their handicrafts natural color of "'•n,riSnee of brings out the hn“‘ lac -'ll" craft, ip, bo Hi Di cr wood with PP » natural finish. Shaker; made in New '5 ' Armc

One would like to keep this dipper just as a source of structurally out of the delight to wood itself. Their the eye. In addition to the fresh craftsmen were sparkle of the •nventive and attached a «ra.n of the wood, there ball-and-socket device is a sense of satisfaction to the from ends of the the back posts, tension felt in the thin to prevent slipping wood bent into a circle. when the ch ur was „|,ed Shaker chairs combine back. Shakers were among elegance and simplicity with the first to comfort; they are Cha ,rS and ,he as strong as slatback V chairs for children. colonial chairs Though . but lighter “fShakers had m weight. The hack renounced family life, posts have finials, since they took Shakers were not against ornamentation that grew Shaker; nineteenth century. .mil Wn.n.m's Dress. 36.HK 1 57. Man's Sui>

sem I « obscured almost all designer has successfully ere, i to but the Shakers a, II, as isliions in dress vary the collar looks nature, and even cut of tins nmc- t -h £ styles. In the ,s rehev d • n conservative Yet .his severity -j 0W of a uniform. lingering suggests red suit there is a white. A purphsh ", th century man's orange and a use of ^ ^ subdued color reflects century. The was a l ,e eighteenth butternut bark, ( ood and of all sobnetf, on W spirit, hut in sp.tc ^ self-effacing of a unner. )• was ,1,1c purple nature sister brown and the coa, ^as.on when Shaker the trousers On one . ^ is blue, fabrics alike. modesty itself, a ,r,an ^ woman's costume is ^' chairs into a lafg and lie The dipping poinIcd out bell-sbtped sktrt. and dress w as with a of her chatr hief is combined „f ,hc colors almost geome everything. and narrow. These "Shaker dyes dye •es arc tight she replied, figure, for lines of the unrelated to the ics are 20 ] 3X. Rug. Sh.ikcr; made i„ Pfcjv.ni 11,11. Kentucky: nineteenth century.

This rug is made nf bits of woolen homespun rags, an attractive pattern. «rung Created in the midst of on threads like beads and a group sewn to a heavy can- lhat fervently believed in simplicity, vas until the the design is m surface is covered; the outer border is K

[ 1 Benjamin Youngs in Clock, Shaker; made by natural finish. 40. Tall Wcavc-Clicsi nr Sill Cuplmard, pine with 59 . New York, in 1.S06. New York; nineteenth cen- Watervliet, Shaker; made ... New Lebanon, tury.

mold.ngs accent spindles; the few im- slender cupboard is due to an be s.rag effect of this suppressed _ The splendid carvings have been pronounced ness and all velvety surface, a base maculate quality in the continuing into the bracket foot dant and a sense of ampli- dcsccn in the grain of the wood Eemamtn Young pattern the Shaker spirit. He were made o in <* proportions. These drawer, Connect,eut famil tude in the well known severcl) of a material. Though of weaving signed ,t. h„|d quantities this work and made d suggests worldly P monotony is avoided. his hand nl iin a work of P base, shaft and have had did I into Shakers might he dock, V scruples the tec, ore, ,s rc- praet.ee. of classic arch, established the manner this firmly | after against ca „ita reduced to the dial are Sl The columns flanking 22 ] 41. Blanket Chest, pine, stained reel. Shaker; Canaan. New M. Sewing I able, Shaker; nineteenth iork; 1836. century. •K Beil |>me and maple. Shaker; made in New Lebanon, New ^ ork; nineteenth century.

This chest in general character is like the New Eng- The design of the sewing table land type, but is a simplified version simplified. The open, dovetailed corners, of an earlier colonial tri|>od table that the base cut at had an elaborately the corners in angular fashion, and the carved center bone support. By fitting the table key plate arc in the Shaker with two manner. This plate was drawers, the practical Shakers made it mended solely to protect the wood convenient for from being marred two sisters to work on a single y the key, for the Shakers piece. studiously refrained from making In this bed, design has been the key plate an ornamental stripped of all superflui- feature in the usual ties; only those manner. Being parts that are justified meant for utility by use have ken only, it was small and retained. Light m weight, this bed was made movable b\ the addition of large casters. u?i mz *- " ./.TS** Wm

-dnutapplicel to oak |W carved of maple and black 44. Center P,ncl front Altarpiccc, Minnesota, formerly ol l»«a: by bars Christensen of Henson,

masses, anti presents hit tours and works with is the ornamental in this altarpiccc taste. Fig • What is attractive boldness and good delicacy as well as carving, "

1 1 ill. Illinois; IS75-1N*>5.

Something of the vastness of the prairies carries over Folk painters like Krans go to no art school. into this When a picture, with its yellow harvest fields against a daily routine of work gives them no satisfaction, thev luminous sky. The primitive artist is impressed with the may turn to painting for pleasure. desirability They work at their of expression and he exaggerates. Men stare own level, and one cannot judge them by academic- •is if in grim determination and women move awk- standards. In this case the artist returned to the wardly. Krans was not scene of interested in variety in the action Bishop Hill as a pleasant of his pastime during a period figures. Instead lie makes when us feel that farm labor he was convalescing from a is here leg injury due to a organized to function with fall. the regularity of a The Swedes at Bishop Hill were machine. In his youth Olof excellent craftsmen Krans had been a member The shears, made by the of the Bishop Hill local , are community where belief large in the dig- and heavy, and nity of may have been used in labor was part of the religious the tailoring shop creed. Lite in life Even as a if their religious fervor house and sign painter of did not produce a Galva, Illinois, he painted new style, their furniture a number of reminiscences has a flavor of „s from Bishop own. The bed ,s Hill. rU8gcd a"‘ l hcav " i

[ 2S] nineteenth century. IS. Bench; made in Zoar, Ohio; 46. Shc.irs, steel; m ule in Bishop Hill. Illinois; nineteenth or glass; made about century. 9. Hotel Lantern, sheet iron and Hill. 47. Bed, m.iplc; made in Bishop Hill, Illinois; nineteenth he Bjorklund Hotel, Bishop century.

northern Ohio southern Germany to furniture of ferred from cords, after the manner of the more modest peasants wit 1 ">« religious settlers were simple turned sections are the same on all the period. The dcs, n‘d ^ rustic furniture was g rations; their hc posts. , four the leg rather than comfort. Where pleasing thinness and leanness char- [o makc This lantern has a w lie neede , additional thickness is comes to the crafts- seat of sheet iron. As sheet iron spreae ^ aetcristic so the legs the bench top-heavy, his work is done for him; man in a finished state, part of cconom.«M^.^ Labor and material are used into final shape. In the word he only bends the material simphfica'io variety of • ing another | m0St dots sprout like buds, “Hotel" on the glass pane, round alrinuedsoth-hejt^M^le^^^ neither serifs. Adapted to replacing more functional The style is a into our own period. rounJs have not bab3ckgIF such playful adornments the d,ve gent brush nor pen, that grew out of ti ona, as any religious communmes. survived. of these American folk manner trans- bench from Zoar we have a | n this 26] 52.

50. Harley ami Straw Fork, ; Bishop Hill; nineteenth Gilciul.ir, wood; made in Zuar, Ohio in 1S^(>. century.

51. Downs|x>ut Head, painted tin. originally gilded; made h»r Joseph Smith s Mansion House in Nauvoo, Illinois; dated 1H42.

The hickory fork from Bishop Hill is tough and sug- the day. fixed holidays, and the days of the week ami gests the thinness of metal. These prongs, so perfectly month; the names arc in German. The decoration of adapted for digging into a bundle of bay, arc also pleas- flowers and castles perched on hills is in the ing to look manner of at; their purity of form is most satisfying. painted peasant furniture common to the A downspout villages from head is a box connecting a gutter to a which these newcomers had downspout emigrated. The astronom- to carry a sudden rush of rain water. This ical symbols beside the weekdays one follows the remind us that the style of the Greek revival, and sun, days were named after the moon and planets. Sunday has the sun, star arc emblems of the Mormon Church. Monday the moon, Tuesday Perpetual shield and spear, for Mars calendars were useful before mass produc- the god of war. The tion caduceus is for Wednesday gave us a yearly supply of or Mer- printed calendars. This cury one s day, the Z for has a ease like a Thursday, the day of Zeus clock with dials on the back. or It tells lupitcr. the Friday has a mirror for month, the time of sunrise and Venus, g.xidcss of love, sunset, the length of and Saturday a scythe or sickle for Saturn, god of time

] ^

5\ Saint Francis, butto, carved jnd painted wood; made in New Mexico; late eighteenth or early nineteenth century.

54. Sidesaddle, leather and white felt: made on Ni|>omo Ranch. San Luis Obispo County. California: mid-nineteenth century.

3. Saints and Saddles

had previously practiced, t country what they In our southwestern states there grew up a folk art, or had gathered acorns n of California formerly Spanish in character with some Indian elements inter- newly acqu ami many skills had to be mingled. Here the Indians were not so quickly displaced J»: had c I Arizona, indeed, in New Mexico and by landseeking settlers as in the East; they remained and culture, hut here hly developed material were converted to Christianity. The Catholic Church from die sP> n» in pueblos separate but a lived brought them from Spain not only a new religion g isolated; manufactur tics. The country was life. Taught by Spanish priest or craftsman, mountain new way of mulcback across o be brought on became familiar with new techniques; to the natives and the Spanish c little the Indian in stone and to use ^ metal, to carve and build they rec” work in and what guidance style a mpeanar, European manner. In the resulting resource ^ paint in the cultural arid with the rich conspicuous, but an Li- co simplified Spanish element is Their works 0 art ^ nd craftsman. baSfj present. ' cn lian contribution is also Spanish art. " xr duplicates of n0( Massachusetts or ir- contrast to the artisans of European m^ In work directly on natives of Cali- origin, the la ^ of European they rjnia, who were exact copies. Either dcJ recently cc corr^ Indians, had but that all American preferred something ornia, like or they the craftsmen Stone Age. In the East experience. merged from a to their own contmued nearly experienced; they merely ,xrc trained and

I 28 I carved or retablo is a religious image, painted, New Mexico was poor and afforded but a meager round; a surface. Indians lived berries and printed on a flat livelihood. The California on period the Spanish influence was pro- utensils, yet they were among In the early roots and had only a few sculpture of Moreover, nounced, as the priests had in mind the the finest basket-makers in North America. santos, representations of out of the Southwest are Spanish churches. The early the folk arts that later came lively saints, were probably made by priests and showed artistically equal to folk arts elsewhere. and expressive features. As the native crafts- This geographical area may conveniently be divided gestures Spaniard or Indian, became independent of his into two parts: New Mexico and Arizona, with their man, developed a style of his own. His figures century and a half of Spanish-Mcxican rule, and Cali- teachers he of the character of puppets, yet they fornia. Here white settlement came later, for the first took on something were no longer statues mission, San Diego de Alcala, was not founded until are serious and dignified. They for altars, for every 1769. Our religious carvings and panels arc largely from for churches but statuettes house New Mexico, while doors, fountains, water basins, can- adobe had its patron saint. As is often the case in archaic dleholders and wall paintings reflect life under the art, an emphasis on simplicity of form produces a monu-

Franciscan missions of California. Saddles and spurs mental character. This is true of the bultos in spite of here illustrated are from the end of the Mexican or the their small size; they are usually under two feet high. early American period. To the mind of the native, the image itself was the

Historically, three divisions may be distinguished: source of supernatural power; its magic could heal sick

Spanish rule, from the reconquest of New Mexico to ness and benefit crops. However, a saint who ignored

Mexican independence (1692-1820), the Mexican Re- the prayers of his worshipers might be punished by public (1820-1850), and the American period, after having his face turned to the wall. these regions came into the Union (1850). It was the The santero carved figures for a livelihood, traveling

Spanish mission that first gave the southwestern style its from one New Mexico community to another, like the essential character. In the ranch or pastoral period of the New England itinerant portrait painter. The amateur great landed estates of California ( 1820-1850) the in- ww/oMiiaker, on the other hand, made his sunto as an fluence of the missions decreased. Separated from exercise in religious devotion. Church control, they fell into decay. The Indians were In California, painted mission walls from which the disjjossesscd and became peons or cowboys; craftsmen whitewash had been removed indicate that, in addition who survived practiced their crafts outside the church to painted altars of purely Spanish inspiration, the native or mission, and with the coming of industry, folk art artists of the Southwest produced mural decoration. gradually disappeared. European ideas, pilasters and arches are fused with The Spanish period was responsible for the missions, some of the simple motifs that appear in the petrographs particularly in California where a once splendid array or rock paintings of this region. There are also large stretched from San Diego to San Francisco along the easel paintings, like the Stations of the Cross, which arc Ctinjino Real, or King’s Highway. Community func- exceptional in folk art. tions revolved around the mission or parish church, and Distances in the Southwest were great, and stylistic those priests who were artistically inclined took charge differences considerable. The painted chest from the °f building the church and making its furniture. They Rio Grande Valley is quite unlike the mission were the basket first to make bultos and retablos in New Mex- from the Pacific coast; they were ico, made by artists of and to teach the craft to the natives. A bulto (liter- different races and in places about as al| bu far apart as New y 'k) is a figure of a saint or holy person in the York and Florida.

55. Gold Pin, dove, made by Cclesiino Trujillo m Monterey, California; nineteenth century.

[ =0 J 3

California. Mission of San Buenaventura, 56. Basket, made in 1 '22 bs Anna Maria Maria,

women- For basket-makmg was done by the California Indian baskets in missions, This is one of the finest the on \ too weaving they sat on the ground; though it combines existence. Its design is unified, even cactus or a . was a bone awl, a spine of blocks, diamonds. V shapes and the Indian designs like the da s 0 stirrup goes back to > arms, the castles The wooden Spanish royal coat of given os a like, with the country was ifomia rancher, when the and Leon. The lions arc hardly rec- and lions of Castile a®* nd»g the technique of weaving ognizable. partly because much attention was ff™ and necessity, and character An - representation a geometric ornamenul ^P> gives to any saddle.sauu.c, The --- tooledtoo, ed leather fortor a part of the frora into the border becomes suggests inscription woven of wood, Marta, though made "Made by Anna Mana ^ itself. It reads: pa««'nTh design leather in the caned roUst Doctor Saint rest j of the Scrahc foot a hrm of the Mission this gave the Neophyte out like a box; the usual Indian The basket is made in comfort. Bonaventure." have added to nd.ng Southwest sewn togeth • with rush and of tfc manner of coils covered native furniture cod u The ££*,*** the body of the of the grass is used for something A tall, thin looks heavy as if surface. A. rush appears on the only the covering

1 ° 1 57. Carved Wooden Stirrup, mounted with silver, made in 59. Small Chest, pine, covered with deerskin, from New California; nineteenth century. York State; nineteenth century. 5S. Chair, cypress, from the Spanish Governor’s Palace at San Antonio, Texas.

walls had been carried over into the wood. Chairs wer finished with brass upholsterer's tacks, strips of patent primitive, consisting of hardly more than posts am braid, and cast-iron handles. It is already boards in the manner mortised and pegged together without the us of the trunk as our grandparents knew it. of nails. Tools were scarce and so was paint, so that th The charm of the rehibln, on the following page, surface of lies the wood was left unfinished. in its precise shapes and elegant curves. This small The artist has chest suggests in its materials the mcetin used lines that combine into a pattern, like the of the frontier with the arms resources of the eastern facte which echo the garlands above. ncs. Deerskin Because the Christ Child is stretched over wide pine boards am ts important, he is large; the hands arc tiny, for primitive ; made in New Mexico. Ml Hnlv l .imilv. retM".

was light anti fresh. extreme ground c, Acacio, feel. Here we have or n flc„ neglects hands and Acacus According to legend, Saint tend to be unrealistic; the flat ^ rciablos dca 1 1 heat ion; suffered one of the early martyrs, » removed from the reality ^ ^ a panel is, by itself, Mount Ararat. ce of soldiers at < chiefly red. Christian q( dark colors, hncd u, ^ statue m the round. The soldiers arc armv. a half dozen appear gloomier than express. brown, make the panel wears a serious ;llll | cross, and each one the back- ,hc painted, at which time ji was originally

I M - S um Acaciu '- '» N<» Mi mo'. cgh.eemh icnturv. sa ' n, ‘ w 'th arms outstretched, merely stamls against ilk- •'Pl-car gruesome to adults. Lacking cross. Bright, experience, they cheerful colors in a tragic subject may take It as make -believe and scem find it amusing. Though contradictory, but probably no such scruples folk art is not child art. in this instance troubled the artist. it is dose to the Had he given any thought to pain ch'hlhood level. Realism and and death, he probably abstraction appear unite comforted himself in the lielief commonly side by 'hat side in the folk ar, of a saint triumphs over death. New Mexico Here no suffering is *«//« were carved of shown, though the cottonwood, and covered red streaks on the yellow coat sug- with gesso and paint. Where the legs gest blood. In spite of such show, as here, they details, this is still a devo- were •UU ' ! ,ona| image. ‘ ' m°r,isal "« Children can delight in M > by wooden what is apt to pegs!”

[ 33 ] palmed; made in New Mexico. 62. Saint Isidore, hullo, wood,

manner reverted to a simpler local craftsmen, who saint of farmers, up by told of Saint Isidore, patron We arc their own experiences more in keeping with angel worked for him in the ** ^ he prayed an arc • hat while trousers and jacket added, so The saints team of oxen is here c An angel with a vest is repea fields. and the green of the The group is yellow, is Saint Isidore. all know this elegant cosnsmejo^ hat may is given an worship- Saint Isidore the saint faces hi* ntended for a house altar; figure. r in importance as a sacred jn before him. thcm those who pray objects F rs ready to listen to statues as art regarding such , had passed the 8> Mexican folk art after it nreverent to This is New would have seemed by museums emotional stage dominated hrough an earlier, more taken owner. carving of bultos was European influences. The 3d] H“” s ” >' Rc Jt ^

This is part of a wall decoration executed by native In this hunting scene painted over artists. In matters of a door, the hunter art where no question of religion disguised in a was pelt, is stalking a involved the Franciscan deer. One arrow has fathers allowed the Indians found its mark, as shown freedom to by the dots representing follow their own ideas. blood Where the native and another artist ,s being aimed. uses the cross he repeats The delicate zigzag it many times, contrary line, another fo k-art to the usual motif, forms an church custom, because he attractive border that attaches to it a magical pic,oriai significance. ,wi - Other motifs show ^ »» a distinct re- .hhe :rwavy hncs in r semblance to motifs the center of the that appear in certain door boards givingn neolithic ' 8 ' « rock unity to the whole paintings in California design. and adjacent states. Mexico. Into made in New M. Virgin jimI Chikl. 65. P.iinrcd ( Ium, pint ; m.ulc in New Mexico, lirsi lulf nineteenth century.

The figure of the Virgin on the opposite page is ex- attributes and have been restored besides, so that we pressive, her features are animated and the tilt of the cannot be sure which version is here represented. The head and the gestures of the arms give her an additional )arl "I’l’er l »f the figure is solid, the lower is a hollow liveliness. The swinging curve of the Madonna's arm framework built up of an armature >nd of sticks. Bound to- shoulder carries over into the Christ Child. In New gether, they are fastened to waist and , and Mexico the Virgin, Nucstra Seiiora, was represented in covered with cloth dipped in gesso. •>* The bell-shaped least a half dozen versions which differ in their attri- skirt gave the artist his opportunity for butes. One splendid decora- version, The Most Holy Virgin of Guada- "°n - F ’Sur« such as this, each upe, represents about two feet high, her standing on a crescent moon and a were carried in procession cherub. at church festivals. She is also surrounded by a nimbus of rays. Ac- The chest decoration shows the cording to a gay spirit of a popular legend the Virgin appeared fiesta to the with „s bright colors, ndian its exuberant figures Juan Diego in and its lush a vision from heaven. In another s ,vc version, of "" “°"c vcs Our Lady of Sorrows, "aiun "f » she is weeping and Zf, has climate.“f1 he design; on her the chest is closely hands folded as she stands packed, vet under the cross; a later vigorous is more and freely drawn. This restrained type is chest is one of Our Lady of Solitude. These a series wo are European intcrprctations tbt ^ srs 1 —>-* c folk art of New Mexico. Bui,os have often lost their Coro- Antonio Franco dc Suit, owned by Don for the Mission 67. Caballero Ecclesiastical Candlestick, pine; made 66. mid-nineteenth century. thereafter. nd; Santa Ines, California; 1H17 or

present was turning toward its piece, ready {| candlestick is made in one color The pedestal of the were devoted to the Dons of California form has emerged; the native -ttn^ on a lathe. A new ranches, hfe - turned owners of the suppressed sharp For the simplified moldings, g- Y workman has social activities, holiday of fiestas and Jg and flowmg. In the made the profile soft jacket and tr°U edges, and Antonio's . fortable as Don cxtraV and greens and tn the combmat p q[ of the cool blues such a happy '° freshness find in costume arC someth, of h we we seem to fee ng thc of the orange ease. In spite of * warmth agancc and of move- ,s not restricted climate. Bright color interfere w, pleasant California encumbrances to pedestal no arrange- the suppor.tng accc ^ or period, but blue for > region use of dark of O any one ment. The . del suit roo half blue is buttons made this half^recn and braid and jKthItcd mcn , of here color bring out structure; commonly used to good design.

the East al- T^ime^en masculine clothing in [38] 6X. Baptismal Font and Stand, copper and pine; made for 70. Missal Stand, pine; made after 1707 for the Mission Sin the Mission San Luis Obispo; about 1X12. Jose. 69. Altar Fabcrnaclc, pine; made for the Mission San Luis Obispo; late eighteenth century.

The artist who carved the baptismal stand may have with a painted decoration on a gesso ground. had little to The do with the design. In its shape, with a shell cubical form is like an adobe house in bowl and miniature, but an octagonal base, it goes back to the late the pretentious arched doorway suggests the mission Gothic. Perhaps a native craftsman selected the colors itself. and arranged them in broad, contrasting areas. The •*'*"*vi u.13 a Mauve na\ v.wvjh carving shows # » Midi good workmanship; both stand and cop- and frame it seems to be- free from a close per bowl are fine imitation of examples of work turned out by European motifs. The curves of the Indians. the front arc vigorous and weighty and are repeated Tabernacles on the back; a were placed on the European altar to hold the sa- design has taken on a native flavor. cred Eucharist. Instead A soft pink and a of the more elaborate marble How, which ,s perhaps an tabernacles of Europe, imitation of gilt, give the Indians used wood covered it a pleasing color effect. Southern Cali- Strap: made in of a series, painted 72. Spur with Leather Toe 71. The Third Station r,f the Cross, one century. of mission fa- fornia; nineteenth on sailcloth by Indians under the guidance

thers. jIm.ui 1779; two and a half feet by four feet.

expressions of the particularly in the of the shapes, is effective, According to tradition, the fourteen incidents of Christ. soldiers beside the passive head occurred on the road between 1 "Stations of the Cross" >' effect is achieved They In the spur a striking Pilate and the place of Crucifixion. surf ^ the house of and a textured polished wrought iron , European churches, so trast of were represented by paintings in select* hg stroke. The craftsman pilgrimage to short, mcise.1 could not undertake a lightness that those who increased this colored leather, and devotions at home. The might exercise their fashion. Jerusalem stitched in border manner. white thread story in a fresh, childlike -.rtist here tells his intermingling colored The design, based on freely PIONEERS AND TRADERS

73. Wnoclcarving, ‘‘Luml>crj.icks Sawing a Log," nineteen inches long; made

in Eau Claire, Wisconsin; nineteenth century.

4. Life on the Frontier

A growing native population moved the frontier wagons made regular trips between Baltimore, Philadel- steadily to the west, and after the War of Independence phia, Lancaster and across the mountains to Pittsburgh. man y individual settlers sought new homes beyond the I hesc boat-shaped wagons were named after the Cones- Appalachian Mountains. In the second decade of the toga Valley in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, where nineteenth century, the migration became so great that they were first made. We arc more familiar with another the roads were filled with those who made their way type with straight, boxlike bodies, the "covered wagons," westward by wagon, on horseback, anil afoot. As dis- that transported eastern settlers and freight to tances the Ohio lengthened, improved transportation became a country, and later to California and Oregon. Of all draft vital necessity. At first, trails were used by pack trains, vehicles, the Conestoga six-horse but wagon acquired the when horses with packsaddles could no longer carry greatest renown because it was large, well 1 c ever-increasing made and freight, the trails from cast to west dr.ven by men noted for their were courage and self-reliance. widened into roads. The first national road, built by Conestoga the Federal Govern- farm wagons became the customary ear- ment in 1818, ran from ners Cumberland, Maryland of freight, particularly to in the turnpike and tollgate Wheeling on the Ohio River. Here between 1790 the home-seekers and 1830 when road building was in transferred their belongings ^' hands to boats and rafts, of rivate companies. and P Even before 1800 these floated them down the river. Much traffic was by river U'l steamboats, and in 1842, when Charles Dickens visited was made here, mostly tins country, in New England the tonnage of Mississippi steamboats ex- Axes were probably the first ceeded the total tools to be British steamboat tonnage. made for When the general sale. Collinsville, Connecticut, Erie Canal was opened, had in 1828 the Great Lakes were connected became what the largest ax factory, and with the Philadelphia had Atlantic through the Hudson River. one of the largest saw factories in the world. Wagons Equal in im- used in New England were smaller than the portancc to the ax was the plow. In the Conestoga, and the two-wheeled eighteenth cen- Red River cart of the tury only the share was made of Northwest iron. An improved was more primitive. This cart goes back to plow, a solid piece of iron except for beam and the eighteenth century. handles, It came to what is now North existed before 1800, but farmers did not take to Dakota through the Hudson Bay it, Company by way of claiming as one disadvantage that the iron poisoned the Pembina. The Red River Valley was then still separated soil. from the East by vast stretches of undeveloped territory. Most of what the frontiersman used for conquering Wherever the farmer appeared, forests were cut, log the wilderness no longer exists. Wagons wore out on cabins were built, and a settled agricultural life began. the farms, new and better tools replaced the old ones, In making his first clearing and building his first shel- and there was no incentive to preserve what had served ter, the pioneer used the tools he had brought with him. its purpose. Even after the railroads came, canals were As settlements grew, he depended on the local cutler, still used. The early steamboats, though, were short- wheelwright or blacksmith. What could not be made lived; many were wrecked or burned before they had locally was purchased from peddlers or imported from grown old. Fortunately, pioneer vehicles and imple- eastern factories. By the middle of the nineteenth cen- ments have survived in our historical museums, and a tury about one half of all hardware used in this country few typical ones are here reproduced. 75. Conestoga Wagon; length, over H feet; wagon bed, 10 U feet; wheel diameters, 42 inches and .>>*/•» inches; about 1800.

I he Conestoga wagon was impressive with its ver- m size, but eight bows was common. The most impor- milion-colored wheels, blue body and white homespun tant part of the wheelwright’s work was the shaping of top. There arc even those who believe it was the Cones- axles and the making of the wheels. Great care anil skill toga wagon which suggested the colors for the Ameri- was used to construct a strong wheel. To withstand side- can flag rather than George Washington's coat of arms. thrusts, and prevent the wheel from collapsing, spokes Conestoga wagons were the long-distance overland were made to point out from the hub and were held in freight carriers before the coming of the railroad. For place by the heavy iron tire. The distance the tire pro- a full load these sturdy vehicles carried from thirty to jects out beyond the hub is the dish. As the wheel was thirty-five barrels of flour. The driver did not sit in the structurally the most important part it was made of the wagon but rode a on saddle horse to the left of his best materials. Each spoke was first roughly team, cut with a or stood on a footboard on the side of the wagon. hand ax, and then shaped with a . The end Designed for lightness and strength, it was so well that fitted into the hub was made from a template. All constructed that it withstood ruts, swamps and steep parts had to fit perfectly; a slight mountain deviation might result roads. The bottom curved toward the center, in a broken wheel. Strong wood sometimes was used, which had in both directions, depending on the in- ken seasoned ^nded at least for three ycars-white oak and use, thereby preventing the load from shifting. hickory for the frame, gum for the hubs, ,s gave and poplar for the body a shiplike design that may have the boards. lacilitated the fording of streams in the early days. At one time The the custom prevailed that a wheelwright designed wagon which and built the wagon; the had to accept assistance from another acksmith reinforced teamster, had to it with iron at all points subject to give up its bells s mounted on rain. He also the horses. From this added to the ornamentation by tra- giving his dition we have the a expression “with bells ivc ,ur". On on" to signify ™ the inside, iron strips lined r that one is fit ,n c stu condition. Our practice ding, and flat-head of driving on rivets fastened the iron to «k nght side of r the road, with the mC ‘ Thc driver on t0°lb0X cs ccia,| was the left- tu! P y “mate, showing 'and Slde , ? t , of the vehicle, r 'stry of the blacksmith. kgan with the Conestoga Conestoga wagons varied wagoners. *

[«] "X. 17-15. 76. Red River Ox-Carl, wood; 1845-1870. Broadax, wrought iron, oak handle; dated

77. Drawknife, wrought iron, maple handle; second half nineteenth century.

draw- This cart drawn by a single ox was used by the fur after they had been split from the block. Basically, have time of the traders in the Dakota territory along the Red River of knives changed but little since the

these its curved blade, this one demonstrates the North. Because the railroads did not reach Romans. With depend- that an efficient, well balanced tool has a beauty of regions until the eighties, the pioneers here were

parts of its own. ent on their own resources later than in other entirely of The old broadax was a finishing tool for smoothing the country. The cart was therefore made or used in its planks and timbers, and was used in place of saw wood; only the , saw and auger were axles the in house and ship building. This one, an early, construction. As no grease was used on the blade; it is miles. The high primitive type, has the date cut into the groaning of the carts could be heard for therefore a true tool. through the tall prairie without poll, and wheels allowed easy passage it The adze is an ancient tool, developed long before hide over the cart, it was made grass. By stretching a brought to this country. It was used for one underneath, it was con- was into a shelter; by stretching limber and for hollowing out kitchen utensils. crossing streams. verted into a boat for after Joseph shingles The peavey is of American design, named Drawkmvcs were commonly used to smooth [44] 79. ze ^ » wrought iron; second half nineteenth century. 82. Plow, hickory with iron share; made in 80- Massachusetts, Peavey, cast-iron socket, wrought-iron ; made at miil-cightccmh century. CW Superior, Wisconsin, second half nineteenth century. s? Sharps Rifle, basic patent granted to Christian 81- Packsaddlc, Sharps in wood; 1 nineteenth century. M8 ; later made in quantity in Hartford, Connecticut.

Peavey, the inventor. It is a hook with a spike and a it is still curved primitive, with its wooden lever for gripping moldboard and logs, and is still a common attached iron share. tool A modern plow in lumbering. was gradually de- veloped, based on such scientific Before roads were studies as Thomas built, the horse with packsaddlc Jefferson s description rams of a moldboard of of from to twenty least resistance I" ! horses brought furs and joes A steel plow with a smooth, to the towns, hard surface did not returning to the frontier come with hard- mto use until an after the Civil War, small articles. when steel was pro- It was the packmen who op- ducal by the Bessemer process. turning the trails into roads for wagon traffic, Designed by aS Sharps in 1848. this 3 8cneratl0n la,cr the single-shot breach- . boatmen on the canals loader onn , was the most opposed the powerful black railroads. powder rifle ever mack It served in the Civil thlS ' 0W War and was P ’ made by car cnlcr and popular in P blacksmith, >c West, where it was used to °f a " kill off the buffalo. 3Crc was a day’s work. From Uol S-' this rifle came the term ST? , 8 'ghter than plows “sharpshooter." brought over from England.

Us) K4. Printed Cotton; second quarter nineteenth century. One scene from a

larger piece depicting modes of travel.

tons unpopular, few were This printed cotton is interesting for several reasons. printed in England became a dec- made North America they have rarely survived. It shows the Mississippi river travel of more than m and this new country with its vast distances inspired ade after the first successful trip of the f.tna upstream The transportation. fragment of this from New Orleans to Louisville. Here are the early memorial to A second planta- travelogue, not reproduced here, shows figures on horse- stern- and side-wheel steamboats, and a cotton land- back, Conestoga wagons and a stagecoach; another frag- tion with moss-covered trees. This is a sketch a fourth designer ment depicts a canal scene and it is known that a scape painter might have done for canvas; a represents the railroad. Together these four would probably have emphasized the decorative rather section pieces illustrate early nineteenth century travel. Anyone than the pictorial aspects of the same motifs. have used appeared in Eu- leaving Philadelphia for New Orleans would Printed cottons, so-called chintzes, toward Lan- East India trading these conveyances, as he started inland rope and North America after the of his Orient. These caster and Pittsburgh, making the largest portion companies had introduced them from the journey by boat on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. prized in colonial times, but India fabrics were highly After the Revolution, cot- they were not in general use.

[46] 85. Fire Engine Wcathcrvanc, buss, co|>|kt. zinc and iron, from .1 lire engine house; made after an Amos kcag engine of the jkthkI 1S60-1SS0.

5. FIRE

Fire companies form a spectacular chapter in Ameri- water in a continuous stream through a stationary noz- can life. Many people today recall the old horse-drawn zle. Though this tub pump was more efficient than in- steam fire engines, racing down the streets with smoke termittent splashes from buckets, there was as yet no and sparks belching from their boilers. But the volun- hose, and the firemen could not get close to the flames. teer fire companies hark back to an even earlier period. Hand pumps were improved around 1819, when suc- The colorful regalia of those days has been preserved tion pumps which drafted their own water supply were or us: engines, hose carts, buckets, helmets, hats, introduced, together with substantial leather hoses. badges, belts, trumpets and various fire marks. The fire- The volunteer firemen occupied an important place men are remembered for their parades, picnics ami m the community and frequently wielded ghts, the considerable ballads dedicated to them, and the songs and influence. Individual companies had dances their names and composed in their honor. insignia. Firemen wore red shirts, colorful helmets, Fire fighting and in this country began with leather buck- fancy belts. Thc engines and hose Ncar reels were ornate and thc front door of each house was a bucket, splendid, with brilliant colors and brass trimmings. ™g ,he own«'s name. The When church bells rang out engines were even fitted with panels painted e a arm, the by leading call of "Throw out your buckets!" was artists and paid for by the firemen IC ' themselves. V cdcd ' Thc bucket brigade l” formed in two lines Competition between WCCn different fire companies was firc and the nearest well or . , brook; thc men . keen. The water n t , supply was often some 1 c ull buckets distance from as the women and boys returned me the fire, so that several engines empty ones. might have to pump the water from one When to the other. If one crew two-story houses became pumped numerous, hand faster than thc next, they could overflow, m n USC or “wash" the ' They wcrc tanks on wheels, and other s c,stern, had !! t c,! a° and that was cause for b deep humiliation m ”J 0|,"”d bV h dl called W' “ “ One enterprising volunteer, "bt arriving first ThcTl! ,anks"t at a fire- wcrc drawn by the firemen concealed theme I the only fire plug with a barrel **? ,Wcn, °r more, u,H»n which V as it required that sat he to reserve i, for manv , his own V man thc brak«- company. He enjoved Compressed air forced out the sccmg Ins nvals search for the plug, but when Ins trick

[47 ] Was discovered, such a healing followed that he had and polished metal has continued to our own reason to regret his ingenuity. day. As it was difficult to extinguish a fire in colonial I he insurance days, company's fire mark on a building it was equally laborious to kindle one. A strip meant a reward of to the company that put out the fire. pine dipped in melted sulphur had to Ik ignited by a It thus served as an incentive to greater effort and it spark from flint and steel. A reluctant fire might be often took a fight to settle the rival claims. Designs on coaxed into a blaze with bellows, or if tins failed, a fire marks were sometimes symbolic—clasped hands, flame was brought from another fire in a Cape Cod guardian figures or eagles. A few remain that have a lighter, or smoldering coals were transferred in an cm contemporary flavor, like the green tree or the bust of ber carrier. William Penn; others show engines, hydrants or merely Houses were never uniformly warm. Although the the company's name. glow of the open fire may have suggested comfort and

As a young man, Benjamin Franklin organized the cheer, even those who stood dose to the fireplace would first Philadelphia fire brigade, and later, in 1752, he still feel cold. The fireback no doubt reflected some heat became a founder of the first American fire insurance into the room, but its attractive design was perhaps as company, the "Philadelphia Contributionship for the important as its heating value; and andirons that held

Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire." the fireplace logs served a decorative as well as a useful The horse-drawn steam engine was the last step in pur()osc. Except for the jamb stoves of Pennsylvania, there the development of fire engines, before the motorized until 17*12 when Benjamin Franklin equipment of our own day. Steam engines appeared were no stoves stove. revolutionized heating by designing the Franklin around 1850, when machine production was getting the where it would do Heat had to lx* concentrated under way, and after large cities had installed water heaters or foot warmers under- most good. There were portable supply systems with hydrants connected to warming pans (o remove the derives for cold bedrooms, and ground mains. The term "fire plug" for hydrant from sheers and blankets. wooden main that had a stopper or plug chill from the early nor art from our Today we expect neither glamour level. combined at the street the handicrafts heating devices, but the era of volunteer fire companies de- After the Civil War, the A warming pan may be practical with the artistic. and fire marks ,1 k received regular salaries hd artordd clined. Firemen but its engraved inferior to a radiator, signs. Though the trap- ga replaced by tin advertising self-expression, and .. were an opportunity for gradually sup- craftsman fire fighters were of the early it. pings pleasure to all who saw bright colors uniforms, the tradition of planted by sober

Pcnnsyl- 1M6. for the I I. k. P.irirL I von Wcccco panels from the lifnretl'pny'^ Philadelphia; side 19- Fire Company No.

[48] ^7. l ire Mark, cast iron, painted and gilded; first made in 89. Bandbox, covered 1*1/ with wallpaper; label for the Fire Association of Philadelphia. H. Barnes and Go., 3j James Alley, Philadelphia; period 1831-18+4. 88. Fire Mark, "The Green Tree;* cast in lead, on wood and covered with plaster; originally issued in 1784, in Philadel- phia, by the Mutual Assurance Company.

The fire engine on the opposite page used a hose to Plot of grass draw rather than on a cement water directly to the pavement must pump. The carved and have appeared rural indeed. This painted side panels, belonging mark appears on Inde- to an earlier tub engine, pendence Hall in and the Philadelphia. gilt scrolls around the brass intake, reflect the Because trees attract lightning, transition from craft to house, near tree, machine production. Artistic were and onstJeretl poor risks, and mechanical features Benjamin Franklin's have not yet achieved a unity Com- ° stylc ' hcm S ’ hencc diese two in combination may “ h about appear II WV ,h somewhat "T incongruous to modern eyes. The fire mark, with FA for Fire Association, was once gilt and showed the painted green grass beneath he hydrant. The early streets with hydrants set in a

[ -49 J from the Mer- Fireman's Kelt, cut leather, red and gray; Ax. from Niagara Hose Company No. 15, 92. 90. Fireman's Dodge, Iowa; nine- chants' Hose Company No. 1, Fort Philadelphia; before 1N50. tccnih century. Trumpet, nickel, silver- and gold-plated; 9 |. Fire Marshal's Company, Racine, Wiscon- made by John Elkins Jewelry sin; dated 1X77. of an American development would often curved handle is well known landmark the time a place where a European ax. About engine of the straight-handled goose-neck tub form. • This is the its present be illustrated. Revolution the ax had achieved water came from the which the stream of on an irregu^*" 1820's, in in mass production both v.s.blc made the air chamber, the usej«ffe^ pipe on top of into a hook for goose-neck (he poll is made superfluous decoration is no . ' n to use There j( handicrafts continued out of IJ century developed • ^rly 'nineteenth trumpet; the shape is tj # to I ^ megaphone used trumpet is a J self. A ^ or shouting orders of voice in and a token be a gi ' 0 A trumpet could also with a speaking ^ When the an ef- fire engin esteem. l early • braW an of steam- vessel and m p i ccc mmssa a drink, ng C became long Wlll b m cork, it before two methods of fs ()f t hcsc work. c rcsu | fcctivc weapon. for his ^ sUltab | e wore h ,K What a fireman froin being hats ^ not prevent edtn bu, that did ^ ^ blaZon - second assts J The - - - Even a backgrolind. orful. l ^ cut leather b,ekgro.i"d around the bn® unified the decoration , whol | y the ax ^ other hand, form the On the , H to ^uttonofat^tha.^ ncd 100| with Tim wet. * of evolution. Flrc Hclmcl - mci.il painted; made in Cincinnati. ifC ™ , '2' Ckc lc‘"her Ohio; about - uin,c ‘ l • l,ul ""!> 1S90. r l inscriptions; made in Massachusetts;M 'i mid-nine.eemh century. H Fire Hat. leather, with a portrait of Zachary Taylor; about 1X50-1X60. 1

The helmet was for actual use. Its broad brim and Mexican War channelled and twelfth President crown is for of the protection; its ornamental United V W°ngS ,0 ,he s c°mparable to the >'Crioa around ' insignia on a soldier's the uni- nnddk'Td'"middle of the century. I 1 he insignia on the helmet stood for the honor Buckets, , made of the finest rCpU ' atl°n of leather, his company. Though this afforded an ex- T badge was cellent opportunity o'tcn only for decoration. a number, it A was highly regarded and given painted ribbon an hearing thc owner art, stic s name “John expression. " Tvler” I .1 i PMn 8™ F >re hats X* D™8" " follow the stovepipe winds fashion of the period, burl rf fl mC against ’ he one a dark green with a portrait of background. Zachary Taylor, hero of the Warming Pan, bran, engraved and ban, Her cigh.een.h » Ember Carrier, Ac* iron «h iron % hamllc. century. brass; early nineteenth century. 97. Cj|>c GkI Lighter,

tha attractive feature designed as an brass plate, was conraincr, designed S a humble of ember carrier wa the appearance The added to » conrjnUCS a pan. made \ warming at. The , an j( w tradition. Wi* «> P» European ont tli an hocre ,o a„«hcr, a. ^ “£ Z -ot -i«l from one ram or snow times through holding OKI hghtcr A Cape oil .soaked Ch light 0llt in Wl" about to and carried tail- ^d'at flourishing was ign X set on a and stone £ brass tankard, made fires. This other ) W. Foot W armcr, zinc, with o.ik frame; first half nineteenth It»l. Hessian Soldier** Andiron, century. one of a pair; cast iron painted; late eighteenth century. IUU Foot Warmcr, tin, made in Wilmington, Delaware; ; early nineteenth century.

Foot warmers were metal containers set into wooden long before modern design fames and was thought of. decorated with perforated designs that al- The "Hessian Soldier" with his blue owed for draft. coat and straw- Inside was an iron pan for the smol- colored breeches was a colorful dering coals, figure, though here hot bricks or stones. his This one has turned luster has worn with age. spmdlc supports Ordinarily firedogs do at each corner. In colonial not times it was represent the common human figure, but this to sec boys carrying one must have ap- prepared foot warmers to pealed to the imagination me women’s of his contemporaries. side of the church before The service. part the Hessian Soldier played in Thu particular foot the American warmer was made for hot water Revo- 1 ' 15 s haped to f°r his make it convenient for the foot '!* <„ I" rrx t o rest ' Tl against. It could be used “ a ” his pomu on wagons and sleighs, olr * K Pn l,,y cx ains 0f F* lts unornamcntal, utilitarian rather sh i^e than Hessc-Cassel.H 'T ,T a It after which P«- has a functional look these foreign although it was * m„« made narics were named. 1^2. Eagle Head, pine, painted, from a sailing vessel; about 1S50.

6. The Image at the Prow

formed Ar the front of the ship, under the bowsprit where ornamentation; artistically and structurally they arms, head lift- the sides converge, was placed the figurehead, the sym- a unit with thc bow. With outstretched figure fixed into the distance, thc bol of the vessel. It served no practical purpose, yet ed high and gaze forward, with the flowing draperies in- hardly an American ship sailed without one. It was seems to fly creasing thc sense of speed. regarded by the seamen with an affection amounting painted and gild have been so Figureheads were carved in pine, almost to superstition. And this must block; usually were not always cut from a single from earliest times vessels have They throughout history, for esen together. Arms might several pieces were doweled with human or animal shapes. been decorated during rough so they could be removed one of our most be detachable, Since shipping has always been weather. . c surprise us that the . , industries, it should not kinds important subject than other American Figureheads were less ranks high among c carving of figureheads changing sty les. T ic sculpture to the influence of a ship must have

used at diflercnt times. The name chosen to him. William Kush of Philadelphia, who acquired a alligators were national reputation as a sculptor, did the carving tor for the vessel usually determined the subject of the our newly created Navy, and others, like Sampson of figurehead.

Bath, were famous in their day. Late in the nineteenth The style in ships figures changed with the styles century, when figureheads had gone out of style, less in the ships themselves. The early ones were bust pretentious billetheads continued to be made by men heads only; the full figure came later. At hrst they like Bowers ami Robb, who did work for steamboats stood erect, for the rounded hull seemed to require and river craft around New York. Most of these men a vertical figure. As vessels became narrower, figures worked for private ship builders; others, like Bellamy, accommodated themselves to the slant of the cutwaters, spent many years in the employ of the Navy. Bellamy, and leaned forward more and more. Finally, on the coming late in the period, added art school training to clippers, with their sleek hulls and sharply receding his shop experience. bows, figureheads were almost horizontal.

Producing a life-size figure was no work for an In the seventies and eighties, the down-Easters were amateur; it required years of training. Each master among the last to carry full length figureheads. Toward had his apprentices who carried the on craft, and the the end of the nineteenth century, the use of full figures firms often passed from father to son. declined. Simple billetheads, carved scrolls, or at best, Ship carvers lived near the water front. From their eagles, took their place. As steam replaced sail, the carv- shops, often in old sail or mold lofts, they could look ings became flat, and in the Navy, state seals and scrolls out on the harbor. They mingled with owners and cap- seemed more in keeping with the times. Eagles sur- tains, and among themselves they formed a closely vived on the pilot houses of river boats. knit group, a kind of fraternity, the members of which The eagle here reproduced is from a ship’s prow, were scattered throughout the ports along the Atlantic and probably belonged to a smaller vessel. The artist seaboard. When work was scarce, carvers turned else- did not depend on color alone but used texture also by where for employment; some made cigar-store Indians indicating feathers, without losing his bold and vigor- or circus wagons. ous carving. As far as we know, no figureheads have come down Finally, with the use of iron and steel in ship con- to us from the seventeenth century. In the colonial struction, carved wood was no longer suitable. In 1907 period the craftsmen depended on English miniels, but the United States Navy ordered that figureheads be after the Revolution a native development began, and removed from naval vessels and sent to the states for early in the nineteenth century, achieved a freedom which the ships were named. in the choice of subjects and a style that reflected the A much reduced decoration lingers on craftsman today in the rather than the sculptor. The subjects of the carved trail boards, name plates and carved sterns of figureheads were varied; symbolic figures, national yachts. heroes and statesmen, portraits of the owners, char-

li *‘ < ' ,,, Hca<1 ’ casl irnn from * ,hc l^ow of a ship; nineteenth century. »

WH. a Rose”; before 105. Figurehead, "Lady wilh painted, and gdded. 10}. Hillcthcad, carved,

medieval cathedra!., of a carver on a the scroll unlike that fiddle-heads, so called when Billctlicads or the feeling o retains in his figure of figureheads for rea- were often used instead and constrained; .urns u,., This lady is gawky rosettes and C curves Acanthus leaves, simpl.cit) 0^ sons of economy. vigor and unassuming . decorat.on that the figure a type of about an individual effectively in actually know g are combined Wha, we * Where very little. head is usually time smile is in , hc ' llc jovial urc> the ^ fig assume ^ we may tb' 5 jxrriod, the case of fas no were in • when such costumes tfd page tori* for 1 the opposite 3nd sm, ' n8 bust on Will, all 7“ been cut out of , a belted wau « high tha , (bough thi. sleeves, and E ,c„ T|1C original One hasgJ bu|ky las. century. thirties of the single 1««. out .he a * cnougll to bring m(* lias been is not block , 'flic method rudimentary fashion. figure in ( ] 106. b"“' ,nJ "ln" Fis"" l h“ - b >- *-* »f mint

^cr Knl ^ cai carvc l ^ ^ and gilded, from the Diadem ot Gloucester, built in Essex in 1S55. thls probably represents the captain’s wife, for what century there were other persistent reports of the figure in fashionable dress existence of would have cross and a strange sea serpent. Though none anchor, symbols of are known to faith and hope, carved on the scrolled have been brought to the base. surface, the imagination of the ship The sea serpent head was sawed from the tip of a s *P s prow, and still shows some of the carved anil gilt The freely posed Ca -and-scroll woman with pattern. In the early her billowy drapery part of the nineteenth “ ° f 3 craftsman who was also a sculptor Ms

[ 57 ] century. Mil. Figurehead, rn.de bust; early nineteenth from the ship Xij-htingak |i ii. 1-i^urchc.ul. "Jenny Lind":

built in l v>l- „| Portsmouth. New Hampshire:

rniagc- ships bore her success, and several known to have been carved tremendous ,hc only existing figurehead was design carried this figurehead to sea, The vessel which but it never went the Isaac Fowle of Boston, dipper at |, v a model American This figure ,o be exhibited as only as Ins shop sign. was so and having been used Bn, instead she 4 World's Fair in London. sculpture, and .< is evt- of classical J,rrn.a. PI*- shows the influence fas.rs, of ,hc Cal proved ,o be one of ,br of the figure. Fowle artist had a command ,o tho slave .lent that the she was routed t^f century A. one time the early nineteenth was one of the best of Boston sons were act.ve m wood carvers. He and his sixty-two years. over a period of modish figure and cleg. doll-like face, and charm and sweet, is freshness » I bis Here of the mid-nineteenth flusters celebrity of and scro s a .„,s i of leaves the C°SmmC Once carving (. but Swedish Nightingale" rraftsn™ Un.l, “The sideburns. Thr century, Rnnv •ho h, his IMP H carried a nightingale modol Jug « shc of w apd dr, am, na, ton ^ ber blond romantic haughty ^j» tlic most • f ^ lx a This must | perhaps ination- (xl . from ha I contemporary hfe person ,ancc in -he famous high soprano hcr owner himself. American the ship first WOn her a personal..) and g ^ charming voice, J 111. Figurehead, female bust, from a schooner, built in Hav- >. 11 Figurehead, earved and painted, crhill, about live feet M.iss.ichusc(t$; in IMS. nineteenth century. 11- Figurehead, male bust, Quaker'*; nineteenth century.

1 lie Size of the figurehead always Imre some relation I he Iwirdrcss is in a manner in the size reminiscent of classic of the vessel. It is known that this bust, which sculpture; the high waistline and the is little more short sleeves of than a head, comes from a schooner out contemporary dress arc combined ° S“lcm hcn with a wind-blown ' « a smaller, two-masted wiling ship. This mantle that is treated as conventional has been repainted drapery. The at a fairly recent date. carving has the vigor In and simplicity of folk the Quaker figure art, typical there is stern reality, the force of the manner of the figurehead and determination carvers. The forward of an actual person. The carving has kan was a probably s„l| moderate, beautiful suggesting tha, simplicity; it is broad, this with very little detail. figurehead antedates the clipper e u l-lcngth period, when the figurehead shows a costume figure- in which head became nearly 1 <•' horizontal to ncoclassic fashion fi, ,he raking bow merges with the early Victorian. " from an early "Comm, -lore Perry, and possibly 1H. Figurehead, perhaps 1S22. budt in New Wk City; packet <»f the same name,

ships in the of ihc American “l' piece of wood sculpture have a distinguished reveals crc we .ember .0. .8.3), *, craftsman. 1 he mter- ££ able vs a done by an plausible. It was certainly attribution battle flag features, the broad , he in the Lawren , been concentrated flagship, the Law- ,as w,th the Perry’s figure contrasting the half-length ShedSthew^^hmed^*^, 1CCS ,,f original identified. The has not been Th artist " ^iSnsSdmAdasrehnptcr. > • -S'£ tzi'Z, It- - - II’- Figurehead bus., “Solomon Piper," from .he ship of 116. Sicrnpiecc. carved and painted, inc same name, Boston; made before 1854.

The contemporary life of the period furnished in- This stcrnpiecc illustrates a spiration more modest type of to the carver. Solomon dec- Piper was a well oration a bust head known within a circular frame. Boston merchant Perhaps and shipowner. His bust is .. would not be fair ,o r assume that this "m a packet pudgy little boat that plied between Salem and Eng- face was meant to represent the owner's wife. .I* bclon s This type 8 to the best period of the j portrait bust of decoration, here somewhat and has a hard and dry, convincing lifelike quality. must have b n >' “ fe,rl con,nM"- Th ' Piece i, six feet long.

[61 1 ,

I

1

ms.run.cn. maker of James F..lcs, nautical gator. w.kkI: Iron. shop „ 7 . N.,v, Massachusetts; nineteenth century. „f New lk.lfr.rcl,

timber lirrlr . . as type of shop s.gn spenks of this onalc piece “ “ . huge «»"' > 1“ o/fens.vely d-W* The mariner w»h .he midshipman with an .ha. naulical mil rumen, . machinery. lilt- ^ s of •** * •" * * for srrss-r-Sickens in English tradition, [ i.y 1 118. Cigar-Store Indian, wood, carved and painted; nineteenth century.

7. At the Sign of the Wooden Indian

In the old days, virtually every merchant and me- were well proportioned panels that used the chanic, same details every shop and tavern had a sign, either peculiar as colonial architecture. >° the trade or personal to the tradesman. Even the town Among the most characteristic of hall the shop signs arc and post office had their emblems. The street then those of the tobacconists. Tobacco presented was considered the a lively picture of activities, with each barber gift of the red man, and the wooden Indian P° c °r wooden outnumbers Indian calling attention to services or all other cigar-store figures. The goods idea of the figures orig- offered for sale. inated in England when Though the "Black Boys" stood on shop signs may the well have helped those who counters of London smoke shops; the cigar-store not read, that was In- not their sole purpose. They dian, however, belongs to this country. l Although there mCfC au * ^ s t0 'ho illiterate for when shop were isolated figures in Baltimore siv^gns lustfi° before 1780, the appeared in this country real they had already be- history of the wooden e tra Indian begins in the itional symbols. forties of the To sell goods and to advertise nineteenth century. When cigar CCS WCFC ° smoking increased, ’ f coursc the » lhc basic reasons for signs, but ork* tribe multiplied. By 1840 the making conlr of these >b uted to their figures enrichment. They re- had developed fleetr* into an 1 industry; by C laSlC I860 every tobac- ’ Wca^ or stancbn of g trader or crafts- conist had a man life-sized Indian on the sidewalk in front of his shop. n0t a dC " tal ,bt man >' of al» old signs are Between two and finC , f three hundred "°r s cra were put on ftsmanship. Inn signs frequently market the yearly. Firms in New York, Chicago and else- ,CfC ept a )' 1 of figures “PI’ in stock. In 1871 ^ tlic own invention, trimming largest known collection shirts w„h of wooden Indians was l*.,ds, fringes, that medals, feathers and ^ S of a New \ork tobacco leaves. dealer; we are told by an old man who Though the Indian was by remembers this storeroom far the most that it was an ^.ular 0f awesome sight tobacconists to see figures, there were others the hundreds to add s., of carved Indians in ricn their fresh war Among them was paint. the Highlander, who had During the nineties the Indians became been used' less com- m England where he hcljK-d to sell snuli, and m°n. as stores forced the Turk, out the individual dealer who came into vogue with and sidewalk Turkish tobacco. Others regulations forbade obstructions. were baseball players, Buffalo Bills, clowns, drum I he wood used was usually ma- white pine. A foot a day jors, Humpty-L)umptys, policemen, soldiers and figures was considered good carving. Since it took another day of Mr. Pickwick, Puck and Uncle Sam. for each foot of finishing and painting, twelve days Early craftsmen who had been carvers of ships* fig- would be necessary for a six-foot Indian. An outline was ures turned to Indians when ship carving declined. The drawn the log on and the wood was roughly hewn out carvers varied from trained craftsmen to men who were with and , the grain being followed care- little better than carpenters. In Michigan, Wisconsin, fully. I lie trunk was made in one piece, the arms were and Illinois there were German and Swiss settlers who attached separately. carvers The worked from old prints. had served apprenticeships in their own lands, whittling colored lithographs, or from real Indian models. The figures for Noah’s Arks, and they took over the wood- figure was painted before it left the work shop and had carving craft in this country. Julius Mclchcrs, father of to be repainted regularly by itinerant restorers. Details the painter, Gari Melchers, had an academic background might be added to suit the individual customer. Accord- and was an outstanding carver. Through him Detroit ing to one story, a man from St. Louis ordered an became a center of the craft. William Dcmuth. father and Indian to resemble his mother-in-law, and sent a photo- of Charles Dcmuth. the painter, dealt in pipes

as a sideline in a shop graph to help the carver achieve a likeness. tobacconists' supplies and Indians on Broadway, New York. He originated the cast zinc The Indian chief is more common than the squaw; Indian, using wooden figures as molds. the generalized style at times makes it hard to distin- phase of Shop figures, like figureheads, represent a guish one from the other. The typical wooden Indian functioned in everyday life. A of the plains in native sculpture that is meant to represent the tribesman from a catalogue and cigar-store Indian was often ordered tanned buckskin, -length shirt, belt, leggings his business. felt he needed it for and a by a shopkeeper who moccasins. He usually wears a feather headdress commercial age such f.inrastic The fact that in a very or feathers, and holds in one hand kilt of tobacco leaves shows how successfully attracted customers tribe can be figures or box of cigars. No particular ccn a package the nineteenth youthfully romantic these |>co|.lc of brave is strictly a white identified. The tobacconist’s really were. fanciful details of Ins tury man's Indian, as the carver added

wood

Minted

[

This handcuffed wretch, with pleading eyes and tight the inn itself. The frame ips is as important as ’ 15 miscr the design. y "self, and his plight arouses our sym- A sharply delineated horse is finely All the tension related to the let- pathy. is in his face; his figure is limp, tered word “Entertainment.” he carving is broad, revealing the tool marks, and it is not overly - — in*, tuwer realistic except for the inn sum. expression. As we be- which has come the American eagle more familiar on one side and with our early folk carving, die this Bntish hon on the gurc other. The sign may rank as bears the signature one of the most significant works com ,nW S ' 8n the colonial °f thc rioii period. It is only thirty ** - Captain inches high. ArfhAral, Phelps,PIhelns F"" a son'dier ,n the he delicately Revolution, was the shaped pediments and spindlelikc owner col- of the inn at Colebrook, nnettes arc in keeping Connecticut. with the colonial architecture of wo«l. cjrvcd Indian, squaw with |>apuosc, almut four feel 125. Cigar-Store Cigar-Store Figure. Highlander, wood, 12i. century. .iml painted; nineteenth high; nineteenth century. painted and gilded, about_onc 124. liuncli of Grapes, wood, av- from the "Hunch of Grapes 1 foot high, believed to be or nineteenth century. ert!. Ilosion; eighteenth

of the carving. aware of the basic simplicity most splendid of the Highlander was one of the signs for The Bunches of grapes arc typical had already abroad. In England he spccimm s bel.es L’pes borrowed from and this particular and and taverns, advertiser of snuff; of Boston. for himself as an the early inns iiatlc a place h ...... served for one of manufacturers, by the American Indians with stoli /hen used In contrast to many j^Jpapoose

carver. England known in originatcs b.irl r an< sue ' spirally str.pcd barbers in Europe, and The p •aining ' head J interest on concentration of the fo , k ar, t ^ nJ ,« hands: " „, re nninor 0 p[lfe the bulky » sophist!* „ , figurc look Hcnr> elaboration ^ surgeons. certain • becomes i as one -Iocs , the impress**! alee), but 126. Barber Pole, cedar; late nineteenth century. 12S Cigar-Store Indian, in posture of greeting, over six feet 127. Inn Sinn, wood, presumably from the high: wood, carved and "Bell in Hand,' (Mimed; laic nineteenth century. Boston; Tcm|wrance Tavern of \ 7')\

changing their name to the Company of Barbers and personal emblem. Though this bell is a restoration Surgeons, and restricted it the barbers to the practice of pcr|>ctuatcs the original design. dentistry. In the eighteenth century the two groups Rigid postures, as in this cigar-store Indian, were divided into two may distinct corporations. In the bring to one s mind archaic course of art as found in ancient time the barbers were limited in their duties, hgyp. or Greece. Arms but they raised stiffly or pressed never changed their shop close to signs, which still .be body are showed typical of early art, but the them as surgeons, for comparison the spiral stripes denote goes no further. The cigar-store bandages. The pole Indian is folk art, def- itself is usually said to represent the initely of Ottr period. s»ck grasped The carver wants to by a patient to encourage make his fig- the flow of blood ure seem during ahve. We get the a blood-letting. suggestion of animation, brough his hand James Wilson ra.sed to his forehead, is said to have established but not of the '‘Bell in really free and movement; the figure as a sort of temperance is still static and tavern because he dc- nuts- P'orcd SU1>crficiall the drinking i' has of rum and hoped to V- realism; but substitute for l actuallya t’T the charmT of " malt liquors. the figure lies He was town crier of in the ornamental Boston as well as character • of „s design. church deacon, so There is an the town crier’s bell effective pattern serves as his 'e rhy,hmic m lmcs rcPcated in feathers and drapery [67] nnd *« ta* «* Loebsmilh's Sign, nrnngb, , 31 . painted teakwood; nine- Sign, carvel and Mangm .n vm. 129. Importer’s New Orleans by John A. cccnih century. ”f oh" mn.lc by tone Fo„l. to *»p 130. Sign, wnod; cnrly inndecn.h een.nry. . lento, Item, II,aJtod,hardw,..c » U! 0,nnmcn.nl i-omvork, A tn f by dipper sh.p was sold con.rtad Tea imported Orleans, I, ns "S'“ Chinaman was the charac,c which the carved for the pr - Chinese dress suggests (mure The gorgeous he stood Like many shop signs, perous merchant' in frol, ‘ *™j’ small platform hardware $ s0 , ( j jn gsssssa* iflligsdesign > r individual ^ b

132. Tavern Figure, man holding grapes, wood, carved and 1U. Cigar-Store Figure. Turk, wood, carved and painted, painted; fifteen inches high. htiy inches high; nineteenth century. Hi Butchers Sign, painted wood, thirty-two inches long; nrst half nineteenth century.

man who made no pretenses to anatomical accuracy and All shop figures, Indians and s(| produced others, were articles of a gay and carefree figure. commerce that were sold in the There can market at established be no possibility of misunderstanding this pnecs. A low price s was §25, but these Jgn, used as a were trade-ins wcathervanc on a slaughter house. The that had been repainted and S'gnmaker reconditioned. Canal combines hog and cleaver with Street complete dis- m CU> Wa$ regard 3 P'ace wh'« suc for the pig’s feelings. h bargains were Z n ; Wi ‘ h ,hc ^ S5°’ introduction S75 ’ and - of Turkish tobacco, $100. the man DctrottDetm r IndiansI ‘ urba brought the highest n and flowing robe prices; for took his place alongside the them I" Me chers recaved S150 ' an ' and even Thls ls a finc higher prices. example of the carver’s art, done A good w'th a great U “' deal of delicacy. u"X -* » - «

[ 69 ] trousers, coat and gray Shop Figure, man in checkered three and one-half 136. Mercury, wood, carved and gilded, century. 135. carved and painted; nineteenth half cig it wood, to Simeon Skillm; second feet high; attributed centh century.

efAer career approached the end pUccd over th As shop figures Mercury on the globe was The flying to lose their aPP” Indians began ’ State Street (Samuel and Among Boston Post-Office in stressed" U- the | that loot of | types in for various the went Drake. 1900). Mercury, \dams figure postal serv.ee. The appropriate for the the figu | S was who used His storekeeper . the carver s a hjs shop and in spite of w ;;;.y awkward, SSSssssr' which he once

lisappeared. f ^ j ABOUT THE HOUSE

137. Jockey Hitching Post, cast iron; about 18S|.

138. Wc.ither v.mc, wrought iron, banner aiul linial gilded;

from First Church in Gmeurd, M.iss.tchuseUs; dated 1(>73.

8. Weathervane and Hitching Post

In the course of the nineteenth century, iron replaced ing the sheet metal into a half-rounded, hollow wood form, in manufacture and construction, and industriali- and soldering the two sides together. Smaller parts like zation invaded the arts. Where early craftsmen had de- heads or tails were made separately and attached to the pended on wood or stone for decorations, cast iron now main piece. Frequently vanes were gilded, ntade sometimes its appearance on the exterior of the house and with 23-carat gold leaf. in thc ardcn - Previously B the weathervane had been The earliest weathervancs of the seventeenth °ne of the few century opportunities the owner had for personal reflected the heraldic tradition of European expression; now aristocratic ornamental hitching posts, iron fences manors and medieval castles. Once the words and grilles, and “weather- all varieties of garden sculpture made vane and “weathercock" had been almost their appearance. synonymous, hut the eighteenth century gave The us a variety of subjects, pioneer farmer had whittled his own weather- including fish and dragon, horse and cow. J'anc, his son ordered The ultimate one of copper or iron from the was reached in the late Ca nineteenth century ')UI his when the ? grandchildren in the city purchased new wonders of the age, the steam 'heirs at a fire engine and loco hardware store. The first metal weathervancs motive, were reproduced were in small scale to wrought iron; later ones serve as were cut out of flat sheet weathervancs. mCta ' ventual 'y copper vanes were made by hammer- Wrought iron is essentially the province of a skilled

[?> ] craftsman who beats the shape out of hot metal, prt^ success. These were the decades ducing his curves that brought and scrolls, h.s spikes comfort and tendrils, in and wealth to many who had but a senes of successive recently emerged heatings of the iron. With hammer from a p.oneer life and had and tongs been without the lie flattens or thickens his leisure metal and makes it necessary to cultivate the arts. round or square, or twists it into spirals. All this re- In the horse-and-buggy days, hitching posts quires experience, ingenuity were ne- and taste. Our best iron- cessities. At first simple posts served workers the purpose; the were Europeans who had already achieved flourishing period of the hitching post began when’ mastery in their homelands. cast In New Orleans some of iron came into its own. From the simple newel the finest post a work was done by Negro slave , more elaborate type was developed with a molded base who adapted Spanish and French patterns. and a fluted shaft terminating in a horse's head. Tree Europe, with its background of centuries of experi- trunks were imitated in cast iron, and finally pretentious ence, produced masterpieces of wrought iron. Some fine figures, youthful jockeys, barefoot darkeys, or Chinese wrought iron was also made in this country, though boys, held out the rings to which the reins were tied. not abundantly. Wrought iron had to compete with the In late these productions there is a sleekness, a delight in cheaper cast iron that came in with the 1820's and 1830's. bright colors, good modeling, and easy postures. Although ironwork was produced in this country in the Cast iron and cast zinc produced also an astonishing eighteenth century before, and large scale production variety of animal life for the front lawn of the city only came with the advent of cast iron. mansion. These figures were made in halves, from one-

Ornamental cast iron followed an indigenous Ameri- quarter to one-half inch thick, screwed together and can development. It is not the kind of folk art that ad- the holes filled with putty. Practical American ingenu- heres to simple geometric shapes. Instead, it reflects the ity managed to supply the well-to-do with imitations of style of the period, the Greek revival of the early nine- the zoo as well as works of sculpture. What deceptively teenth century, the Victorian Gothic, and after the Civil lifelike creatures graced the Victorian garden! Turtles,

War, the Renaissance manner. Ornamental cast iron dogs, life-sized deer, and statues of the human figure of cannas, appears in the ponderous rails that still surround many were neatly set out on the turf between beds house. The purchaser of our public buildings. Its use was widespread in against the red brickwork of the a catalogue an angel, a nymph, an garden fences, and it enhanced many a porch rail and could select from Amazon, Mercury, Flora, Pomona, or even a classic cemetery lot. In the South, it was used for galleries and galleries after an original in one of the art balconies. Being brittle, cast iron required a massive statue made Europe. treatment to create the bulk necessary for solidity. Even fc course, it eventually surface; After this fashion had run its patterns in common use have an impressive been considered desirable for assures them a :o disfavor. What had their exuberance catches the eye and regarded as in the well dressed garden was later Cast iron could not be simple; it had e decorative effect. judged generation that followed the beginning. ,rst of taste. The itself; it was elaborate from to extend was ostentatious decoration harshly. That it the American tem- dorian Cast iron was peculiarly suited to was of craftsmanship d accompanied by a decline achieved results quickly and lent itself perament, as it undeniable, and vet recognized. Its faults are demand was so great that there ncrally to mass production. The further removed in our attitude. The craftsmanship. have softened the slower methods of and the was no time for see its merits a period, the better we : from hand of a sensitive are no longer grew under the Time presc Forms to overlook its faults^ produce finished ,re we incline single model served to Fortuna. MM* artisan since a well made las,, best, for what is had : if a hitching post disintegrate. It was sufficient soon casts in quantities. worst; the shoddy worldly o shrouds the that would demonstrate that prosperous look

*t- original Dutchi wrought iron; made by 139 Numerals, 1687. New Castle, Delaware; , c 'n... oil Tile House, HO. Cross, wrought iron; made in Cahokia, Illinois; early HI Hitching Post, wrought iron; made by Calvin Nutting. nineteenth century. Sr., Pioneer Iron Works, San Francisco; late nineteenth HI. century. Cross, wrought iron, from a in the Saint Louis cemetery of New Orleans; 1806.

The cross from the of Church the Holy Family in New Orleans. After 1830 cast iron gained in importance. Cahokia, a French settlement in Illinois, is a thoroughly Much of the ornamental iron work here as elsewhere satisfying design. The ornamental ends, wrought in the throughout the country is cast iron, motif made in Philadcl- y from the French coat of arms, contrast with plua or after designs that j originated in 1 ic simplicity Philadelphia. of the arms of the cross. 1 he straight bar is a reasonable solution of the other cross prolv has the character of wrought iron in . Um of the hitching post. It fulfills its function Us delicate flow by the of line. Large scrolls support the cross, simple means of a sturdy post and and lily-shaped a ring to which the finials terminate the ends. Some of the reins arc tied The form is made ” of our wrouglu-iron ornamental by the work is in the South, as in spiral twist in the middle section. made cast iron. |v.intcd; 145. Horse Head Hitching Post, 143. Eagle, copper, gilded, fifteen inches long: nineteenth Works, New Wk C y, by W. Fiskc Ornamental Iron century. J. mid-nineteenth century. painted sheet 144. Wcathcrvanc, Indian shooting an arrow, century. metal; late eighteenth to early nineteenth

ton- lumbering silhouette wind to blow against. This used as this one, which is pre- Wherever eagles were the maker an » something of the character of wcathcrvanc, the design was vcys sumably from a Hag pole or who tamed strength of the men himself men. of the rude artist who did not trouble left to the individual patriotic em- bj rules of heraldry. These highly post was inspired with the " type of hitching This tenser show great diversity of design. blems, therefore, arrh.treturr, which for contemporary wings raised as though redeetmn «f particular (>osturc, with motifs. IMS a classic »d Go, hie ^; nJ was a common one. when d n flight, Victorian manner “ ,ke an In- ,, j, the contours of J”*of the pa* frontiersman who drew historic styles The adapted from the wca'hcrvanc wr.Mhr ^ arrow, made a, dian shooting ,0 houK. He Preb- with which he bu.lt a samc confident

interest.

] H(’. Angel Giibricl Wcaihcrvanc, copjicr, from Massachu- H7. Fish Wcaihcrvanc, metal; from Rhode Island, sells; nineteenth century.

In the winged Gabriel blowing his horn, the head. were made by machines, they became more numerous. Wings, and legs appear as if they had been pieced to- Old models were copied and many new designs gether ap- from different sources, but this weathervane still peared. The most familiar, perhaps, are the prize-win- makes an effective silhouette. An angel Gabriel, clothed ning cows and bulls, and the well known race in a flowing horses gown, was blowing his horn in 1814 on the adapted from Currier & Ives prints. steeple of the Baptist Church of Whiting, Vermont. No In the fish, much is made of the doubt, ornamental value it came from the shop of a local blacksmith. The of scales, hns, and tail. Once the fish was a Refot angel Gabriel .nation here illustrated also bears the mark of a symbol, and before that the fish was a significant provincial craftsman, ele- giving it a charm that is particu- ment in early Christian symbolism. arly We do not know appreciated today. This same motif, in a more whether this Christian conventional interpretation of the fish played version, appears in commercial catalogues any part in New England weathervanes. As this 35 1840 and 35 late one 35 mi - By that ,ime ",7 Gabriel comes from the coastal U regions, it was a ' b'cn 'ransformed probably on top into a little cupid, on which the of a wharf or fish market. manufacturers took out a patent. When wcatherv.a ncs

[75] f

ninciccnih century. 148. Cock Wc.nhcrv.inc, c*i|>|kt:

out weathervanes.atjmde zoological accuracy. Metal earliest wcathcrvanc de- Probably the rooster is the hammered together over use on of two sheets, His widespread European ^ in tins country. hollow form. 5 j K n into a single t he cock soldered coropass explain this preference, the pom church steeples may with an arrow and dental of the rooster for spires to Peters had a J his place on church wea.hervane artists owed The ai| no to do below. JP ^ , to the congregation ° P as a warning they made a . Chris, and fine contours; rar( made ou of he roo copper roosters were erect posture likewise. The feathers and the at crow,ng, is represented occasions the rooster sphere. perched on a metal times he is

6 T ) H9. Whale VVcaihcrvanc, painted pine; at Little 151. Deer, hollow made cast zinc, three and a half feet high; made Compton, Rhode Island; early nineteenth century. In J. W. Fiske Ornamental Iron Works, New York City; ’ 150. Cock 1S70. Weathcrvanc, copper, gilded, over live feet high and one foot thick; made by Shem Drowne lor New Brick Church, Uoston; eighteenth century.

The vane whittled in the form of a sperm whale per- was the "Revenge Cockerel” (it weighed 172 pounds) I'ctuates an earlier design. It was used by the captain of that when it was blown down in a storm it a New crashed Bedford whaling vessel. The shape of the head through the roof and into the kitchen of a near-by house. snows that the carver knew his subject well. It is not Shem Drowne was a famous weathervane maker of surprising that New Bedford should favor the whale, as Boston. He made the brass and copper Indian a arge portion shooting of the world’s whaling was concentrated an arrow which stood on Old Province here in House, and the the decades before the Civil War. equally renowned grasshopper |n vanes for Fancuil Hall 1720 part of the congregation of a Boston church and Peter Faneuil’s summer house. In the ° jcctcd to latter half the new pastor so violently that they left the of Ins hfe Drowne carved urc shop signs and i and formed figureheads, what was nicknamed the First Rc- and became known as “Deacon Shem Drowne tlu ^r ' st ‘ O'1 its steeple stood the splcn- Carver.” We are told of his work by h 1 cd cock by Shem Nathaniel Haw- Drowne, who is said to have thorne under the title “Drowne’s Wooden mmered it from Image" in copper kettles. So large and so heavy Mosses from an 01J Manse.

7 ] Victory Welion, 152. Whirligig, painted |>inc, Pcniisylvjiii.i-Gcrin.iii; nine- 153. Gate, wood and iron; m.idc by Hobart century. teenth century. Waterbury, Connecticut; mid-nineteenth

century. early as the fifteenth The body and head of the whirligig are made from pean origin, mentioned as using imple- gate design achieves an effect by a single piece of wood; the arms are separate to pivot The ordinarily do not ments, plow, yoke, and sickle, that whirl a rod which passes through the shoulders. and on Attempts to to purposes of decoration. real a pole is lend themselves There is little resemblance to a person; decorative sometime combine the practical with the shaped to suggest a rudimentary figure. The merely taste as How unfortunate expressions of forms and the painted lead to such bold contours, the elongated use o * automobile tires. The beds set within cast-off bring out a linear rhythm, while lines and costume of design shou tools for purposes flow up and down, realistic shapes emphasize subtle curves that and produce equally bad result, was used precedent It measures thirty inches and and in and out. design, surprisingly suctcssful as a that the arms would be made !s of doors, installed so orderly sp out artist created an is that the spa ^ rotate with the wind. breaks the to Within each section the tool used for toys, of which ^ was also si ^ The same mechanism manner so that the fully calculated another is hkc a One is like a top; £ there are three types. and the thud . «ne> means of a string; design but how spindle turned by important for good arc- winch whirl patterns. with four arms significant miniature windmill evolve artistically ||kc a Euro- bined ,o The whirligig is of when moved through the air. 8 [ 7 J 1

Hca<| . cjrvcd in stone by Hobart Victorv Wclton bt,. Weathervane. Gw, Jterbury, copper and zinc; possibly Connecticut; mid-nineteenth made by century. Hams 6c Company, Boston; nineteenth century. r ' C

h.s head shows a primitive sculptors love of total hca‘1 15 of onc a set «.n stone ' 3nd ramps, flanking smoo,h suf^ces. the Eyes, ears and mane are steps of the su sculptor’s house. aCC a,,"nS supcrim osed on a generalized f P form, TV primitive whittling Th Xii of the gtarrhopper, 1> '°rs ima the tend- g|nat| vc design is in' perhaps as satisfy- cncy to simplify and 8 3 morc generalize, follows an rcalistic rendition early tra would have been. This d.t.on rather than the accurate realism of a later period

[ 79 copper Allen and Sulky, 5V. Weathcrvanc, Trotter Ethan 157. Wc.ithcrv.inc, Horse, wrought and sheet iron; made in 1 iron; about 1871. Pennsylvania; mid-nineteenth century. and cast / f 4

15*. Harden Urn, cast iron, painted; late nineteenth century.

t a Corner & Ives p i be an adaptation from represents an indigenous develop- d>cr The weathcrvanc traditional, ye. The form of this urn is ment, since the free choice of motifs is characteristically ** the abrupt chan^ individual element in it is reason- Though somewhat simplified, flu- « American. and the small ° tween the large ovals These wcathcrvancs added to European hape ^ ably true to life. over the general The artist has taken and various mechanical inventions. subjects animals dc,31 ••ml clabora,cti 'hc hero. bushy tail, is Revolutionary horse, prancing and with ^° for the The spirited horse, named This famous print . The vertical & ^ most effective weathcrvanc. r worked into .1 been ma e a « may have also ay should to revolve. Its spear- ^ thc j a socket and is made sporting rod is set into that a few It is noteworthy wi,h arrowhead and feather to free cou^ combines well with weathcrvanc. A of head be made into a life is the ^ the silhouette that the design. What adds to new symbols round out traditions creates against straigh curves of the horse set fully rounded own day. eottld its The eon,our of the horte a„d serrated edge.

f ] I6 Wcathcrvanc, Locomotive °; and Tender. copper. brass 161. Wcathcrvanc. Horse, cast zinc and an, I sheet copper; nine lro". nine feet long; about 1S70. teemb century. Over all height, one and one-half feet.

The locomotive wcathcrvanc with many details is knight flew his banner from the tower madc m ,hc of his castle. round, virtually as a model of a real loco- The magnificent horse •notivc. wcathcrvanc is striking For a a con- wcathcrvanc it is a mechanical wonder, trast to the locomotive. It is as conventional 0S ' dab°ratC as the devclo ,mcnt of its l kind, and it 7 is locomotive is unusual. One Cry argCt reflects the new 0n| a ^cw industrial y these designs were madc, as age, ;. the other the passing C° day of the St was Prohibitive handicrafts. Be- ? for popular use. Had appro- cause of its clarity and pnatcncss simplicity of outline, and logic the silhou- controlled wcathcrvanc design, ette ,s effective even locomotives in the modes, size of would scarcely have this example. been added to the list The broad expanse of the su jects. muscular body, The man who ordered , hc small this one must have hca.1, .he ,all c n ond | ,hc |cgs of railroads. The locomotive a„ a|| became his ma.v,aually Personal and i„ emblem which he a „ hoisted proudly just as the L’

[».) 162. Chalkwarc Dccr; from Pennsylvania; nineteenth century.

9. From Parlor to Pantry

elsewhere. As men, they were beautiful, in America as As the early settlers on the Atlantic seaboard replaced lapsa an production increased, the handicrafts primitive shelters with permanent dwellings, they factory their the deea c This was especially true in furnishings after those of taste declined. patterned their houses and comfort a There was greater and metal, after the Civil War. England. Wood often took the place of stone way to ugliness. St.H. more wealth, but beauty gave was no basic change in the mode of living but there the factory was period of transition, when pans, were like those in this Tankards and trammels, pots and good dcsig an undercurrent of continued ing out the crafts, and cooking over the o|>cn fire made of «ood, at home, articles, whether ti nued in unpretentious way. Utensils did not change great- in the old, familiar new ocean had ken crossed, or a ly just because an government set up. design can • American. If any trend in decided change everywhere made for a t k But one factor tendency to sirnph y gave way to ican, it is a m(|St Revolution. As candles ^ die Industrial the Moksteve. hearth was replaced by kerosene, as the hfc .tsc manufacture moved to the mill, and as home

Cl crafts- articles were made by A?iong as household 82 [ ] was peddled around the country from wagons by home or turned on the lathe aiul finished by hand, such amount of into the nine- hawkers. Pewter, an alloy of tin with a small ware served lor common use well fact that copper, was still imported from England. 1 he teenth century, especially lor chihlren anil old |>eoplc gunmetal molds were expensive made it difficult who might be likely to break the new precious |H>rce- the for this craft to get started in the colonies. After the lain. pewter was made here, Pottery-making was among the earliest of American middle of the eighteenth century

it of fashion in the nineteenth century as crafts. For the kitchen, the potteries produced various but went out

in kettles t be- types of glazed earthenware or redware; for storing |>orcclain became common. Copper and food and liquids, jars and jugs of salt-glazed stoneware, like was in general use in the eighteenth century and hard and durable, were popular. Such stoneware was brass was used somewhat less. In the late eighteenth cen- often decorated with an underglaze slip of cobalt blue. tury both were replaced by cast iron. Colonial Because it was so widely used, this utility ware has Some of the finest craftwork of the and early been identified with this country. Certain pieces, aston- Federal periods was produced in silver, especially in ishingly fine in shape and decoration, show that good Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore. People things were being made, even while the handicrafts of wealth and culture had brought silver with them were receding. from England, and these pieces formed the models for

Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, the so- the first Colonial designs. Here plain surfaces and severe called "Rockingham Ware," inspired by English tor- contours reflect the Puritan reaction against elabora toise-shell ware, reflected the Victorian love for elabora- lion. This love of simplicity affected even the florid tion in pitchers and creamers, in poodle-dogs, monks’ rococo style that appears sober and restrained in com- bottles and the like. Some of these pieces were modeled parison with the English variety. by English craftsmen who worked in Bennington, Ver- Household silver, the aristocrat among the crafts, mont, and elsewhere, to raise the standards of American was essentially a luxury in which only the well-to-do ceramics. This type hardly achieved the distinction of could indulge. It appeared early in the history of the some of the Greek or early Chinese ceramics, but the colonies because it was a convenient wav of storing best of the brown, glazed, and mottled surfaces show wealth when there were no banks, for the silver- an unusual brilliance and depth of color. smith received the metal in the form of silver coin. Before the period of large factory production, house- Tankards and tea sets were both useful and ornamental, hold wares were often produced in small shops. The and when necessary they could be reconverted into coin. village blacksmith, like the one immortalized by Long- The owner had an added protection, that in case of theft fellow, made all sorts of hardware, including iron locks, utensils were easy to identify. The were hasps and hinges, nails and bolts. The blacksmith who trusted, highly respected members of the community sIkxI horses was called a farrier, and the whitesmith and many of them held public office. Paul Revere was a was one who worked with tin. Tinware, at first import- , and the silver he made is treasured for its ed, by 17*10 was produced in Berlin, Connecticut, and historical as well as for its artistic value. -

Wisconsin; mid-nineteenth century. 1W. Painting on Velvet, basket <>l fruit; nude in

meant admonished to draw, which made with stencils the pupil was painted on velvet were n Designs <>f iCSIk utmost accuracy. Originality emphasize line and copy, with called “theorems." They frankly method ot copying was the accepted designs seems not the object; abstract character of these pattern. The seminaries The fact A®. art study in the female it appeared awkward. today, where formerly west as fascinating had penetrated as far Young Practiiion time activities such titles as Hints to the harshnes Books bearing century shows that the mid-nineteenth Painting, and Young by the Study of Landscape disappearing- ers in conditions was Painting, or Art of frontier jK in Drawing and ^ hidin' Assistant as on t c P ceramic decoration, • on how to In frfCj 0m: specific instructions b . gave with surf Recreations. . - artist worked page, the folk aIfnoSt Grecian painting hair ru painting, s arc proceed in •'theorem scrolls and tend" the freehand rcpc ti- mache and aquariunvmakmg. wax work, papier Thei, work, ««uld like writing- ^ painting as she woman approached effective design. A young tion. makes an attractive, ,-cls - c ^ -J skill. yet " *c of . . recipe only for a great deal ru(fs iL this t>, call bamlSi an earlier period bandboxes ^ and pans. At century \Votn- .,.,d of pots Eighteenth a|tirc s rn would have bc« of a prd decoration neckwear , Used „r fancy fincfy . bandboxes for arttc. The d.iinlincss of .he cn also had their In the ** of the period. ^ Of the teaching ^ ] lfo Plaic, red earrhenware: nineiccnih ccnliiry. 1(>S. Inkwell, jjr.tv s.il(-gl.i/cd stoneware; made for Ceorgc 1W). Bandbox, made Crawford by by Puinam & Roll, Hanford. Con- Clark it Fox, pottery at Athens, New f ork; neciicut; between 1*2.5 and 1S24. l6 '- Stoneware Ink Bottle; !(•'*. Pitcher, mid nineteenth century. salt-glazed stoneware: nineteenth century.

for travel, bandboxes were light in weight, made of Before the days of fountain pens, inkwells cardboard were more- or thin wood covered with paper on which common than they arc today. As this anious one was made landmarks were often block-printed. before steel pens were used, we must imagine the goose E'en a century ago individual packaging in small quills, sharjiened and slit at the ends for writing, left quantities, which today we have come to regard as a standing in the pen holes. This one was made for standard technique, its was still unknown. Ink and soda first owner, who had his name stamped Pop then into the clay came in the same type of bottle. Probably this before the inkwell was one finished. was made for a cork, and the incision below indi- This stoneware jug is cates satisfactory both from that the cork the utili- was wired on. There is a spout on tanan and the aesthetic point of e upper view. Its massive body rim to make the pouring easier. The surface cannot be readily upset; ls so i. lifts easily and pleasant in texture pours well that it appeals to one's sense cm its ample s,Hn.t. The broadly of touch. painted leaf and llowcr decoration is well suited to its sturdy character

8s I v ' ork George Fielding. N« Boston; Mug, silver; made by 170. Tankard, silver; made by Edward Winslow, 1725-1750. ; 1725-1750. tnsenbed made by Paul Revere, Boston; Thauvet Bcslcy, New Mug. silver; 171. Tea Caddy, silver; made by I76S. York City; 1750.

Malavsvntd fa "after tar,.,he was called a -caddy, historic styles, particu- boa like furniture, follows pound d Silver, held about a the pound, because i, England anti Holland. The shape of larly those of with «• fcwmg^c ^ scrolled monogram the beer-drinking countries of ^ ^ tankard comes from CL g rococo manner, the initials evolved from a sect.on of horn northern Europe, having Reade. arine Livingstone handle were applied. without metal base, lid and ,o which a were often shaped bottom contrast Mugs gleaming the molded top and beautiful e*** In this tankard This one shows a of .he srhrer, lids. polished surface of crating ^ plain side. The moldings . with .he metal with the a dcc rn itself. Han by is attractive an the surroundings, The C-curvcd ^ the reflecting contrast. . on mscnp.ton pV.Vl there is the orated band, and Nothin a Style handle. influence. « showing

arc delicately curved to set off the lively double scroll close to the sphere, as if it hesitated to yield anything °f tbe handle. Paul Revcrc's craftsmanship is here equal of its comfortable spread. The handle also is satisfied to his fame as dispatch-rider from Boston to Lexington. with a single C-curvc, ending in horizontal sockets. This mug, one of a pair, bears an engraved The modest little spout clings to the pot as if not daring tn Latin, which tells us they were presented by a group to strike out on its own. It is clear that the designer « Harvard students of the Class of 1768 to their tutor. desires simplicity, and takes pleasure in uncomplicated Stephen Seales, as tokens of affection. shapes. Silversmithing and engraving were allied John Coney arts. was a contemporary of Edward Wins- Coney, who engraved this teapot with the ,°w, Perkins coat a ' so a Boston silversmith. An excellent example of of arms, also engraved the plates for the 15 first paper work is this teapot with its domed lid, ring foot money that Massachusetts printed for the colonies in - uc k' neck spout. There is a pleasing directness 1690, as well as a seal for . ut the design. Though pear-shaped, the contour is

[ 87 ] ^

Pot- ycllowwarc; United States 177. Pottery Dog Ornament, 175. Wilier Pilcher; attributed to Connecticut; nineteenth mid-nineteenth century. ter its,ics Bennington, Vermont; century. Portland, Maine; early 176. J.ir with Lid, redware; made in nineteenth century.

surface and finely mottled achieves success through its pitcher suggests rugged stability; it looks The water glaze. 1 he base an Mi sparkling brilliance of its Even the incised bands the ^ steadfast and straightforward. ’ made not primarily for correctness of the rim were emphasize the sober r of decoration and a firm produce a solid bottom glaze were probably design. The dark splashes in the wheel he added jar from his ^ bad cut the glaze was damp. applied with a sponge when the assure a sturdy bottom. was sim- rim to jllustrat- satisfied if the shape Our early potters were of ceramic * 'l is an example . luster. TI.C dog con(ajn the glaze added color or and graceful and of overornamen.at.on. ple ing Victorian love there was as yet no ^ nineteenth century spattered on, In the early color matter was when pot- ing ^ in the mid-ccntury w as that occurred with tt that w elaboration; so delighted appca l to draw ^ ambitious and began Here too is ter. became unrealistic mottling. European models. I from the more irretentions 88 [ ] 17S. Jug, gray stoneware; attributed to Lewis Lehman & ISO. Crock, tan stoneware; attributed to Caire Pottery, G).. New York 1859-1S61. City; Poughkeepsie, New ^ <»rk ; inscribed with purchaser's name,

F. A. Yoorhee Co. "; 17V. Grotesque Jug, greenish stoneware; attributed to Con- Kingston?) N.Y. nineteenth cen- necticut. tury.

of the pet poodle so beloved by our grandparents. achievements. Pottery more than any other craft unites 1 lie cobalt blue slip decorations of stoneware are pa: man with his work. It is a parallel to the Biblical idea Ocularly attractive in their spontaneous freshness. Th of creation out of mortal clay. The potter makes a pot brushwork is superior and the drawing of leaves, flov as the Lord created man; he speaks of pots having crs ’ and birds is unbotanical. These decorations add t a foot, shoulder, neck, lip, and other features. There is the interest of this ware; through constant repetitio a close psychological relationship between man and *hc artisans developed a fluent technique. This type < clay. decoration is seen at its best in the leaves, tendrils, an Although distorted, this grotesque jug is appealing owers of the jug and crock. In the 1860's the shapes ( because it has style, for the features arc related in shape. 1 c ware changed. The sides became straight and, alon There may be here a reminiscence of African art. Some W 1 l^s c hange, ! brushwork came to an end, stencilir grotesque jugs were . made by Negro slaves takmg and others its place. arc potters' jests. Ch) is universal and pottery is one of man's carlie iron: ninciccnih ccniury. 1 HI . M.iiiron Si.iml. cast

The designer ent with the basic necessities. These flatiron stands reflect the spirit of early indus- the twisting • designer with interlacing hearts trialism in this country. In many cases the -no worked his advertising was not suf- manufacturer also used conventional motifs; hut art alone advert 8 This trend toward design, and justifiably so. included something pertaining to the ficient, so he manufacturer had to was inescapable, for .be * advertising slogan, a trade name, or ^ manufacturer, an as he cou many housewives < of the articles to as ^ The practical requirements crt even a monogram. not too < ll, flatiron stand is Only any one , unnecessary to have a solid surface. stand made it to other, the producer tried a support to give the iron • metal was needed and l»> enough the design attractive combinat.on of lines making o,.enwork design, any ,| ; iny maker’s name. an in forger i lie would suffice. an, I shapes, consist the flatiron stand is Here the construction of M 1X2. l laliron Stand, cast iron; nineteenth century.

This flatiron stand shows the Victorian spirit at its carries conviction, and it may come as a shock to many *las ’I' 1' trolls, flowers, ribbons, and vase out of People that it was made in the U.S.A. " lc grows a tree of life as the central motif. One When ornamental cast iron first became VOU l popular, * ^ difficult to select themes which be it would would often be maligned by the j css older members of appropriate from a purely intellectual point of view the household. They would remember the an wcrs tough ami ’ ribbons, and vases ! as a support for a flat- sturdy wrought iron and look >ron. upon the fragile cast iron However justifiable it may seem to find fault with as a cheap substitute. Yet properly used >s typ in places where e 0f design in theory, it cannot be denied that strength was not essential, the ,S adaptability of cast iron partlcular result is attractive. It has a lush vitality. to flond expression gave it a charm that mcl ln explains its ^ ( hc character of tropical vegetation; it success.

] Ohio, made in with brass turning; 181 Trammel, wrought iron; early eighteenth century. 1S5. Norfolk Latch, iron early nineteenth century. 184. Candle Mold, tin; probably made in Pennsylvania; nineteenth century.

highly specialized of the many base. This is one example Trammels served to suspend pots in the fireplace at period. of the . widely used both here and utensils h * levels. They were 1 dj/Tcrent top of thts Nor fleur-de-lis at the Un- comparatively simple. Though The in Europe. This one is escutcheon C its single P'* \“ because of . been abandoned, there called vjval freely-scrolled ends have not century £ the the nineteenth leisure a local version of jn the playful spirit that thrives on is a lessening of the s,,e P^’ The copper pan, on 0PP° or hardy pioneer hfc. coa | encouraged by a it abo c is not apt to be legs to raise but fireplace, needed candles were open bod> ^ tells us at a glance how on the The candle mold and handle are riveted attraenve Jood. Legs utilitarian yet extremely is purely manner. made. It undisguised structural and its curved six tapering cylinders with its battery of

[92 ] 1%. Pan, wrought sheet cop|)cr with iron handle and legs; INS. Door Latch; made by S. Baumann, blacksmith of Ra- Lttcr part eighteenth century. cine, Wisconsin; 1S76.

1N7. lankard, wood; attributed to New England; probably 1S9. Strainer, wood; early nineteenth century. Liter part eighteenth century.

This tankard was hollowed out from a single piece raised from the outside by a string. Later a thumbpiece of maple, more or less imitating a shape common to replaced the string. This Suffolk-type latch, with top mctal. The craftsman rounded the top and carved the and bottom plates, is made beautiful by its very sim- heart-shaped design with loving care. Plates called plicity. Blacksmiths did not sign their work, and much benchers, bowls, spoons, forks and many utensils were early hardware in this country came from England, commonly made of wood, as silver and but this pewter for example is known to be a native product. 0r inar usc V wcrc beyond the means of all but the 1 he strainer is made from a single piece of maple, l-to-do. In such utensils as cooking spoons and salad the bowl having been turned on a lathe. Holes wls were > w°od has lasted until our own day. drilled to turn a dipper into a strainer. Being of wood, In early days when iron was scarce, latches were it made had to Ik thick and solid. But the rim ° W00 has been cut ^- The phrase “our latchstring is out," meaning back to a slanted edge and the WC handle is neatly tapered arc at honie." originated because the latch-bar was for the sake of balance and to avoid clumsiness.

[ 93 ] century, 190. Dutch Bake Oven, cast iron; made in Ohio; mid nine- 191. Tailor’s Stove, cast iron; first half nineteenth

teenth century. 192. Teakettle, tin; mid-nineteenth century.

and avoi - depending largely on cutting and soldering, The Dutch oven was a large iron pot, with a lid. lines in t it from the crane ing hammering. This explains the straight used for baking or roasting. It hung an t ic the flat handle, short legs amid the coals. sides, the funnel-shaped spout, over the fire or stood on three This is area ) slight curvature of the lid and top. be confused with the brick oven that was It is not to from w cn quantity production, the artisans working fireplace. built into the side of the to Andrew John templates and molds. tailor's stove belonged The cast-iron t entered Perhaps the best known large-scale as President, before lie ^ son. Lincoln's successor Carpet, mate this country is the Caswell lie later was made in tailor's apprentice at ten. tor his polnical career. A Vermont, Higlcy Guernsey, of Castlcton, where lie- by Zeruah Greenville. Tennessee, begin- worked at Ins tra.le in to make it, her parlor. She took at least two years there is elegance stove. Though factory-made, backs o * used this shearing the wool from the influence of ning by panel. It shows the ^ W1 low-relief side in 1835. The in the father's sheep, and finishing it , and reserve. i in its simphc.ty feet, consis the classic revival twelve by thirteen and one-half shape is is form. The stitc i on is functional in in chain T|,is teakettle individual pieces, embroidered simplest terms. manufacturing reduced to its result of

] 1 I' '. Ciswell C.ir|Kt (du. nl) liv ; nude Zeru.di Higl (Jucrnscy. (.isilcion, Vermont; Cumplctol m 1S>S. co.irse homespun ground and sewn together afterwards. the rug is in the eighteenth century tradition; but the The embroidered rugs came before the hooked rugs, three panels with the blue cat and the kittens, m the and not many of them were made. (What is here shown lower right-hand corner, are pictorial in the taste of the is something over a quarter of the rug.) nineteenth century.

hacli small panel is a design, the natural form is ’/.email Guernsey married a Caswell and continued simplified, the silhouette is emphasized, and the few to live in Cast leton, where she no doubt subdued exhibited her colors make for harmony. Certain panels are rug to admiring friends. It is ., masterpiece of folk art li,tlc en,s f* ’ particularly the one of bride and groom, and is now in the American Wing of undoubtedly the Metropolitan meant as a memorial to herself. Most of Museum of Art. ^

I'M. Pitcher, ac]u.im.irinc, h.md blown, South Jersey type; c.irly nineteenth century.

\')5. Tumbler, .ii|u.im.irine, mold-blown, South Jersey tyjxr; early nineteenth century.

10. Pitcher and Tumbler

- training. The know opaque sub- task that requires skill and long It must always seem like a miracle that often only when and edge of making glass spread slowly, stances like sand, soda, lime or lead can be mixed out of the countr) glass glass blowers could be smuggled fused by heat to produce transparent glass. When glass blowers were that employed them. Thus Venetian cast into a mold; in another state is fluid it is blown or cn at a time* Through among the early arrivals at Jamestown, rolled, drawn out into a fine thread. it is or the first \amc- even in England. Probably takes on most glass was rare addition of metallic oxides, glass beads the was the colored made glass in North America colors. How- luminous and varied with the Indians. made by these artisans for trade century all glass was blown Before the nineteenth identified is of earliest glass that can be breath of the glass ever, the from the end of a blowpipe by the tools eighteenth century. glass today and the estab-, blower. We still have blown but.onmakcr Caspar Wistar, a Philadelphia not changed greatly. manufacture have glass fac . used in its important American above pitcher, lished the first free-blown, as in the may be either in 1739. Glass Salem County, New Jersey, tumbler. Mold-blown glass is mold-blown as in the were window and or the main products metal mold, often made against the walls of a were not produced blown Pitchers and bowls hours for g • ions. . during off in seel , but were blown and its manu- man’s early discoveries, Glass is one of household use. own . i st of information that was makes thef ic mm0 on a fund of Jersey glass facture depended This so-called South an arduous guarded. Glassmakmg is always jealously

1 9*1 manu- claimed that he was the first to manipulated. soda lime. Stiegel glass can be freely the fact that molten flint glass in this country. bulbous shapes, were facture blown pieces, often in about 1826 Partly glass was unchallenged until extra layer Hand-blown into the molten "metal" for an dipped back carpenter at the New 1827 when Enoch Robinson, a 1 lltst as and into waves and "lily > that was dragged H'- a Boston- England Glass Company, and Denting Jarvis, crimped foot, all seen on the threaded neck and well as descent, made various pressing South ian of French Huguenot opposite page, arc typical of the pitcher on the of machines on which they took out patents. Instead have here a folk-art manner that became Jersey glass. We the glass breath, a mechanical plunger pressed American glass. human the most potent influence in 1 hus, stamped it with a pattern. American into an iron mold and Perhaps the most celebrated name in early wooden patterns for the molds German-born Baron the man who carved the glass is that of the picturesque, pressed glass. 1 he new inven- Henry William became the real artisan of Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel, known as livelihood of the glass blowers and boy anil started tion threatened the Stiegel. He arrived as a poor immigrant so enraged against Jarvis that for a time married the daughter they became on the road to success when he fear of his life. But as the owner of ironmasters, manu- he had to hide in of one of Pennsylvania's prosperous Sandwich German the Boston & Sandwich Glass Company at facturer of the well known Pennsylvania to perfect the process and control of the on Cape Cod, he persevered stoves. Eventually Stiegel assumed full

put it into practical use. Under his guidance the Sand- foundry. wich factory became an outstanding success. From the From casting iron Stiegel branched out to manufac- standpoint of social welfare he conducted his business turing glass. While his glass business flourished he was to bring security to his workers in spite of depressions. a glamorous and splendid figure. He founded the town his concern for his workers, Jarvis gained their of Manheim, built a mansion, drove about in a coach Through enthusiastic cooperation, and this of course helped his drawn by six white horses, and had his entry into town business. heralded by a brass band, especially trained for such to surpass cut glass; the speed occasions. But his glass business failed shortly before Pressed glass aspired

the pressing machine was its great advantage. It the Revolution. It never recovered and Stiegel, though of

versatile and gifted in many ways, died in poverty. could produce at a small cost an effect of high relief,

Stiegel glass is distinguished for its elegance, fusing that would have cost a fortune to produce by the old

various European influences in an effort to equal the methods of cut glass. But pressed glass soon developed

best European ware. In this, Stiegel was so successful its own style, delicate in lacelike surface patterns, or

that his glass is usually indistinguishable from the glass massive and bold.

made by his European competitors. As far as is known, By 1845 virtually every American home had pressed

he was the first man in America to produce fine tabic glass, and by 1865 it had almost supplanted china in

and ornamental ware. this country. Actually, pressed glass was made in many

Artisans who had worked with Stiegel and others places and in numerous patterns so that today over a

carried their techniques, particularly the use of the thousand designs have been identified, without consid- pattern-mold, to Pittsburgh and Ohio. It has therefore ering differences of color. Today Sandwich glass means become customary to speak of Sticgcl-typc glass and of pressed glass. A type of glass that stood out as an indus-

glass in the Ohio-Stiegel tradition. Certain colors, like trial triumph of early America, is today, within a cen- cobalt blue and amethyst, arc unique and such colored tury of its manufacture, sought by collectors every- glass is often flint glass. In this the most brilliant of where.

all glass, the sand is mixed with potash lead instead of Jersey; M Pestle; hand-blown in New probably W>() - 198. Mort.tr and 1%. Crc.im Pilcher, mold-blown, Sticgcl: eighteenth century. 1774. hand-blown at Redwood, Bowl. South Jersey type; century. 199. South Jersey type; nineteenth 197. Pilcher, New York; 1S33-1*''60.

passive That such and suitable for hard use. ertmped heavy combines the South Jersey The cream pitcher were used shows rhn. .he or,gin. toZ <««%<£££ Venetian dcst^ns diamond pattern of wide range of | ndlc with the was well aware of the and were “sed were adopted by Stiegel ,cse motifs ijtass. in tttsburg in . ,1'ivc mol if migrated to I blowers who had know, the h y P cr by glass As far as we bowl ^ ,hc developed in t >« glass design was found on pitch" ' evident in the mot, f mo influence is and irregular A Jersey his free wrt contrasts sharply globular forms, lus- drical shape. that deep ««irC*-**•*"Daee,isof

bottle glass. of window and is typical 200. Sug;ir Howl, mold-blown, nvcr-.ill height si\ .uni one- 2o2. I lot tic for Toilet Water, mold blown, Stiegel; probably lull inches, Slicgel; probably 1769-1774. 1709-1774. 201. Mask, enameled clear glass with metal cap. Stiegel type; eighteenth century.

thc r<- SIrai "‘ b Y which Sticgcl glass differs from that of influence. Here we have the same South charming freshness Jersey. Lid) detail is well considered, like the deli- noted in Pennsylvania German crafts. cately It is typical of one swirled ribbed finial which accents thc shape and of four groups of Stiegel glass made by artisans import contrasts with the smooth surface of the lid. The pattern, ed from all over Europe. The other groups the Venetian diamond show plain, design, was impressed on the engraved and modeled surfaces. glass in the mold. The blowing began in a small The so-called perfume bottle illustrates mold and, after the shape was Sticgel’s orig- withdrawn from thc inality; the shape and the surface mold, the bottle was decoration, a “Daisy- expanded to its full size. Sugar m-a-Square" pattern with bowls of fluting below, are this type and size represent distinctive Stiegel glass at am! believed to be his inventions. its best. As far as is known no other The glasshouse. American or European, flask, in shape and decoration, used this suggests German design.

(<»] blown and Hashed; Sail Cellar, blue and milk glass, the coat of arms of the 201. 20$. Covered Goblet, engraved with City; hrst hall perhaps by the Jersey (.lass Company. Jersey by John Frederick Arne- city of Bremen, Germany; made nineteenth century. 1/NS. in New Bremen, Maryland; nmctccnt lung lirst half 205. Nursing Bottle, hand-blown; century.

dated inscribed and glassmakers has left us thought century was first discovered it was ofthcg'assan When this goblet In the quality examp es of his work. American manufacture. The inscrip- Anielung glass to be too fine for of the engraving, North L the craftsmanship Bremen Glass Manufactory. l/»«. tion "New best. of the . r i|i have been clear is it layer of Maryland," should by America, State Flashed glass is made long- J0, manufacture is no ass today its American color on top o g enough, and of glass of one has made by a worker who It may have been er questioned. d .ike Germany where such character, , recently come from almost archt'eauml, had fairly a classic, vessels for state occa- e goblets" or drinking sophisticated an "presentation Sticgcl, it is hardiy > modern 8 Spared '0 “ Ecn this fcosv- ;"Tof vg present standards corl „p oor em ^ inapmvenwm on SSsSS eve, was an „f filling ic=s“—*-

ioo] 206. Quart Decanter, olive green; Blown Three Mold type; 2(6. Whisky Mask, olive amher, halt-pint si/e: early nine-

Me. Vernon Glass Works, Vernon, New York, lirsi halt teenth century. ninetcenih century.

I he Blown Three Mold type, as in this competition decanter, keen; it was the bottle that sold the prod- is an American contribution that was no doubt inspired uct. 1 hese flasks are vigorous in design. They show a by the more expensive mold-blown English ware, with relief that is higher than in other glassware. The pat- its wheel cut designs. In the designs used for mold- terns are historical, political, or of popular interest. The blown glass, American wood carvers achieved effects American eagle and George Washington adorned more comparable to those of fashionable cut glass. As soon flasks than any other design, but there is no end of as glass blowers use molds, they surrender something popular subjects: Adams, Jackson, Lafayette, Jenny of their own creativeness. The glass blower may still Lind, naval vessels. Masonic emblems, and many others, finish the shape but the carver who makes the wooden and each motif appears in many variations. The surface model for the metal mold creates the pattern. Conven- is uneven and coarse and the bottles arc in various tional motifs like ribs and rosettes, the so-called "gad- colors. This one with an urn containing fruit on one roons and sunbursts," are here impressed on heavy, side and a cornucopia design on the other side was coarse green glass. made at the glasshouse in Keene, New Hampshire, and Cov- American drinking habits in the early nineteenth entry. Connecticut. Liquor flasks century were made in full size are believed to have hastened the development molds, of two sections. of our glass industry. The price of whisky was low. and yellow; pressed at Planta- 210. Candlestick (one of a pair), vaseline 20H. Hitters Houle, amber, pressed; S. I . Drake I860 nineteenth Boston & Sandwich Glass Company; first half tion X Hitters. century. pressed at Boston St 2ir>. Finger Bowl, deep amethyst; century. Sandwich Glass Company: first half nineteenth

continuing to advertise ing unbroken longer, thereby resemblance between the bitters bottle There is no became outstanding, beverage. The bitters industry are also alcoholic, the flask. Though bitters commercal and the liquor industry to its and this helped the glass The purchaser never thought this fact was not admitted. with liquor; instead lx bitters having any connection massive as in of glass can lx- thick and doing something Pressed that lie was ic . under the illusion in part to t he was Its richness is due medicine, and finger bowl. bitters like a produce attract.! his health. One took prismatically to for the light is refracted health-giving herbs had That is why the j, tasted bitter. bottle suggcstc C shape of the ... vanou* why .he ‘ were made ,o I* stressed, and Dolphin candlesticks .he purchaser and pm °J°* soothe the mind of ,hc woods, .0 with gilt to the some only a ,onic. Next heaps e„uU» ,hat .his was really found on the rubbish him'ateasc making have been this deception. By the botlle proclaimed Sandwich Glass Company. nrmc of remain- & had a better chance dlOw.llc ornamental, i.

102] [ 1

nineteenth century l.v Eunice W. Cook in Vcnrnmi: 2|l. Applique Picture, nude

1 1. The Linen Chest

England, and in general character the designs Most household articles in early America were made Jacobean perj>etuate English patterns. by men and cared for by women, but the field of textiles surface and and belonged to women in so far as the The “stem ,” a large stitch on the shorter was a favorite among the work was done in the home. The on a one on the back, linen or cotton twill, the woven coverlets and patch- various stitches used. Knots were also used; the “French work quilts that were put together with so much knot” frequently forms the center of crewel flowers. patience, are all the work of women. These are per- Crewelwork remained popular until the 1830's, when haps our mosi noteworthy types of needlework. Though it was replaced by “Berlin work,” a commercial em- there were other types, like the Moravian- and the broidery which offered wool in a selection of bril-

French-embroidered bags and wedding gowns, it was liant colors to be used with ready-made patterns already

the crewelwork, coverlets and quilts, so popular over stamped on the cloth for cross-stitching. It was used for

a long period of time, that assumed a truly national covering chairs and sofas, screens and footstools. Em-

character. broidery lost its vitality and became mechanical, but Crewel embroidery was used to decorate spreads and around 1878 crewel came back into popularity, and the

hangings for four-poster beds, valances for mantels anil better design and high quality of earlier embroidery

windows, chair covers, curtains, purses, dresses, shoes, were revived. and petticoats. Because of the design and color, crewel Crewelwork applies decoration to a fabric which attains an artistry beyond seamstress’s mere work. The already exists, but weaving is a process that makes the designs of flowers and birds, deer and hounds, were cloth and the decoration at the same time. In weaving, fashioned or adapted by the women themselves. the sturdier, lengthwise thread of cotton or linen, The word “crewel” means a loosely twisted wool known as the warp, is crossed at right angles by the . This type of needlework dates back to ancient woof or weft thread of colored wool. The warp of early Egypt, and there arc notable examples of it throughout coverlets is all linen, or cotton and linen; later coverlets history. The famous Bayeux tapestries are crewelwork have an all-cotton warp. In plain weaving, the loom rather than tapestry, which is technically a kind of separates every other warp thread, making an opening, weaving. Our own crewelwork was inherited from or “shed,” through which the weft passes. Special loom

1 io* devices called "harnesses" control the separation of the birds, urns or floral shapes warp so that replaced the designs can be made. The more simple but more harnesses sensitive early designs. the more complex the pattern. Early American looms Completely different in usua ly had character and but two or four harnesses, technique arc permitting only •lie patchwork quilts. Though the simple, geometric patterns. technique of patch- work s > "Id and inherited from In the early Europe, it produced colonial period, cloth a was produced at particularly flourishing folk art home. Later, in this country. Patch- weaving was done by traveling journey- work quilts may be pieced or appliqued; some men, the term "journey" meaning quilts “a day s work.” Then combine both techniques. "Pieced" quilts came the day of the weaving consist of shop and the professional patches of cloth sewn together. “Applique” weaver from quilts arc whom women ordered cloth, though they made by sewing smaller pieces of cloth on a piece still furnished the of yarn themselves. In 1810 there were muslin. Usually one section of the quilt is done at a still 10,586 looms in the Ohio country alone, and a rime, and these small sections and border strips arc majority of the coverlets in that state were still woven sewn together after the applique work is done. ar home. In the pieced quilt, sewing skill counts for more than The earliest weave is the “overshot,” in which the inventive design, and the result is necessarily geometric colored weft threads pass over the warp. This and weave mosaiclike. Applique, on the other hand, calls for produced some of our finest designs in geometric pat- imagination, and has produced the most appealing terns. A variation is “double cloth." in which there are examples since it permits a freer design. Women created two warp threads and two weft threads woven together their own designs, but in quilt-making, as in weaving, wherever the patterns meet. Another type is the reversi- there was a strong element of tradition. ble, closely woven “Summer and Winter" weave. This Though very few existing quilts date back to Revo- style was introduced by the Pennsylvania Germans and lutionary times, it is believed that the usual method in developed particularly in Pennsylvania. It required in- the eighteenth century was piecing; applique probably tricate eight- or sixteen-harness looms and expert weav- came later. Early quilts were made from imported cot- ers. Because of its complexity, it was the first type to tons, but from about 18-10 on, the American-manufac- disappear. tured cotton prints used in dressmaking yielded a sup-

The patterns, or "drafts," for the early geometric ply of scrap materials for quilt-making. coverlets were largely traditional. Immigrant European In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when a young weavers, including those from Scandinavia and Britain, girl was ready to announce her engagement, the to had brought them over, and they were passed on from ladies of the neighborhood were invited a the dozen or so quilt tops she had made were family to family and from town to town. As in folklore, bee, where occa- individuals. backed and quilted. The quilting bee was thus an variations were introduced by creative sion for great festivity. When written out, these drafts look like musical nota- given to quilt designs, some poetic the rhythm and Many names were tions, and when woven they suggest others prosaic like "Birds in the Air" or “Snowball," and pattern one feels in music. “Hit or Miss." Some fall into was introduced. like “Horse Shoe" or the late 1830’s, the Jacquard loom In Delight” groups like “Ladies’ Delight" and “Children's new loom enabled the weaver to control each sep- The "Missouri Puzzle." Others or “Bachelor’s Puzzle" and Carried away by the possibilities of .irate warp thread. “Whig Rose. like the "Union Quilt" or quality of design arc historical tool, the weavers let the ,| 1C new been discovered. Over four hundred of these names have weakly conceived patterns of deteriorate. Elaborate but

century. crewel embroidery; eighteenth 212. Petticoat Border (detail), 1

.1 member 21 k Hal Wilma- (detail). crewel embroidery; probably m.ule by Connecticut; eighteenth century. o i the B0.1rdm.1n family, New Milford,

Sometimes the same pattern bad different names in and .1 bedspread. These curtains, a tradition inherited different places. The same design is called “Bear's Paw” from ancient Europe, presented a splendid opportunity in Ohio, Duck Feet in the Mud” on Long Island, lor crewel work at a time when embroidery was part

Hand of Friendship” in Pennsylvania, and "Best of a young lady's education. At private schools in Pos-

Friend" in South Carolina. The "Best Friend” was ton embroidery was taught along with other subjects. named after the locomotive of that name. The locomo- Advertisements like the following were not uncom

tive boiler blew up in 1831 when a fireman, who dis- mon: “At the House of Mr. George Brownell in Wings- liked the sound of escaping steam, sat on the safety Lanc Boston, is taught Writing, Cyphering, Dancing, valve. This was the first locomotive accident in Amer- Treble Violin, Flute, Spinnet, etc. Also English and ica. After this, a new patch, violent in contrast and French Quilting, Imbroidcry, Flourishing, Plain Work, design, was added to the quilt pattern, which was Marking in several sorts of Stitches, and several other then called “Explosion." works, where Scholars may board."

On this valance, dark colors accent the lightness of The colonial four-poster bed had curtains all about the forms, as in the large flower that unfolds with such it to preserve heat and keep off drafts; there was a elegance. Printed Indian cottons were often the source canopy over the top, a panel at the back, side curtains, of the patterns.

0 [ , 5 crewel embroidery; from set of bed curtains, 2H. Hack Panel (dc.ail), York, Maine; !/«. made by Mrs. Mary Hillman.

undertake c |..Kiirr could battle her husband in thej 1745 Mrs. Bulman lost In We arc Louisburg, Nova Scotia. . at f the French lin« occupy embroider this sc, to she started to ! , Hn. curtains is so large of the bc.l patterns requiring i T| 1C design intricate r ' n small, for the entire Is of motifs sulTice been suitable. Nl.II •» fa have )< I,,' . • I hardly I mrrnt'SS OI ,»ml , ma, l»« ,n S ,ncl. c -rfe, 217.

215. Purse, crewel embroidery; in.ulc by M iry Eaton. New- Bedspread Border (detail), crewel cmhioukrv bury, New Hampshire; “April \ 176-T stitched in die eighteenth century. design.

216. bedspread (detail), crewel embroidery; mid eighteenth century.

were fairly large. I hey were spaced in rows of three or lour across (lie width of the bedspread to make a rich display of color. Even though these crewels have under K°ne hard use. their fast colors are still fresh todav. The bedspread border is a trille heavy and perhaps unimaginative in design, but the shapes and colors make it effective despite its lack of fluency.

-l‘>. (-over let (detail), linen double cloth*; designed .md woven by the ('umbie lamilv in A l.i mo, Indiana; lirsi half nineteenth century.

The pattern called "Nine Snowballs with Pine Tree ness, the silhouettes contrasting sharply with the light Border" looks stately and severe when only a portion background. The “Snowball" motif, however, contrib of the coverlet is seen. The pine tree border with its utes liveliness to the whole design, so that the triple trunks against gay massed branches gives a rigi.l cool- mingles with the sedate. , « »- — .

* r *

^ Ji'

. II

« • 9 m » •• v f « 3| / f 4 J ? * * «v_. rt * « # « » v#v « .* ^ »* V ? I * » _*

i «v ;/// « vvv VVV!> * 9 * » a 1 m n § ' / imm ivv

century. 220. Coverlet, while and blue wool; ninclccnih

also forms a contras, inguished l.y its clarity and The pattern here i, "“^2^ „f shapes and aiiuand ,s -a carefully byhy contrasts otof iiarK.lark muebloc — , simplicity-cimnlirif v Ithisis achieved , ^J small shapes ;».to large. another white which build UP hum - This is « ^ -- mechanical. not rc|»u in oem^ • tlicir rcla- a .i i nwnre of 't perhaps nn 'ir: :,s iftrr SSr1 iwclvc-linrncss loom, . i i l. vit.n TheI "e Ix.rclcr i" the whole «kMgn. larger; this gives unity

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221. Coverlet, double cloth, blue and white wool and unbleached cotton; woven in Indiana; nineteenth century.

This coverlet is an original adaptation of the well tern. It is not just lifted from a pattern book, but is known "Boston Town" pattern, so commonly made on honestly inventive, particularly in the borders. The the cov- Jacquard loom. But the design is without the tight- erlet was woven in two widths of thirty-two inches each, ness and hardness characteristic of coverlets of this and seamed down the center. The Jacquard group. loom per- It is also less elaborate than the usual Jacquard m.is the weaving of wider coverlets, but this weaver pattern. The weaver has really worked with each de- chose the width which best suited his purpose. tail, so that the motifs unite in a well considered nat- ;

linen, and cotton ancrlci (detail), handwoven of wool, Mount \crnon, I ndi.in.i 22 . Oivcrkr (

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226. 1 .ihlcclnih, cotton home usetts; nineteenth centurv the intensity of color. This gives a richness of effect “ r‘,uwu uisunguisiieii. i he attraction is in ranging from strong colors to soft neutrals. the total design and depends on the shape and 1 he last pattern on the space opposite page is a variation Klat.ons and the contrast of the light of the type known and dark areas as “sunrise." The horizontal lines that seem imbued There is with swift mo- certainly nothing very original about the tion are pleasing against the solid array of details that make up the pattern of rows of this cotton home- chevrons that spread a net across the spun tablecloth. Dots, chevrons, width of the cloth. and stripes arc common Color and texture also contribute motifs often used in folk art; somethin., to tl„ by themselves thev would applique kinds: the decoration is of two appliqued occasion. The the nineteenth century ^daH.on an By the middle of appliqued centra and the quilting. The degree of elaborate. had reached a high leaves for > patchwork patterns of oak counterpanes ,hc quilt-block colored bedspreads or With the late 1870's "< * go out of fashion, although wi; were called, began to visible n the b ns they “r;barely - stars, which are k s until the ap- cs,hke GgJ not purchased commercially VVomensma^ J they were nsubordinatepattern. store The fine the modern department quilting patterns. pearance of Book, published on special Lady's for and used only specimens were well cared («M) 22S. Quill, applique; m ule by Sarah P.ircll; lirst half ninciccinh

This quilt attains great elegance, ami yet it keeps its homemade look. It is extraordinarily rich because of its vigor of design, the boldness and fresh, striking contrast of dark against light; it is full of individual variation. It shows clearly that a person with taste and moderate h.ilf ninciccnih century. 229. Quill, applique; first

or n,.c -free running-sti.cl.es cigbi- the ^ "Sunbu,,.,'’ combine, mater. ^^ deign pieced thickness of * background | d K w,.h a through oppliqudd on musbn, The sixteen-pointed „ar, dmg between." not conjfcc form of a dclica colors is in the Thc an sunbursts designs with the spiked ,hc other, and related to each 3rc well block. of the quilt 2 ’"- Ap|»li "c Bedspread, muslin background, calico ligurcs; M found in suulhcasie. n New ^ or k.

Although found in New York State, this bedspread Scalloped edge, borders, and dots arc quite in the folk- is Pennsylvania German folk art, and must have origi- art tradition. I he spread has great variety and charm- nated in a region where there were German settlers. It mg color, using familiar motifs in spriglulv patterns of is an ornamental bedcover without backing, padding, or flat color, constantly varied. The motifs seem quilting, made for appearance reminis- only. For warmth the cent of village life; bird and tulip Pennsylvania recur frequently and Germans used thick feather beds, which there are quail, flower (Hits, trees, deer, they covered with the the master, his applied bedspreads for looks. aiul his farmhouse.

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applique (detail), pieced and 231 . guilt early nineteenth evict,. County, Georgia;

piecing and applique ; both the and then shaped motif is pieced One variation of tins i,c muslin. is con- , “c,., Rctlilehem.” 232. Bedspread, tufted candlcwick on muslin; nineteenth 233. Printed Kerchief, silk; made on Staten Island, New century. York; nineteenth century.

Candlcwick was made by working thread over a roll parable to that of quilts or coverlets, for in colonial to make knots. Sometimes the knots were left in loops times prints were mostly imported. There were, how- and sometimes they were cut to appear tufted. Both ever, instances where printers and engravers also turned techniques arc seen on the border above. to printing linens, calicoes, and silks. According to a This silk kerchief was block-printed by hand. First newspaper announcement of July 30, 1716, a large Francis red area was blocked on a cream-colored ground, Dewing, a New England engraver, “Engraveth and then and a second block was used for the black pattern. Prmteth Copper Plates, Cuts neatly Hand-printed in Wood and materials have no folk-art 1 heritage com- Pnnteth Callicocs.' 2vf. Armchair, pine; from near San Andreas, California; mid-nineteenth century. This chair expresses the needs of the farmhouse.

235. Empire chair, walnut; nineteenth century; the parlor chair of our grandmothers

that remained fashionable up to the lMUs.

12. Furniture from Farmhouse and Mansion

There were few room-kitchen, the center of family life. early settlements on the Atlantic seaboard, be- In the as scats the chests that also served Pilgrims brought chairs but many fore 1660, furniture was scarce. The was wainscot chair, which elaborate chair was the any furniture they may most few possessions with them, and not yet related uncomfortable; furniture was fash- heavy and was probably not in the latest English were nota- have had figure. But there the curves of the human Puritans imported furniture, ,o ion. Though the well-to-do fires or It either perished in little of it has survived. When the settlers made wore out in the course of time. well as chests, they continued, as their own chairs and traditions with which they Si'! they remembered them, the England. had been familiar in rural fa- furniture begins with a The history of American the first Alden. who was perhaps miliar figure. John down. the tops . ,L, influence made or , Engl.Fnelish If any chest he period he woodworker in the colonies. Throughout this early unknown. to ^ ^ existence, it remains and next g is still in important, influcnce Priscilla is most ^ Amsterdam was hut only in New W «ntuj beginning of tk made by carpenters By the ^ ^ from about 1650 to , period antl massive woods were usee grained made living- was utilitarian, forms- Furniture Our American furniture owes nine of the classic revival. panclal and plaslcrcsl walls and penod, h;ul rooms with designer of the IIU | much to another English windows. distinguished tor the larger Sheraton, who was about 1--5 Thomas period may be dated from All This second and tor and veneering. known square-back chair part of the period is also takes on to 17‘A). The first straight lines, and furniture now returns to style. With the reign the Dutch or Queen Anne Where curves are re- as great delicacy and refinement. Mary (16SS-1.02). the William of Orange and and table tops, or on the of tained, as on bracket feet into England, Dutch influence had been introduced become long and sweep- bowed fronts of chests, they to the American there it was transplanted of inlay and from in , consisting ing. The decoration is style is the cabriole leg colonies. One feature of this a background of veneer. of contrasting woods set in show club foot. Furniture now begins to by suppress- with the Our cabinetmakers simplified the Sheraton versatile line curves, the S-curvc being dominant. This edges; the Ameri- ing the moldings and using straight was used could be made flatter or more extreme, and supplanted the urns and can eagle in inlays and brasses variations can be traced in many ways. A number of floral decorations popular in London. leg, the top of the in the chair splats, the cabriole largely for Scottish-born Duncan Phyfe, who worked of lowboys chairs. In the highboy, and the skirts and V>rk region, was the a wealthy clientele of the New separate chair the back, seat, and leg develop tlicir own based on Sheraton. leading cabinetmaker. His designs, carving characters. Proportions become lighter, and inspiration, Directoire, English Regency and Empire possible excep- is surface ornamentation, with the achieve individuality, but they cannot be said to be in a foot, where the carving is tion of the claw-and-ball thin, using the new style. He kept structural members structural. finest and strongest . This Dutch influence was followed by the so-called This type of furniture, also called period furniture, Chippendale, the English style that corresponds to the was made for the well-to-do town merchants. Visitors French rococo of Louis XV. It is named after a cabinet- the to New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, in days maker and owner of a large shop in London. Chippen- of the early Republic, were amazed at the elegant fur- dale's book on furniture design. Gentleman and Cabinet nishings, even though the houses themselves hardly Maker's Director (175*1), helped to spread his style in rivaled those of London. England and the colonies. During this Chippendale After the first quarter of the nineteenth century, this phase, from about 1760 on. American colonial furniture delicate Sheraton style turned into heavy American became outstanding in beauty and craftsmanship, equal Empire. Though his shop participated in various to the best English work. It achieved its most florid ex- changes of taste, Phyfe held the mahogany and horse- pression in Philadelphia, particularly in the highboy hair type of furniture in low esteem and referred to it with its scroll top and elaborate carving. There were as “butcher's furniture.’’ But not all was of this kind. many cabinetmakers in Philadelphia, among them Wil- Lambert Hitchcock, among others, produced for mid- liam Sa very and Benjamin Randolph, to whom specific dle-class homes chairs that deserved their popularity. pieces have been attributed. They were painted black or green, gorgeously dec- Of equal significance is the block-front tvpc of desk, orated with stenciled designs, and were called “Fancy usually associated with the Goddards and Townsends, Chairs." In the earlv davs of his activity at Riverton. two families of Quaker cabinetmakers of Newport, • • * Connecticut, then known as Barkhamsted, rechristened Rhode Island. The honor of having been the first to Hiichcocksvillc, his factory turned out chairs unassem- design block-front furniture has long been claimed for bled for shipment to the South. John Goddard, though it is difficult to assign the block front With the coming of the early Victorian to a single person. The fine cabinetwork of sev- period around 1K40. curves, eral groups of men working in Philadelphia and New scrolls and cabriole legs, based on the French rococo, England, together with the production of Duncan again became fashionable. |ohn H. Phyfe of Belter, a New York New York, gave to American furniture its cabinetmaker, illustrates this stvle

place in history. The highboy and block front particu- in its more extravagant manner. larly are American achievements. For furniture of a less pretentious expression, we In England, must Chippendale was followed by Hepple- turn to the common chairs and chests, beds, tables white who had much in common with him. Hepplc- and cupboards of the eighteenth century, the styles of whitc is noted chiefly for his shield-back chair. which He re- continued into the nineteenth century. This fur- turned to the use of straight legs, either square or niture, though not made of mahogany nor upholstered round. also He published a book on cabinetmaking in satin, was in good taste. It was light in weight, simple which influenced both English and American styles. in design. While this furniture often continued the tra- The third period, the Federal (1790-1825), was the ditions of the English or German, the Spanish or Table, walnut, oval 237. Gate-Legged probably made in New Delaware, ^ or Kas, walnut; made in Uwcs, 236. Wardrobe long when extended; century. York; early ciphtccnrh century. iccnih . and ”,pl including a*, hickory than style. (it-Sct function rather HO.V-back. French, it emphasized U-shaped W.ndsor ch,r „f buck, century the furniture ear.; eighteenth utilitarian fa the taken Purely . adjfactory chatr. Though ^ ^ us as the Philadelphia has given known kitchen, , cr greatly was or t jjfl an la„a i. -dhterffc- materials - I,, from En g types. Basic ^ ope can somc it became or country, whereh the North in this day . ^ was Z* in

t] 23S. Lowboy, maple, Queen Anne; lirst lull eighteenth 2V>. Desk Box, chip carved, painted and stained, eighteen century. inches long; early eighteenth century.

South, and certainly whether the tradition is from New t*ons> chest, cabinet and cornice, are held in place by England or New Mexico. Much of our commercial large taper . furniture of the nineteenth century was poorly made American gate-legged tables follow the English type. and in bad taste. It is therefore comforting to realize They have square, round, rectangular or oval tops with that there were porch rockers in Iowa or chests in Texas drop-leaf ends, and two swinging legs that fold under that we can admire today. to save space. The use of a hand tool produces minor The Dutch “kas" (English “case”), a wardrobe or variations that give individuality to clothes the carving. cupboard, is characteristic of Europe where clos- The lowboy or dressing table is light, ets arc uncommon; graceful and the Dutch introduced it to New consistent m design. Vigorous curves in the York. This one has massive structure pilasters and panels, anil top of the piece break up the boxlike moldings which shape, for the S-curve form an elaborate cornice. Its three sec- appears in skirt and leg.

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mn< Ic in drawers quartered oak and pine: 240. Hartford Chcsi, wii h two licut laic scvcniccnili century. Marl ford Gninlv. Ginncc :

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241. Wmg Chair, walnut anil maple: made in New England; early eight- eenth ccnttirv.

The high back and wings of the "easy-chair" served teenth century, but the carved leg with the intermediate as a protection against drafts. Its slim lines are strikingly Spanish foot, that later becomes the cabriole leg, is in effective, and the firm upholstery was comfortable the spirit of the eighteenth century. enough East Indian lloral for those accustomed to loose cushions laid on motifs arc block-printed on the cotton covering. wooden scats. Turned stretchers survive from the seven- probably marie in 242. Highboy, curly maple. Queen Anne;

Conncciicul; first half eighteenth century.

Ac cM Straight lines control the drawers overlap. is an early This high chest in the Queen Anne style * particularly * *. term. It has the highboy, which is a modern -f for m th beaut, version of it makes up lacks in carving, $ Chippendale period, ^ ^ of the highboy of the plates, and the structure the brass keyhole noted in wood, in restrained in decoration. This is but it is more satisfying reticence club feet, wholly drawcr for cabriole legs with wnting^ a simple, almost straight, with the and The ^ a sun pattern of the top ^ ^ rising finials, the quills, and a pu in ,he flame sand and shawls could the scroll-top. Gam- and the moldings of unknown . 8 lower drawers, native development a Iamp lph« ngliboy, off drafts, opulence of the Philadel comb back to keep Led to the full be hung on the and me • seems almost thin g his earlier type 2-B. Windsor Chair, various woods; probably made in New 2+4. Side Chair, mahogany, Chippendale; made in Philadd- England; mid-eighteenth century. phia; about 1765.

on the upturned ear. The legs of American Windsors are tuous Philadelphia furniture made just before the Revo- more slanting than those of English Windsors. The seat lution. The back splat, which was plain in the Queen was made in one piece of green wood so that when the Anne period, is here jKrforated and carved, yet it does wood dried it contracted, gripping the spindles more not seem frail. 1 here is a delicate Bower pattern in the firmly than any glue could do. There were Windsor uprights, and the carved cabriole leg with its daw-and- chairs at Mount Vernon in George Washington’s day, ball foot looks sturdy. The whole back is one consistent they were used by the First and the Second Continental design, particularly successful in its rhythmic flow of Congress in Philadelphia, and it is said that Thomas curves. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence in a The desk on the next page with its slanting top Windsor is a chair with a writing-arm, built according to tine example of the block-front type of furniture. It is nis design. vigorous and delicate in design and ingenious in its Thc chair, like the tea table, represents the most sump- twenty-eight small drawers, arranged in tiers, one re-

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Chippendale: made oak and cherry. Chippendale; made by Ben- 247. Settee, mahogany, 245. Block-Front Desk, cherry. ew shop of Joseph Cox. . dated 1/69. in the upholstery jamin liurnam. probably in Connecticut: 1757-1760. painted. Sheraton; made in 246. Chair, and cherry, New York Citv; carlv nineteenth century.

severity or have stressed designer would probably were cut .jvc note other. The lower drawers dominant cessed above the the other the frcedomfmaking one or allow for both the raised from wood sufficiently thick to design. l visible, of his arge. the front that is here non * | depressed surfaces. On settee the emphasts and the design o( the elaboration through delicately gets his t at con the designer curves of theta* merges on the front simple frjmc molded base cs o ^ stiles. A finely ends. The in fluted scrolls of the chair, j n feet. An inscription ^ w g carved claw-and-ball the same sty c as into richly are virtually in satisfactory 1,69 by Ben,m. ^ made in the year “This desk was traditional wot reads. for old which they the pen frequently outlived ^^ndernesswas,^^: Phyfe belongs- m- tnai n Duncan t|lC E land, and | return to which j, ave 3 the and m uity of ated columns on contin

sense motif- A more

128] 24S. Armchair, mahogany; made in workshop of Duncan 250. Chest of Drawers, mahogany veneer with satinwood Phyfe, New York City; early nineteenth century. inlay, Hepplewhite; made in New York; 1796-lSO.s. 2-W. Sofa Table, mahogany; made by Duncan l’hyfe (1768- 1854), New York City; early ninciccnih century.

tinucs without interruption into the back leg and scat. in keeping with the slightly heavy character of the In the de- Chippendale or Hepplewhite, curves arc allowed sign. This is one of the rarer pieces attributed to Duncan a freer play; here they are held to a greater reserve. Side Phyfe's shop. chairs made by Duncan Phyfe originally sold for $22. 1 he bow-front chest of drawers, with inlaid eagles Duncan Phyfe made tables for many uses, but struc- and brass handles, is an American turally adaptation of an there are only three kinds: those supported on English style, the curve of the long bracket foot the four corners, in the and center, or at the ends, as in this apron being typically Hepplewhite. This is drop-leaf sofa table. an example To lighten the appearance, the °f the American custom of stretcher eliminating moldings is slightly curved at top and and bottom. The carving for the sake of inlay. reeded edge of the top The beautifully mottled emphasizes the unity of design, satinwood luster as enhances the attractiveness also appears on the under of the de- structure. Brass TI,C Six,ccn st -lrs drawer pulls and in inlay date the piece paw feet add a note of vigor around which is ^

,J [ 9 ] Pel '- made in Wilmington. 255. Shaving Stand, mahogany; black and stenciled; made by 251 Side Chair, wood, painted h.ilf nineteenth century. Riverton, Connecticut. ware; first Hitchcock, Alford &Co. (IK29-W3), walnut, Victorian; nineteenth century. 252. Side Chair, burl

the pas. styles, and are all adapted from the The motifs Hitchcock chairs follow unrelated to general design the the top rail is In machine-carved crest glued to of fruits and not style. The decorations or.g.nahty is American Empire its lack of the rest. Nevertheless, or gold powder have re- color, and in bronze such chairs were flowers in important as the fact that the more ex- Stenciling supplanted tained their luster. that had been of hand-pa.nt.ng pensive earlier method century. The the late eighteenth popular on chairs since tden - various manufacturers; artisans worked for Lmc beartng h found on chain 7 a Ls have been

of rirrjssss.'sss rhe vines, ban, L,rd r rhe

Empire legs c cWs curved of the earlier * gra curves *** ^ more splat. The c^trtsT::; of back and utility, suggestion take on a chairs here 130] 254. Wall Clock, mahogany, three feet long; made in Bos- 256. Armchair, , Victorian; made by John Henry ton; first half nineteenth cent ur v. Belter 1S44-1S65), (active Ncw York Citv. 255. Shelf Clock; made by Eli and Samuel Terry, Connec- ticut; first half nineteenth century. that "play a new tunc every day of the week and on I homas, the founder of another branch of Connecticut Sunday a psalm tune.” Cases like this have a long shaft clock makers that turned a local craft into a large to allow the pendulum to swing, and a small head to business. encase the brass works. The banjo shape happened to Tlic rosewood chair, from a parlor set, represents the be appropriate, and its simplicity fitted in with the pre- hei ht of Victorian S splendor. Restless curves vailing classic emphasize taste. Even though one shape is piled on decoration for its own sake, hut the design, based on the top of another, the total effect is sober. rrench rococo, .s consistent. Leaves, flowers and grapes The case of the shelf clock, delicate yet sturdy, is in were carved out of thin layers of rosewood, the best glued u, late eighteenth century tradition. Eli Terry, getlier and steamed to achieve the desired curves famous American dockmaker of The Connecticut, produced curved backs were also covered with the first rosewood veneer shelf clock. He made four thousand wooden- Esen though this furniture was primarily for works clocks on one order and sold them display without the *t was well constructed. Belter case through claimed i, could be peddlers. Among his apprentices was .Led Seth out of a Window without suffering damage.

[ 'i>] by B. Schiveer- pecan frame, rawhide scat; made made near Gay Hill. 259. Chair, 257. Four-poster Bed, white oak; Balscn, Quihi, Texas; 1846-1X50. Texas; 1M2. hinges, wrought-iron lock and 260. Chest, cypress with scat: made in San Antonio, lexas; 255, Armchair, rawhide probably about W. made in Vorkiown, Texas; first half nineteenth century.

Alsalian setder^h' chair was made by an four-poster The side the Revolution still slept in country. A &™a The heroes of ,0 a ea.de rawhide sea, is indigence, But in the first quarter to keep out the cold. in, beds draped influence is suggesred of fashion. posts went out F— tellee nineteenth century high pieces still of the uprights. Such utilitarian retained because they Texas, they were are In tins bed from pcantraditions. D,fences The heavy ^rfa , * mosquito netting. arm to stmphfy were used for hanging shapes because the suggest h general the headboard and the straight line of d« away w^«^.. pos,, economy nih[

tradm.m the German chest is also in Thesea,,ableisa„ada,,a,on.f,he^J.onc^ with its usu- has . table, teas jeeting arms g comes hutch howcv„, The chair c £ and table. T bench. Like oS,,.nish bench 0f a 5 “ and the tnstc j Ul Spam. h2ut, only a seat a region of smaller, having from San Antonio, a ,|y tradition. in flic local l.ack posts arc hig!h 3* 1 261. Scat Table, walnut; made in Burlington, Imva; .ilxiut 26\ Rocking Chair, combination of wotxU; made in Penn- 1860. sylvania; nineteenth century.

262. -Back : Chair, oak ), scat of twisted corn 2M. Bible Box, ( pine, made in Pennsylvania near Carlisle; husks; made by Arthur Pinur, Alachua County, Florida; eighteenth century. mid-nineteenth century.

other tilt-top tables, it was designed to save space. The chair. Those that date before 1800 arc often found to grain of the wood is one of its attractions. have been converted from straight chairs. A combina- The ladder-back chair, with low cornhusk seat, stood tion of woods is common in chairs, each wood being in the kitchen. It was used by the grandmother when selected to serve the requirements of a she particular part. prepared vegetables, with pans set out on the floor This chair shows a Windsor influence in splay and spin- around her. This type of chair is also associated the with dles. It is functional and comfortable, and shows a mini old unpainted puncheon kitchen floors, sprinkled with mum of decoration. white sand for protection against ashes anil grease from This Bible box, with its slanting top and the open hearth. drawer be- Chairs with straight horizontal slats neath for pens and paper, are is a piece of furniture which probably as old as the more pretentious creations of comes nearest the modern writing desk. professional artisans. As the wood protected from the weather, Rocking gradually ages, it takes chairs originated in this on country and became a patina in the soft satiny finish. very The box is popular. According to tradition, about fifteen Benjamin Frank- inches high and over sixteen inches lin invented the idea of wide. putting rockers on his favorite while pine and made 266. Cupboard or Open-Shelved Dresser, 265. Corner Cupboard, walnut: believed to have been made in Pennsylvania. century. |Niplar, Pennsylvania German; in Sic. Genevieve, Missouri; nineteenth

ancestry. In place dresser also has an Old World Mississippi River was ,c Historic Stc. Genevieve on the the craftsman it shows elegance of a professional eighteenth century and re- c settled by the French in the The scalloped the village car,tenter. nineteenth :r manner of of German settlers in the cup- ceived an influx art. Such open florid lines of folk rectangular panels iurs arc the of cupboard with displaying century. This type European tradition of Is perpetuated the England; it follows a J different from those of New effect The tnden is pttcry for to decorative Mississippi valley. In moldings are common to the the guardrails tradition butterfly hinges and manner, le, the simplification of the period feet it reveals a tradition. and sylvania German craftsman. adapted by some frontier FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE

267. Eagle, painted wood, Pennsylvania (Icrman; attributed to Wilhelm

Schiinmcl; secniul lull nineticnth century.

13. Whittling and Wood Carving

Whittling is one of the simplest of all crafts. Even both shrewd Yankees. Each works away with his knife carving takes a few , but to whittle one needs only at a stick, as he plays for time before the final decision. a jackknife. Probably every boy at one time or another Among the many who used their knives haphazardly has made something out of wood with his pocketknife. there were some who were actually creative. These tal- In early America, when most people lived on farms or ented individuals produced the whittled horses, eagles in small towns, whittling was a national pastime. and various A kinds of animals, including a few human farmer made a toy for his son, or a with lei- figures, that here and there have come to light. Such sure on his hands recaptured the skills of his boy- creations are usually small; often they are the work of hood. The village store had its whittlers, even if they amateurs, who made no pretensions to art. A sailor went produced no more than shavings off the boxes they sat in for scrimshaw work by engraving a tusk, and a west- on. People whittled as we doodle while we talk on the erner shaped a block of wood into a charging buffalo. telephone; cutting away on a piece of wood was not Eventually such pieces may have been given merely away or a display of skill, it a was needed outlet for the traded off for something useful, or on occasion emotions sold for and an exercise of the imagination. Whittling necessities. Some of these pieces on had no apparent pur- occasion might help one over a tense moment when |X)se; others were made for one an occasion and usually not had to keep ones wits. A painting by Mount, en- intended for sale. titled Coming to the Point,” shows two horse trailers. In the hart I life of the frontier the re was no place for (i«l painting. Even where there was a desire for creative ex- d,vidu,ls h* fen preserved. pression, The names of artists* materials were lacking. But Schimmtl wood, at and Mounts of Pennsylvania have been handed least, was plentiful, down to and in periods of enforced idleness, us. According to trad.tion they were as itinerants whode in the rainy season or during the winter months, a pended on their skill with the knife to see them man could always whittle. through from one shop or tavern to another, exchanging In some instances the work their shows professional com- carved birds and animals for bed and board. petence. Among those who came to America were wood What is known to have been preserved of such carvers folk from the Alpine countries, from Bavaria, the art is but a small portion of what once existed. Cer- Black Forest, and other regions where wood carving tainly these objects reflect various persons and many was a tradition. craftsman The who depended on carv- conditions, from the naive work of one who may have ing for his livelihood did not remain idle when not produced but a single piece, to the work of an accom- working at his craft. If his regular work was scarce, he plished artist who worked while on holiday. carved whatever came to hand. The chicken shown below is cut from cypress-root, Artisans have always taken to the road. They traveled built up in several sections. It dates from the years 1810 from one town to another, and the more adventuresome to 1815, and is said to have been carved by a negro they were the more they wandered. Usually they re- slave of Jean Lafitte, the notorious chief of the Bara-

mained anonymous, but occasionally the identity of in- taria Bay pirates.

quarter ninetccnih century. 26S. Chicken, wood; first 271.

269. Eagle, wood, Pennsylvania German: attributed to Decoy, carved and painted pine; mid-nineteenth Aaron Mounts; second half nineteenth century. century.

270. Poodle Dog, pine, painted; made in Pennsylvania, probably by Aaron Mounts; second half nineteenth century.

Schimmel traveled through the Shenandoah Valley subjects, such as eagles, squirrels, and dogs. Mounts after the Civil War, and pieces attributed to him have here reveals a manner of his own. His style is pains- been acquired in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Such carvings taking and precise, and he makes the feathers into an were used as ornaments by the Pennsylvania German ornamental pattern. This is characteristic of the naive people. The eagle at the head of this chapter shows real carver who gives us the general character of the living spontaneity. The carving is nervous anil impetuous in model and then emphasizes what lends itself to a dec- its broad, loose treatment. The use of red, black, anil orative treatment. He produces smooth, flowing out- yellow color has been explained by the fact that he and lines and stylized patterns as in the bird and poodle dog. Mounts both did their carving in various blacksmiths' Decoys were made by the Indians, from whom the and wagoners’ shops, and used the paint that was at early settlers learned the art. The method of hand stuffing in such places. Old-timers of Cumberland County skins was supplanted by carving and some painting wooden years ago still retained from their youth memories forms to on the water in imitation of of live birds. Schimmel as a picturesque old character, of whom 1 he drake shown above represents the American mer- the children were afraid. ganser, and is believed to have been carved about 1850 Mounts was a friend of Schimmel, the and story goes by Mark Gr.ffin, a decoy-maker of Gardiners that he was encouraged Island to try his hand at carving by New York. watching Schimmel. Although both carved the same

(«37l California: nineteenth century. 272. Head, hard wood; carved in

on a will, lime has laken face, with its wood ^'^'““'oMofnia sadness in this impressive .he There is bitter origmalcd ,n Accord- T„c piece- and half-closed eyes. distorted mouth discovered . slightly Rush- l! « „f thc impress, ons of a Gold .lie artist s tradition, it reflects ing ,o an modified, and there is •«* is here i hut re ilism surmise that we must ,' so competent f’ llm t is 1

273. Decoy, painted wood, Hudsonian Godwit; nineteenth 274. Horse, wood; made in Kingston, New York, century.

In this instance the bird is sawed and chiseled out of legs arc doweled on to the body, like the legs of a a thick board. This type of decoy was stuck in the chair. 1 hough this piece offers only a faint suggestion ground, rather than floated on the water. of a horse, it still creates a pleasing visual This impression, toy horse is larger than the usual whittled ob- with the sleek, smooth shapes of neck and head. ject, and big The enough for a two-year-old to ride. It was carver treated wood with a made loving care that carries over by a carpenter, who so overemphasized structural to the observer and must also have delighted the forms and straight chil- lines that it is obvious he was more dren. Its lack of realism is not important. used to boards and posts than to living things. The

I '39 engraving on w 3 275. "Log H.iuling, " wood; made in Eau Claire, Wisconsin; 276. "Whaling Scene,” scrimshaw Massachusetts; nineteen nineteenth century. tooth; made in New Bedford, century.

omc ’ away from with his. Both were lonely men three feet long, was carved by a lum- This group, ta • in a creative felt a need to absorb themselves considerable talent. The sled, yoke, berjack who had c smoo tooth had to be ma which he was well ac- rough surface of the chain arc implements with was r« and work before it accuracy. Al- polished by long, tedious details arc done with quainted, and the his skill engraving. The craftsman shows ***£ treated with less realism, the though the animals are dories, w treatment of the men in the little of the; big, a good impression ^ succeeds in giving the artist unmistakable even though has definite arc gf ,|, e The teamster in beasts of burden. t e patient of the ship and Slave type. The drawing drawn perhaps suggestive of a pro ^ racial characteristics, that this artist choppy sea show we ll was common m the as draft animals He The use of oxen scenes all his life. customs. naunca. * carry-over of European he days, as a whaling, and pioneering as the story of between what the sailor l a spiritual kinship There carve artistry. what the with his knife and engraved ^ [m«] 277. Charging Buffalo, soft wood; made in northern Iowa: 27S. Oxen .uni Cart, carved of pine near Stoughton, Wis- second half nineteenth century. consin; nineteenth century.

The carver of the buffalo took liberties with propor- realize how universal was the use of oxen in this coun- tions, making his beast more agile than is characteristic try. ox The was sure-footed and had great strength of the cumbersome buffalo. His conception does not for pulling loads. These solid disc wheels were used seem to have been based entirely on firsthand experi- in the primitive frontier regions before the wheel- ence with the living animal, and his imagination may wrights were available. To couple two animals together have fused other images with his main theme. Yet the to draw the load, the yoke was used and is still used action is clearly that of the buffalo, creating a successful today. It consists of a curved piece of timber with four impression of movement and vigor. The artist must have holes into which two hows are inserted. These are been an experienced craftsman, stressing decorative line, slipped over the animals’ necks flowing and fastened with a curves and smooth, rounded shapes. wooden key. The hauling chain The miniature is fastened to a oxcart is believed to have been carved wrought-, ron ring attached by to the underside of the an early settler in imitation of the primitive oxcart bow. The yoke was made of ash or hickory; ln cncral use the bows 8 in the sixties and seventies. We do not of hickory or sweet walnut.

[ ] (1//0- elmwood by Pierre Joseph Landry 279. "Cycle of Life,” carved of 1834. 184?). at Iberville Parish, Louisiana;

as be tnterpretej separate incidents may two feet in The ten piece of carving, over and pr««d « This elaborate at the bottom lows. Beginning Landry, an early settler who Bath, diameter, was made by have: (1) clockwise direction, wc Nantes, France. After a stren- » came to Louisiana from ta.abo,s,alk,ngab,rd:(3)Y».,h.a,^ On his - ' man he became an invalid. pursut uous life, as an ol.l Courtship, a « g tee: (4) carving to keep his J settled down to wood with the plantation he hi. peak, -£« has a Man a, (6) the ages of n»n v" occupied. This topic of mcchantcal " “ himself labor and the tnl combmnnon of ]Ji p„ literature. The in art and Man’s broad basis Middle age; (7) "he base; (9) think figures make, one foliage and acorn; (8) I** a mausoleum- aim go back to Mourners at falling figure may by the tomb. stalls, and the Worshiper upon a book the artist depended val art. Perhaps (ration as a guide. 2 4 ) 280. Rucking 1 lur^c, wuud; nineteenth century.

14. Playthings

Wc enjoy looking back at the playthings of our terial. When tin came into use for household utensils, childhood, even if wc cannot easily recall the pleasant toy miniatures were made from the scraps, and were fantasies that once surrounded them. Children need sold oil the peddler's wagon out of Berlin, Connecticut. toys, and when they were lacking, as in the days of the Then came the pewter toys that were popular during

Puritans, shells and pebbles, and leaves and sticks were the time of the Revolution, paper cut dolls in the mid- used instead. There were no playthings available then, nineteenth century, and cast-iron toys, particularly but by the end of the seventeenth century English toys stoves, in the 1870’s. were in demand in the colonies. Few of them have Toys tend to copy contemporary life, and change been preserved, because toys disappear when worn and with the fashions. Foreign-made toys cannot always be old-fashioned. The more elaborate dolls’ houses have readily distinguished from domestic ones, but we may survived, and may now be seen in museums. But not all be reasonably certain that the ones illustrated are miniature replicas of furniture and dishes were toys, American-made, of the fairly recent past. some were curios made for display in adult households. Toys were made by artisans, incidentally, as an addi- The costume dolls that milliners and dressmakers tion to their craft, and often only for the immediate imported several times a year to keep abreast of the use of their own families. When toys were first pro- kitest styles took the place of living models, and were duced in quantity they were still manufactured as a not intended as playthings. The elegant lady-doll of sideline and used as premiums to stimulate sales of the late Victorian era is the successor to the fashion other goods. There were few American toy factories doll of an earlier period. She was often fitted out with before 1875, and until 1900 most of our toys came from an ample wardrobe and was of course made for young Germany. Villages like Berchtesgaden, with century- girls to play with. This type of the late nineteenth cen- old traditions of toymaking as a folk art, are not found tury doll was very handsome, as manufacturers strove to in this country. beautify the features. Wc still have the expression “doll- The rocking horse might have been made by a car- 1 e beauty to describe a kind of feminine attractive- penter, and is perhaps a simplified version of ness a more that strikes us as artificial. The true baby doll in elaborate model. The sleek, elongated lines 'V resulting l *lc ^cad is modeled in convincing imitation of from its economical construction are particularly grati- a rca infant was unknown till the twentieth century, fying to contemporary taste. or most toys, wood long remained the common ma-

[««] gmg- muslin, calico skirt, and head, kid 2X2. Doll. “Mollie Bentley," 281. Doll, "Clinch." doll) body, p.ipier-machc abou County, Pennsylvania; cotton un- ham apron: from Lancaster hands and shoes, calico dress and embroidered 1S55. 1886. derwear; from South Haven, Michigan; about

is made: P red. Her dress checks arc embroidered in heads were imported in the smding Dolls with papier-mache complete as to of scraps, and is on can- of a variety century. These were mounted cm early nineteenth The scraps here use ° and underwear. hollI stuffed with . They , linen, or kid bod.es goods known 8 vas, popular kinds of cotton dress stiff. China and legs, and they looked had wooden arms century. The and they !h‘ nineteenth and Germany came next, heads from Austria woven cotton cloth older a plain, heads from England. The were followed by wax one side. the pattern on * Ging- continued along "id. wer papier-mache heads were cotton tcxti^cs where 1818 India, febric woven were ,n fashion from ^ Linen pantalets or medium w«g new types. is a light It gocs of a la ham p|ajds probably not be stnpcs, ^ doll would often m >> M 1858, so this of dyed yarn, ^ namc king days of th P da back to the early f from appearanees homemade, origin, if to all or French 'M„llie Bentley- is either of Malay Guingamp in Rr.ttany. the town of cy feather-stitched shoes, feet with ] i!inCd in RyC NCW Y,,rk: * in5irlb 1 “ "- 1 W' - P— firs. h.,ir nineteenth

2SS. Model for a Sl.igcco.icK, wood; nineteenth ccimirv.

Tlic sturdily constructed little train approximates the expression in the form of a toy; another was type of to give locomotive current at the time the toy was it human form. In this top the two arc combined. patented. Toys sold in America were not necessarily 1 lie Overland Stage may be a homemade made here, but toy, but in this case the cowcatcher probably it could also have been stamps made for the purpose of display the design as a native product. in a store window. It is of a fairly This top was wound recent date. The Over up with a string in the familiar land Line furnishc.1 fashion, its hazardous transportation but otherwise it differs from more recent types through the West when Indian It has holes to make tribes were still roving it whistle and is carved with a the territory between human head the Missouri River and the Rockv and made to look like a little lady in a Mountains. Congress authorized hooped skirt. Until our day man this transcontinental desired to minimize stage the line in 1857, and service importance of things began in 1858, a decade mechanical, because they before the came completion of the first uncomfortably dose transcontinental rail to human performance. way One road (1869). was to give the mechanical principle a playful

(ms] .

Doll; about 1830. 286. G»rnhusk Doll: made about 1880. 288. Hag made

287. Quaker Doll, papier-mache head and padded; made about 1865.

she is consmictj thrifty way in which made by the early consider the Cornhusk dolls were originally chief head was perhaps the cither in- Her papier-mache as children’s playthings. They were die Pla« settlers and padding takes expense; she had no limbs vented by them or copied from the Indians. This doll is her body. interpretation of the cos- of hhave an a product of civilization, an dr« the figured calico In ,he doll with wears a fashionable dress tume of a Victorian lady. She put togc - a homemade toy, pannicrcd skirt example of with professional skill. The stuffed cotton, tailored body is of of material. The with the little cape are- ^ ^ full back and the basque i .an with the hands arc o given arc painted, on|y hcr eighties. Careful attention is characteristic of the satin to sugg cred with brown Though flowers, buttons and elegant blue trimming, the were to the lea, her “ the black to i, W bonnet is tied and bow with which the of ,he oldc* ruffles. The do,h doll is one die counU) the finishing touches. commercially m thl. little parasol add produced that she it is evident Quaker doll is well worn; nineteenth century. This in the played with. She admired but actually w ,s not only

36 ] 2S9. Roller Sk.itcs; mid-nineteenth century. 2*M. Doll, pine; made in New Hampshire. 2W. Hobby Goat, wood, carved and painted; nineteenth century.

Early roller skates were patterned after ice skates, Attributed to a Swiss craftsman who with wheels settled in New substituted for the steel blade. This design, Hampshire, this doll, a sturdy little country girl with though satisfactory for ice, did not prove adaptable for thick, heavy braids, has a distinctly roller skating. European flavor. Such skates, now obsolete, must have Here we see the hand of an expert carver in the proved tiring to the skater, who had good to keep moving and proportions and the careful detail. could stop only with difficulty. Mechanical toys were This often favored by parents, carved hobby goat seems obviously but to have been questioned by those who had studied children made in imitation of a carrousel at play. It horse, but is very much seems that for a while they were smaller. Presumably the original entertaining, but chil- was mounted on a dren soon tired of a base, perhaps toy that did all the with rockers. The carving performing, is realistic, but thereby robbing the trappings the child of his have a gay, festive initiative. Toy banks character. now eagerly sought after by collectors, were once manu-

I I7l »

Teddy and the l ^' 295. Miih.inu.il To. H.miL. .kmu Dj*-” cast " 1 Mcch.inic.il Toy Hank, "S^ Foundry. Cromwell. 2)2 . made til the Stevens Cromwell, Connccu.it, iron: Stevens lot.ndry, n ‘ nc m the cast iron 2.iionie

" is ted « springs up. This rubier, Rnosevelis hWM ,K one of Theodore a|W usee "> k ^ (in svlut " Mississippi beartercub.Tbe to shoot 3 ss*»rr:r indignantly refused ' Smceles) he ' r;,,wl ,n,lK l,:,,k iso,K

s I 1 M Toy Horse, pine curved and |>.iimcd; Pennsylvania Harlequin Dancing German. Figure, wood. papier-mache head and collar, made in Pennsylvania; about 1S00. ' IIk ^" ll,e< * wool, made m California; nmciccmli century.

well known cartoonist, the late Clifford Berryman, was cookie The horse is about one foot present anti the following high, and was found day in a cartoon created in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Teddy Bear." The idea caught on with the public and This knitted doll was was exploited by manufacturers. made in California and show- The Teddy Bear came the influence of old into vogue Mexico. Knitted of as a toy and is still woolen thread popular the world over and stuffed, this somewhat This type of horse with exotic type might be its small head, thick soldier neck easaher. or and rotund body a purely imaginative reflects an old-world character. tradition of folk The art. Harleqm ms of In the simplified posture, French origin. the pattern of Such figures, that dots, and Id e strong - be manipulated decorative feeling, by pulling strings, there is no were popular emphasis on ««h adults realism. Its plump compact ,n the late eighteenth form is like centurv. Hark',',,,, a Christmas a famous l character of the Italian theater.

[ M<»] and hands; dressed 299. Hand Puppet, "Punch," wood head Legrcc," wood carved and painted, 298 Marionette, "Simon corduro), un in clothes of velvet, wool, cotton, and trousers, Cal.fornia; n.ne.een.h cotton shirt and wool shoes; about 1*70. ntury. ch one of the chief Punch, the husband of Judy, is trousers and elegant tnan with his chequered oncc 0 This English puppet play, character acters in the old version of the forceful attach is a prettified oftc" ustache adults. Puppet shows, Cabin. In children and Tow s C Stowe's Uncle an " | Harriet Beecher shows, traveled far con- circuses or dog character, zatton, tn h* j was no attempt at given a. coun«ryl ,urc there America. Performances were “Punch. Manonet.es ^ figure of or t grotesque halls, churches, SI to ,he carnivals, in theater ; operator above the by the settlers and to strings held flares and candles; , rc attached minated by could be made d the figure ‘ an chawaythat the audtence. Punch c i formed The

of a dialogue. MK). Black Mammy Doll; nineteenth century two main characters traditionally had the broad mouth up. She wears a bright gingham dress and and a band hooked nose shown here. This particular puppet is wrapped about her head; her apron is percale am manipulated by a stick which extends into the head and petticoats are of wool and cotton. There were is held in the hand of the operator. character dolls in the eighteenth and nineteenth The Mammy doll exists for the attractive clothes she tunes, and the vogue is wears. even further developed She has a cloth body, stuffed wok _ it y

jUl. Carrousel Horse, wood; made in the laic eighties of the nineteenth century.

15. Circuses and Carrousels

morning The traveling circus tent with canvas top may be said elephants out in front. Starting at an early caravan often had to seek to have begun in this country in 1824, when John Rob- hour, under torch light, the be country roads. Days inson took three wagons, five horses, and a tent across its way along poorly marked show, pa- horseback had preceded the the Alleghenies. Before the century ended the American fore, a man on posters. \ <- n along the way with his "the greatest show on earth and carding the barns Circus had become e of the town, t the tent was pitched on the outskirts embarked on a spectacular five-year tour through Eu- to the tent. clown would attract a crowd and lead it days a circus meant acrobats and horse- rope. In the early [ the circus ) big parade announced theaters, or behind side-can- Later the back riders performing in ft could be heard steam calliope, “that Another, independent business blare of the vases open to the sky. drawn by mac decorated wagons It got miles." The gaily the wild-animal show called the menagerie. was general bustle and « teams of fine horses, the ship's captain took the risk its start when an enterprising something f of the circus into purposes of public made the coming wild animals for •^ ^ of importing some town turned out to g p danc- day, for the whole grew, it added minstrels, exhibition. As the circus Negro song. The menagerie, too. ing and an occasional the middle of the cen- stock of animals. By seen enlarged its and it is still forming the and carnivals, ^ and menagerie combmcd, tury circus that the ^ horses" stolon -" was 0rse above. The car the stately animal the circus traveled pose. '"irrda^fore the railroads, platform in a stationary moving fastened to the buggy and the slow wagon, the manager in a hy7 I *52 I m. D.incini; Girl, wood; carved in relief fur .1 Sparks circus wagon. about I '100.

Circus wagons were spectacular. They were elabo- Wisconsin, for many years a wintering place for circuses. rately carved and painted in shining white, in gilt, and Comparatively little circus carving has in color. been preserved Seen against drab city streets they stood out in On wagons in use, old figures were recarved dazzling splendor. This dancing to ht new girl once joined hands purposes. Wagons no longer in use with a partner, and formed were left out in the the chief decoration on the " Pcn f°r years: ,ht beanie side of a V unsightly and eventually wagon. The carving was , executed in Mil- were burned to get them out waukee; the wagon of the way. could have been built in Bamboo,

[• 51 ] ««

303. Figure, wood; carved in relief and painted in New

York City for a Barnum and Bailey circus wagon; presuma- bly by John Sebastian, designer, and Peter Breit, master- carver; period 1880-1903. wagon; 304. Lion Head, wood; carved in relief for a circus Supply Com- about 1890. Produced by the Parker Carnival piny, Leavenworth, Kansas.

wagon was not made for ^ carved figure for a circus approval of critics, delight of the sophisticated or the tota as part of the ivas seen but briefly and then of combines a wealth ure of the parade. This one The way ' ' Ipturcsquc motifs loosely put together. to historical example* pery is gathered goes back we freely that it may Ipturc, but it is done so own figures, Sebastian designed his ! that John who, had his father Jacob, crited his business from Soon a ter nc ned wood carving in France. ms he established In he nineteenth century of h <«* York City. Most iage business in New «»nc attributed to this -ons that can still be when John Sebast, eighties and nineties ie in the

in charge. i„„ .,vle of its own; decoration had n asically circus cjrcus who ^ craftsmen ce ended on expcr j cn may hld fields. Some k from other t0 fit * ,ht "wagon. in |S * circus -- n . « e* rnmmnv, 1^‘. 305. Ornamental Head, wood; carved in relief; about

Produced by the Parker Carnival Supply Company, Leaven- worth, Kansas.

306. Figure, “Medieval Lady,” wood; carved for a Harnum

and Bailey circus wagon, by the Sebastian Wagon Com- pany; about 1S90.

The wolf s head, "a mask,” is also presumably from

a carrousel or a circus wagon. It is an adaptation from

historic ornament. The nineteenth century was eclectic

in its taste and the circus craftsmen followed this gen-

eral trend. But the freer spirit of the circus may also have

affected the carver, for circus work never seems archae-

ological.

Figures carved in relief were for the sides, those in the

round for the corners of the wagon. The medieval dress

suggests that the wagon featured a medieval subject.

Though the circus was gay, it permitted a serious expres- sion if the subject required it. Hence the carver made

this figure austerely dignified. Circus carving did not waste its efforts on undue refinement which would cer- tainly have been lost. On the other hand it meant to im- press by appearing rich and opulent. As a result we get boldness combined with enough literal detail to satisfy popular tastes. Samuel Robb of New York, known for his figureheads, may have been responsible for this fig-

ure as he is known to have worked for the Sebastian Wagon Company.

('55l hy George (."lihn Age ..I Chivalry"; designed id/. 1. 1 ruis Wagon, "The 1XS7-1XW. Liwrenccol (he Sebastian Wagon Company;

exceptional. It has hut this one is monotony of small town three-quarter life-size, As a change from the dreary womanhood "two-headed dragon protecting welcomed. Extravagant adver- a monster life, the circus was truly by a sen heads were tnsp.ral "grandest placed on to,.. The dragon prepared the public to cx|>cct the luhan tising had the well known monster from an engraving by picturesque figure of the Ameri- and greatest." The most part.cular mot f « Mantegna. No doubt this that “prob- artist Barnum, pledged his honor disig can circus, P. T. expressed what the because it best there been selected creation of the world, has ^ not since the ea e ably The claws arc those of an * stupendous nature in mind. '^ Jjs . such • exhibitions of ro» a combination of with the ta. added bat’s wings, along comparison with ours ... that would bear any devil, carded figure of a I olTcrceJ “a tcn thousaml another instance a circus were trap wagon. Most wagons 8 werc woman m the (h for the most beautiful equipment. Extern dollar premium and other under benches, that "it was distinctly c ^ mstdc clear an h.storica world.” It was carved to represent ons the W-U » w3g beautiful woman in stood that the most me,cl, hu, rhat she was under canvas, its origina shown almost in , • be prin still appearance beautiful Eastern . i ,.i| K„nkh (the been a und other, hove papeanr.” This itthu.1 „ree, l OriVfai, ^lyto.^oncwu too n desipnet, for the « “^was discontinued. to he traffic^dW had Ik.iuiiiuii> k lar.e^forchy woman, figures in had f K Ordinartly wagons dragon’s hack. [itfl 1

S'tr;;:!',. * - * »••>< s Jr * :ron s tlut thc Rythmic 8 stage in the development lines throughout; the curves ^ -- - - flow--to f'r| ^

I >57 Horse, wood; nineteenth century. 309. Bear’s Head, carved walnut, from Nantucket; about 310. Carrousel

1 884.

ln~d of the animals originated in the earl, eighties. invariably chose the horses and particularly children connected with a rotating fastened to poles strange menagerie, being the dappled kind. After that, the tracks. The « platform that ran on abandoned, they stood on a bears, reindeers, and giraffes, was o including the horse rested .ended legs indicate that has been content with and every merry-go-round since ujvand-down oM an rod which gave it of dappled I and made sure to have a quantity horses h the horse, achieved convincing ally carvers live an,mal>i ones. . . anatomy of a worked mcn . and instead this head certainly The** artist who carved conventional. The examples are still quite ridges and furrows is a ^ memory. The system of ornamental from developed the extended fur. It stands ^^^e' carver to suggest convention created by the The mane flung die covers. spirited thor- has no visual resem- ^ texture, but otherwise the open mouth gg for a rough nostrils, and the

Since i, conres ft- eagerness Mil. to^reality. oughbred. In his » jchicves represent the fanctf may not tiavcjyb horse if this head verges on |itde wonders artist __ us th ^ patterns. To attractive look at. pleasing to that is still >11. Scaled Lion, wood, carved in relief for a Sparks circus >12. Carrousel Giraffe, wood, carved and panned, from wagon; ahum 1900. Riverside, Rhode Island; about 1888.

1 he extravagance of the circus parade, and the vig- Dancing Girl and a figure of Pan. He is about two and orous, forceful carving of each figure shows clearly that one half feet high and with a partner Hanked the central the designer was above all striving to gain attention. panel. Because lions belonged to the circus, a carved lion Carving, color, and gilt arc part of the general spectacle appears with a dancer and with Pan, the personification which was to impress the crowds that streets lined the of music. But the lion is chiefly decoration, and it mat- on circus days. This thoughtful expression of lion, the tered less how he fitted into the allegory. almost saddened and perhaps slightly embittered, makes This animal was meant to be a giraffe, but to judge one wonder of whom the carver was thinking when he from the hind legs the carver had not entirely overcome carved this head. Serious rather than wild, man and the idea of a horse. By the time he reaches the front animal legs, have merged in the of imagination the designer. the animal begins to resemble a giraffe, but the head Nor is the soft, bulging carving appropriate for the lean makes one think of a camel. This well nourished strength of the animal King of Beasts. The artist did not study was meant for a carrousel and a not the Museum of Nat- lion from life but humanized his subject instead. This ural History; it is folk art, not taxidermy. hon also belonged to the same wagon which had the

I *5‘> ] an^«l * Weighing Gold, b,o»e eight 3H. Seale, foe maple wood on a chestnut base; nineteenth century. 3|3. Apple Peeler, w okm„l 7 in San Francisco; century. ccnth or ninctccnili ]

16. Gadgets and Mechanical Devices

clothes wringers. Between 1805 and 1809 there were only Our early settlers oil the Atlantic seaboard brought fifteen different tyjHrs of patented washing machines, with them a knowledge of materials and the techniques but before 1883 the number had increased to over seven- and skills of England. The handicrafts hail achieved hundred. were cumbersome and never be- their highest development in Europe, and for two cen- teen Many late sixties the American Agri- turies they were continued in this country, where they came widely used. In the or more. furnished the people with the necessities of life. culturist tried out annually half a dozen was only one Even after the Industrial Revolution got its start in Among the machines so tested there which

England, during the last third of the eighteenth cen- the "help would use willingly. on straight lines simple geo- tury, it was not immediately transplanted to the col- Based essentially and

onies. The mill towns of New England developed in the metric shapes, machines carry within them possibilities

early decades of the nineteenth century, and by the time of a beaut v of their own. But this was not immediately

of the Civil War the small shop with its hand tools was recognized. The new devices were quite inappropriately

already being replaced by machines. In a new country decorated with gilt, scrolls and even fluted columns to

with great natural resources, there was more work to do make them presentable for the front part of the house.

than men could do unaided. The necessity of overcom- After their utilitarian character had been partly dis-

ing a chronic shortage of labor through mechanical guised under an ornamental exterior, they were tolerated means stimulated the inventive genius everywhere. amidst Victorian furnishings.

1*o lighten work in the home, new mechanical appli- There was a passion for all sorts of gadgets, and it ances were produced. A whole group of inventions were almost seemed the more complicated they were the bet-

aimed to speed up the preparation of fruit for canning ter they were liked. As long as it was a machine, it did or drying. Innumerable apple parcr^nd cherry stoners not have to be practical. No contraption was too elabo- were offered to the public. Some homemade ones even rate for the enthusiastic inventor. A new patent often date from the eighteenth century. As early as 1803 there started numerous modifications without necessarily in- was a patented apple parer that worked by turning a volving a new principle. Stores, and even post offices and crank. Other models had wheels, gears and belts for banks, at times profited from this flood of inventions. greater speed. Often the invention became standard equipment and Formerly the spinning wheel had been almost the only a necessity for a certain business. Scales for the weighing labor-saving device for the home. In appearance and of the gold tlut was brought to the bank in the mining operation it influenced the design of these first American days of the West arc among the fine precision instru- domestic machines. The long traditions of woodwork- ments of the period. The pair of scales shown here is ing carry over into the early wooden appliances. They over four feet high and was found in Nevada. are often well made, like the apple parer illustrated on O III |||,| the opposite page, and show an appreciation of simple, ters of religious beliefs and social creeds. This same li functional forms. In the second half of the nineteenth ertv persuaded others to seek the pot of gold century cast iron at the er became the usual material for all such of the rainbow through some gadgets. new invention that cou survive the Patent Office. All these products Various devices were of a machit produced to grind meat, coffee •igc were a necessary and spices, preparation for our own to chop vegetables and to pow, sift flour. Numer- age with machines that at times ous manufacturers turned seem to have reached out washing machines and final goal of perfection.

( £ ;

iron parts; second lulf 315. Cotfce Mill, wrought iron; l.itc eighteenth century. 517. Clothes Wringer, wood with nineteenth century. 316. Cherry Stoner, c.ist iron; nineteenth century.

owes something doubt was efficient, its appearance In this coffee mill the coffee beans were forced be- it no legs table with cursed This is still a small tween the wheel and the sides of the hopper that were to furniture. mechanism has been and curved top on which the roughened by chisel cuts to provide a grinding surface.

mounted. , regulated the coarseness or fineness of A thumbscrew to ha household devices seem crafts- Various labor-saving the grind. The whole grinder was made by one no superior makes were been popular chiefly because start to finish before the era of mass produc- man from forcing cl°' Even this method of primitive appearance yet available. tion of interchangeable parts. Its wooden cyl.nde corrugated surfaces of two heavier tween the due to the fact that the parts arc is somewhat clothes by hand. preferred to wringing were freshly ground for was png than necessary. As the beans on the oPPos re The stamp canceling machine did not have to be very large. operated^ serving, the hopper Post Office, is each a Maryland sep- once used in stoncr, pulp and seeds are In this type of cherry subsequently rclcasl pushing down and ?« disk. The , d action of curved ribs on a rotary arated by the how this particular ****** specifi- Le wonders taken out in the l«60's, tells mot.om Th of the patents, eliminating useless text save time by stoncr worked. A craft this type of cherry determined on impro cally how progress was tool. Though reflected in this mechanical tradition is still !62] BIS. Stamp Canceling Machine, wood; made in Maryland: Fly Catcher, wood and metal: patented by George Gil nineteenth century. hert. Westville, Connecticut. 1 S56.

S2U. Bootjack, cast iron; nineteenth century.

mechanical inventions, even where the result hardly They arc less subject to historical influence, and feel no warranted the effort. obligation to follow a style. This bootjack is a fantastic According to the “specifications and for claims" the combination of insect and quadruped, with the body of fly catcher, a bait like molasses was applied to a revolv- an insect and the feet of a turtle. ing Bootjacks have not cylinder “to attract flies, and while they arc feeding disappeared entirely, though modern living the revolving conditions motion of the cylinder carries them quietly have restricted their use. The kind of shoe into a dark we wear is chamber, from which they will naturally not entirely a matter of fashion; pass up shoes reflect dirt roads through a screen, into a light chamber which is or paved streets, ox carts or enclosed by wire automobiles. High boots gauze, and will thus Ik securely caged, served as protection against mud and rain to be dealt with ; they had to be at pleasure." A slide at the back opens price Off When wet, and the bootjack and flies can Ik driven was a necessity. down to a back chamber below, The heel of one foot by shaking, was damped into the prongs “and then shut up so close, without of the air or bootiack while light the other foot held that they will soon die.” the bootjack down. One boot was pulled off with Utility forms at times the aid of the other show surprising originality. foot

< 6 I ? 1 Atwater in Machine, casi iron; made l»y B. 321. Pepper Mill, mahogany; nineicenili century. 322. Sewing Connecticut; patented 1N57.

in Englan > leather-stitching machine was taken out Formerly spices were purchased whole and ground a t k machine was invented and perfected in small quantities were needed, they the sewing as used. Because only arc of this model had nited States. The mechanical parts fresh and neither spice nor coffee mills U were made fluted 0 * to the casing. The I* advanced only gradu- inconspicuous compared to be large. As the use of metal love base satisfy a vasclike finial and the ornate of wood. Here only the with its ally, many items were still made

for ornamentation. . metal the body itself is wood turned , interior parts are of ; whole explanation- that is perhaps not the pleasant to touch no Heft fact that wood was '< on a lathe. The seemed ugly to the where frank display of utility still for handles and containers, had doubt favored it centuries the machine as in all preceding advantage. The first half rians jus, metal would have offered no and Ins van F an effrontery to man the use of seemed like century greatly increased that an- „f the nineteenth was the though, underlying reason for this The outgoing crafts and the in- wood in this country. than to more varied uses coming industries put wood served in the car \ case before. Wood ever had been the the cases were In clocks not only industrial machinery. parts as well, gea but the working K|c of wood, m surprising de- hard wood with a cut out of more like a tCC 0 le finely machine P' handi- age off I and comfortable longed to the safe sewing machine was ^Ofljlydomestic machines, the fcr crafts. Though the firs, paten, n,s, important. Mar Z iM ?2l Manner’s ; used on ihc Great Lakes; made in New York by R. L Sltaw; aUuit 1S70.

What is attractive to the eye about this compass is the been eliminated almost entirely, card except for the elabora- on which the points arc marked in the manner of tion of the North point. For a scientihc an eight-pointed device entirely star. With its subdivision the circular practical ami used by men outside card the home, decoration represents a design severe and functional, rather is here dispensed with even at this than ornate. early date. Additions of a purely decorative type have

[ 't-il Coles, in Static Generator, built by Joseph 32-4. Police R.ittle, oak; nineteenth century. 325. Electric Colestown, New Jersey; eighteenth century.

invented in announce As the prime conductor was Before there were gongs, bells, and sirens to 1741 to > must be of the period engine, and ambulance, bottle generator the arrival of patrol wagon, fire mac me. supplanted by a plate and sea. Well when the bottle was hand rattles served everywhere, on land mey machines were experimental, designed to give the All such electric constructed, of hard wood, and our own purposes up to used for therapeutic not help being attractive. were hand a firm grip, they could advantages were the practical \ears Eve- period, but otherwise is the same as our own New The principle consists in the real importance blade of wood snaps slight. Their makers, in which a revolving noise for a popular they laid the foundation ratchet. worth * against a was a force in«JP mount- idea that electricity machine consists of a glass bottle This electric prepared the way f" s the These generators of contact with a flap. In this case ^J cd on supports and in handle the glass velvet. By turning the is a piece of back t flap electricity goes • nonconductor, a static w | len revolved. Glass being a that yell cylinder is b.c. observed until around 600 held on its surface The Greek charge of electricity is small particles. positive rubbed, would attract of a prime conductor. discharged through use 16(>] 1

>2(). Gramophone, wood with tin horn and rubber bands; 327. Ice Cream Free/er, made of cellar with an iron handle, designed by Emile Berliner, made by the United States in Dover, Delaware; aUmt 1N60.

Gramophone Company, Washington, 1). C.; 1SS7.

for amber, electron, gave us electricity. The bottle here packed in the usual way in the wooden box surround- used was most suitable for electrical machines on ac- ing the inner container. This container was rotated by count 4 of the amount of silica contained in the glass. turning the handle. This comparatively small freezer The Gramophone was the basis of all disc phono- could have held hardly more than a quart; the largest graphs. Sound waves were transmitted through a stylus dimension of the wooden box is about fifteen inches. and recorded on a glass disc coated with lamp black. It is believed that ice cream was introduced to From this this, a corresponding hard rubber disc was made country in Philadelphia during the period of the Revo- which was used for the reproduction of sound. This is lutionary War. The New York Gazette of May 10. 1777. still the principle underlying modern disc-playing re- carries an advertisement of a confectioner, Philip cording Lenzi, devices. The disc was moved by a wheel turned that citizens and "guests" could by get ice cream at Ins hand. Here the working parts arc still in plain view. establishment every day. The guests were the red uni 1 ,s an uncompromisingly functional piece of machin- formed British staff officers of ery General Howe, who were which is truly modern in its approach. occupying New York City In at the time. this ice cream freezer, ice mixed with salt was

'f‘7 [ THE YEARS PASS

Rush and Candle Holder, wrought iron; eighteenth century. century. 32V. Kerosene Limp, glass and brass; late nineteenth 17. Rushlight to Kerosene Lamp

before the Civil War was unlay that The lamp in general use Electric light is so much taken for granted held in a the American whale-oil lamp. It had a wick life after sundown must have it is hard to imagine what distinctive burner. 1 Ins burner then in use vertical |x>sition and a been like in colonial days. 1 he illumination became general after ISIS and 1S25, when the New was what had been passed from one generation to an- England and the Boston Cx Sandwich glass companies other through the centuries. Candlewood cut from the put out glass lamps in quantities. This type of lamp heart of the pitchpine was burned in the corner of the tin, pewter, became so popular that it was imitated in fireplace, or rushlights, dipped in grease, were damped

brass. It gave a good light; one needed only to trim in tongs that extended from an iron stand. The stand and here illustrated also has a bracket for candles. the wick.

is where or when the principle of the We think of candles as primitive, but our forefathers It not dear idea of using two tubes saved them for special occasions. The waxy berry of the burner was established. The attributed bayberry bush so common along the coast provided close together to create an updraft has been that candles that burned with a pleasant odor, but spermaceti to Benjamin Franklin. It has been suggested he

candles gave a brighter light. They were made from the could have placed a cork burner supporting a wick

fatty substance found in the head of the sperm whale. tube on top of a bottle like a stopper and shown it to

After cattle became plentiful, tallow was used for his friend and neighbor, Wistar, who is known to have candles. made glass lamps.

The small iron open-wick lamps that came over in In 1834 John Porter made a new burning fluid by

the Mayflower were no more advanced than those combining purified oil of turpentine and alcohol. You

used by the Assyrians five thousand years before. can recognize a fluid lamp by the burner which has two

In basic shape all lamps were remarkably alike; a thin tubes pointing outward to produce two separate loose wick was laid into an open saucerlike container. flames. Burning fluid was highly inflammable and each

It was not until the late eighteenth century that a wick duct had its own metal extinguisher attached by a new era of invention was able to produce a bright light chain, as it was considered dangerous to blow out a without smoke. fluid lamp. Purified turpentine without the alcohol was

I he first improvement took place when some called camphene, though the terms were used indiscrim- known inventor provided a channel for the open wi inately. The wick channel developed into a closed tube, then i A widely used, efficient lamp appeared after I860, a separate spout that held the wick in an inclined p when kerosene came into use. This was the student tion. This type of “Betty” lamp was found in cv lamp with the oil tank to one side to eliminate shadows. home throughout the eighteenth century. Since Every kerosene lamp had a glass chimney. At this burned whale oil, it was odorous; it smoked and late stage of development, the student lamp is func- light was hardly more than a glow. This was beca tional in form and without ornamental features. the thick wick kept oxygen away from the center of Lamps designed on the same principle had flame. much in But with the invention of the narrow, ribbon common, no matter how they might differ in wick, the purely flame could reach the center as well as the i ornamental exteriors. A tendency toward simplicity Su,c of the in wick; most of the free c.irbon was c design anil perhaps a more sumc general use of the central d and smoke was reduced. burner whale-oil lamp are American characteristics.

[ i6q] wick support, lid. 330. Lmicrn, |>crfor.ital tin. probably made in New Eng- 331. Betty Limp, wrought iron, with century. land; eighteenth to nineteenth century. hanger, and wick pick: early nineteenth

332. Slut Limp, wrought iron; early t\|xr.

wick was Betty lamp, the loose Traditionally this type of tin lantern is named after In this wrought-iron opening so that channel set hack from the Paul Revere. When lighted, the perforations form a deli- held up by a receptacle, h>* drippings would be caught by the cate pattern of light against dark. We do not know what the improvement over the tvpe of lamp, with its lid. is an the lantern was—"one if by land and two if by sea po.nted hook could be suspended, or the North Church. It has been open type. It that hung in the tower of ogs or t e the stones of a fireplace lantern gives but a feeble inserted between pointed out that a perforated r the wick free was used to keep visible from "the oppo- a cabin. The light that might not have been light is 1 a dark night, even a small frontier site shore.” Still, on the early “slut." lamp of Tib is grease, or visible for miles.

[ i‘°] 3>>. Sconce, sheet tin; ainc; from M eighteenth century. 335. Candlestick, SnulTcr and W ick 'trimmer, brass; prob- 334. Candlestick, pewter; from Ohio; nineteenth century. ably imported from England; nineteenth century.

period represents the most primitive type of lamp. The as in the courthouse of the small town of Bridgeton, word slut refers to the wick and is defined as a “piece Maine. The tooled reflector and the crimped edge of the °f rag dipped in lard or fat and used as a light." It is candle socket show good taste in ornamentation. supplied with bear or other animal fat and a twisted The pewter candlestick belongs to the last quarter of rag wick which emerged from the spout. In the earliest the pewter century, the period from 1750 to 1850. Elaho- days lamps of this type were probably wrought from rate shapes in coffee |>ots, whale-oil lamps and candle- h°g iron, made from the ore collected from local bogs sticks dominate this eclectic era. Pewter plates had and swamps. been largely replaced by china, and the period of industriali- Sheet tin was put to many uses, as it could be shaped zation had begun, yet in this «sdy. candlestick the manner of In the eighteenth century, candlesticks and the earlier period is continued without sacrifice sconces were commonly of good of tin. even in public buildings. design. [;] Pennsylvania; mid- 536. “Ipswich" Iteuy Lamp, tin: eighteenth to nineteenth 357. Betty Limp and Stand, tin. from century. eighteenth century.

was "Ipswich” Betty lamp The simple disldikc brass candlestick on the preced- came "petty” or "betty.” The was first Massachusetts town where it ing page adheres to a traditional shape. An ample bowl named after the

affords space for a wick trimmer, and the snuffer is made. was attached to a In another style, the Betty lamp given its special place at the end of the handle. adjusted to different so that the lamp could Ik Betty lamps, fitted with lids and wick ducts, were stand, and is at the bottom, heights. The stand was weighted better than the open type lamp. They could be sus- Pennsylvania, but is from under two feet high. This one pended or placed safely on a "tidy top’ or stand with also used in England. that this the same type was the deep base filled with sand. It has been said perpetuates opposite page whale-oil lamp on the for the name, possibly The improvement was responsible to be * candlestick. I. is made basic shape of the besser, that led to better the derived from the German •> ' modern lamp. It has on a table, but it is a English "beet” or "bete"). According The e and "betty” (old completely enclosed. burner and the oil font is petit, meaning small, be- to another theory, the French

2 [ T J Whale-Oil Limp, tin with brass double burner; nine* vU). Hutton Torch, tin, made in Nauvoo, Illinois; about icenth century. 1S<>0.

Betty Lamp, cast brass; late eighteenth century. two factors constitute a major break with all preceding The election torch is really a lard-oil lamp made of a lamps. It gave a good light, was clean and well adapted tin can. that has been fitted with a burner and mounted f ( >r use indoors. Abraham Lincoln used one like it dur- through a tin swivel on a long pole. This particular one ing the early days when he studied in his out- law home was carried in Lincoln’s campaign. Members of political vie Springfield. In the first part of the nineteenth cen- organizations, the “Lincoln Club" and the “Wide tury, whale-oil lamps tended to replace the Betty type Awake Club, paraded at election time carrying from of movable hanging lamp. thirty to forty torches in the procession. The town of The ornate type of brass Betty lamp is closer to Euro- Nauvoo, where this torch was made, is in an Hancock motkk- ^ is j* well made, and its elegant shape County, Illinois, on the banks of the Mississippi River. trays its classical tradition; yet for all its artistic qual- It derives a historic interest from the fact that it was ll >» it is a primitive lamp. Its wick duct is here separated settled by the Mormons in the early forties of the last trom lh c oil font, but it is still only a spout lamp. century.

[ 1

camphenc 341. Carriage Limp, brass and tin with etched glass; nine- >42. Limp, pressed glass and brass top with two tcentli century. burners; 1X53. nineteenth 343. Whale-Oil Limp, used at sea, japanned tin; century.

a Though it gave fluid, including camphenc. type carriage lamp was in common use during burning This of reason explosive. For that flame, it was highly here still bright the nineteenth century. Its rectangular frame, use and heavy wicks sure the burning tubes were long primitive in design, is combined with a circular ven- from the oil. to keep the flame well away tilator and vertical shaft to hold the candle. This lamp suspen c , lamp is freely The oil font in a marine belonged to Jefferson Davis, president of the Confed- a level position that the lamp maintains eracy, and therefore dates from the Civil War period. was taken from an old P ship's motion. This one “sparking lamps the ; Small lamps called “tavern” or States Gosern America, which the United to guests the South were common in inns where they were handed 1861 . bought in . . home, ment r to their rooms. Used in the « » to light the way the opposite page The small glass lamp on signal to the suitor smgle-burn when the flame burned out it was a Thts tavern type of lamp. thin example of the to leave. The two long, that it was time for him was used for whale oil. lamp was made for lamp burning tubes indicate that this

[ '74 SH Small Whale-Oil Limp, blown (lint glass with a single- $45. L.ird Oil Lamp, sheet tin; found in New Jersey; nine- wick, cork-disk tin burner; attributed lo Boston & Sandwich teenth century. Glass Company; first half nineteenth century. >46. Cimphene Lamp, pressed glass; period lSslMKS*).

Lard-oil lamps, less common than whale-oil or fluid of blown glass joined to a pressed glass base. Glass lamps lamps, required a wide, flat wick. For a period in the were made by various factories in large numbers. As the middle of the nineteenth century the heavier lard oil glass was not marked by the firm name, it is difficult to was in favor. For many years it was used in lighthouses, assign a particular lamp to its place of manufacture. The and, after the Civil designs War, in the Navy for economy and show much variation, but this type of design is efficiency. related to candlesticks and vases. Three sections can be In the 1830*s, burning fluid came on the market, re- distinguished: base, shaft or knop, and oil font, candle quiring long, thin tubes and socket or vase heavy wicks. The screw top. After 185*), when the discovery of ^ap, metal top was used to prevent evaporation. Earlier petroleum brought on the kerosene lamp, the oil font uid lamps of glass have elongated, bell-shaped bowls took on a globular shape.

[-751 W. Dress. im|xirtc

17SS. vJS. Woman’s Shoes, breaded silk: made in Baltimore; al*nu

1 . A Century of Costume

The everyday dresses that our great-grandmothers display is without loss of dignity. The slippers shown wore have disappeared almost completely. What has at the top of the page are in the same general style and like ken preserved is the fashionable, costly gown that was could be a part of the costume. As yet one shoe is the treasured by the wearer and passed on to her descend- other; not until the early nineteenth century were shoes ants. made to fit the right and left foot.

Only from paintings and documents do we know Immediately after the Revolution our fashions were what the earlier colonial costume was like, as few of the more extravagant than those of either France or Eng- examples now existing go back before the Revolution. land. The exuberant spirit of the early Republic is re-

Seventeenth century costume was characterized by dura- flected in the fine materials put into feminine costume. bility and simplicity, due to the rigors of life in a new Paris was the fashion center, and the Napoleonic period country and to some extent to religious convictions. The produced the long, clinging gowns of the neoclassic Puritans, for instance, put curbs on furbelows and trim- revival just as it produced Empire furniture and classic mings. Buttons they considered “vanities”; they used architecture. The whole nineteenth century was retro- instead hooks and eyes. spective in costume and decoration, seeking its inspira- Put as time went on, the leather worn by the early tion in the past. settlers was replaced by woolens. The sumptuary laws, Empire dress was followed by early Victorian, a re- probably not always strictly enforced, were relaxed, and vival of eighteenth century ideas, and straight lines were as the frontiers moved westward, the fashions in Amer- once more replaced by curves. Toward the end of the ican cities became practically those of western Europe. century, skirts again became voluminous and shoulder Fashionable women dressed in Boston, New York and effects broadened. Rut the trend was counteracted by the Philadelphia much as they might in London. Costume liberating influence of the suffrage movement. This was more affected by occupation and by income than striving for equal rights for women in the political and by geography. social spheres is reflected in more sensible dress. The The costumes here illustrated belong to the period influence of sports and athletics made women's from dress just before the founding of the Republic to the comfortable and better suited to a broadened scoj>e of end of the nineteenth century. activity. The flaring skirts of the eighteenth century were but a Style trends were profoundly affected graceful by two devel- variation of the bulging curves of the preceding opments, the invention of the sewing machine and the Period. Characteristic are the tightly-laced bodice and appearance of paper patterns. From e Ellen Butterick's 11 skirt. The dress on the opposite page is of a idea of a paper pattern for a child's suit splendid brocade came the pat- enriched with a large floral pattern. terns for women’s dresses that r ,s revolutionized the art of lavish in the use of costly material, but its love of dressmaking. When every housewife could make her

[ >77 34V. Dress, primed linen

preceding the R the period immediately on the dictates skirt, reflects clothes, she became less dependent up h gh m own powdered hair, drawn olution. It goes with more easily be suited to her of fashion. Dresses could and fan. fashion, satin dippers P simplification and econ- pompadour ^ own needs. This encouraged furniture. background of Chippendale everywhere raised the omy, and individual initiative imported linen, no doubt This same period printed of taste in women’s clothes. apphqued |*«'«- standards elaborately ’ so that quilted and j standardization of men’s clothing pnnajto fjesign led to an early an awareness of dead level here shows have been replaced by a orma ^ today style changes Against the general ) good taste. grace lightness and of uniformity. add a note of hooped, fhc lace sleeves waist, laced bodice and This dress with tight r 7»] 350. (JirTs Dress, with pantalets, cotton anil organdv. 1830- >52. Lady’s Slipper, kid lined * * yellow with linen, wextden 1840. heel; made in New York City; about 1S12. * 351. Taffeta Bonnet, with embroidered net veil; made in airfield, Connecticut; mid-nineteenth century.

type of dress was worn by women of wealth on as special revealed in Greek and Roman art. It expressed itself occasions. It belongs to the city mansion and country not only in dress but also in furniture, painting and estate, where the wearer had much the same cultural sculpture. Even this pink and white striped girl's dress a c round as 8 in Europe. During the Revolution and makes the figure look tall and slender, similar to the c ore, wives of visiting officers and administrators tendency in late colonial architecture to elongate the accompanied their husbands on trips to America, bring- columns. ,n with g them the latest fashions. Lace made on the bobbin-net machine came into A high waist and flowing lines arc characteristic of general use soon after 1810, and a lace veil is EmPirc p^iod of the Napoleonic era. France, all of used here to decorate P a bonnet of a later period. Uropc, and our R,b- own Republic took up the classic style bons, reminiscent of the style of Louis XVI. arc still

[

goes back Victorian furniture, dress, like 'ictorian ° r< rsl curves, but such -'| eighteenth century no, exactly hketh^ complete. The newts e are never I i So 1 356. Coin Purse, crocheted of twisted silk with applied sled 35S. Dress, pl.iid Hilda, from New Orleans, Louisiana; wads; from Lockport, New York; about 1X50. 1X45.

35/. Lady’s Slipper, needlework on canvas; probably from New York; 1S-H.

head, and the combs were matched with tortoise-shell reads: “Mary E. Post to Mary King, September 17, IS-H." earrings. The Victorian fashion favored fullness of dress, as we The coin purse is another proof that not everything see in the dress from New Jersey, on the opposite page. Victorian was in poor taste. Steel, instead of glass, even In the above dress from the South, of about or the the same manufacture of beads, is characteristic of the in- period, the high waist Empire fashion stdl prevails. dustrial era Its when steel began to come into its own as simplicity and lack of emphasis the on any extreme trend metal of the century. of the fashion of the period makes this design attractive The house slipper illustrates one of the many uses of even a century after its day. embroidery “Taffeta is a smooth, glossy in the nineteenth century. This example silk fabric in plain weave, alike on both sides" made by one friend (M. H. for another, for the inscription Pickcn, The Language of Fashion).

1S1 1 Ic in Boston; about !c in Monterey

informal, casual wear in The wrapper was made for fit. The cen- its ample, loose house, which explains the compara- influence and «s suggests a colonial , r ,| panel a modern trend. is a hint of tive simplicity cotton were common of washable Bonnets aro nd them out of doors when women wore ,««* cm-ermg « as style of head rioul and garden. This overalls for men. as blue typically American V>2. Woman’s Shoe, black kid with fabric top; 1885-1895. 'M. Sealskin Cap; probably made in New York; about 1850. Clog, ash sole, leather toe and heel piece; eighteenth century. >6\ Two-Piece Dress, honed, silk trimmed in velvet; about isos.

Shoes of the nineties were commonly of the high* well made and not at all clumsy. Although women did buttoned, all leather type. This one has a fabric top little walking in the eighteenth century, overshoes were and a blunt toe, representing a trend toward comfort necessary since there were few roads and an abundance and away from the elegance of the pointed toe. The heel, of mud. l00 is » suitable for walking and outdoor wear. In those The use of furs, particularly in men's caps and hats, lla s * V t *K obliging shoe clerk would strip off the but- goes hack to early days in American history. Sealskin l °ns on a new pair of shoes with caps are as and replace them native to this country as gingham bonnets. patented buttons that stayed on better. The nineteenth century was eclectic as well as for- A clog is an early form of overshoe, anti this one is ward looking. The extreme styles of the dav, as shown

«* ( 3 ) X

impractu page eye this may look clumsy anti in the two-piece dress on the preceding comfort ai ness ami obvious striving for “wasp” waist, bustle, and "leg-of-mutton si tigl ment stand out in contrast to the growing interest in sports for gether with a and w regular wear. Bloomers, roomy brim; about a movement for dress ri lu'lnril to improvement on mi>s, were at least an frah.iml work; Sb7. Wall Paiminj! (ilcuil), acncil and Wadiinjjion, C oilmen- made bv an ilincrani dccnraior in

cut; 1772-1779.

19. Symbols of a Nation

United States. After Washington’s inaugura- It is characteristic of the human mind to think in Seal of the after the close of the War of 1812, symbols, and we do so unconsciously. We have our per- tion and particularly arts. The was sonal symbols, and others we share with people the the eagle was used extensively in the eagle

of its association with classical world over. The season of spring means youth; light chosen probably because stands for virtue; and darkness symbolizes evil and antiquity, for belonged to the era of misfortune. the classical revival; new institutions, like the Senate,

Before there was a United States, the American In- were often modeled on those of the old Roman Repub- dian served as the symbol of this continent. After lic. Emblematic eagles had been used before in the colo- independence had been won and the foundations of a nies, as for example the one reproduced above, but the new government laid, emblems of a patriotic character, American bald-headed species was specifically desig- like the flag and the American eagle, were adopted as nated as the eagle of the Great Seal. Bald here means

national symbols. white, because this eagle has white head and tail feathers.

The flag of the United States evolved out of various Liberty acquired a particular importance because it devices and ensigns. The resolution of the Continental symbolized the American dream. Jefferson wrote in the Congress of 1777 adopted the flag in which the thirteen Declaration of Independence, "life, liberty and the pur- stars expressed the unity of the states. The stars are suit of happiness," and "the blessings of liberty to our- referred to as a "constellation," which meant the con- selves and our posterity" are mentioned in the Preamble stellation Lyra, known as the harmony or unity group. to the Constitution. Freedom is a jealously guarded In this, our first national flag, the stars were placed in right that we affirm in our everyday speech when we a circle because a circle seemed more beautiful than the use such words as “This is a free country." "Liberty" irregular group of the Lyra constellation. appears as a profile head on coins and was made into The American eagle became a patriotic emblem after statues, wcathervanes, and inn signs; Columbia, as a it had been adopted by Congress in 1782 for the Great symbol for the United States, was used in the same way.

l« «5l These particular emblems of unity and freedom are object as having been made in this country. Pictures of more than heraldic devices; as expressions of our funda- George Washington amidst stars and stripes were ap- mental ideals, they have always been deeply revered. In plied to earthenware jugs made in Liverpool, England. times when patriotic feeling was intense, these emblems When wares like these, and others made to capture the were freely used in the arts throughout the nation. American market, appeared in this country, they found Justice is dear to mankind everywhere, and we have eager buyers. always associated justice with freedom. wooden figure A Today these motifs are part of our artistic heritage. of justice, with bandaged eyes and the holding balanced They are easily recognized and rich in pleasant associa- scales, was often seen on early our courthouses. tions so that they can be modified in subtle ways with-

Before the days of photography, portraiture was the out losing their identity. only means of preserving a likeness. Comparatively few In addition to this small group of specifically Amer- people had the good fortune to see Washington face to ican motifs, we have in our folk and popular arts a face, but many were eager to see what their great Presi- treasure of native material, much of which has not yet dent looked like. been discovered by our designers. This docs not mean

The works of the leading painters and sculptors served that we should copy the ideas of the past as if we wished as models for innumerable craftsmen who carved, drew to restore what cannot be revived in any literal manner. and painted these emblems, varying and adapting them But modern artists who have become familiar with the to the materials of their crafts. Eagles, shields bearing art of early America may well profit from this contact. greater enrich- the flag, Columbia, the Liberty Cap, Washington, Jef- Let them infuse one with the other for a ferson, and Franklin were universally popular. ment of the present.

A patriotic motif does not necessarily identify an

Kittcry 368. Ship’s Ornament, carved by John Bellamy at Point, Maine; late nineteenth century. ylcr, in Butter- 369. Coverlet (detail); woven on a )aaju.inl loom by Harry 1

villc, JelTerson County, New York; in 1853.

Bellamy carved a number of ship’s ornaments, like the his carving of other patriotic motifs. °nc on the opposite page. Here he worked from a When George Washington triumphantly toured the wooden pattern, indicating that he produced this eagle thirteen states in 1789, transparent painted eagles ap- in quantity. It is also known that Bellamy presented peared on windowpanes everywhere, with lighted this particular ship’s carving to his friends, and they arc candles behind them. Soon the eagle became the most |till owned locally in Kittery Point, where Bellamy had popular motif in American decorative art. Here it is

ls S *'°P- largest eagle, with a wing spread of over used in heraldic fashion with the patriotic slogan, . eighteen feet, is the well known figurehead carved for "E PIuribus Vnum denoting one nation formal of He U.S.S. Lancaster when the vessel was reconditioned many parts. Harry Tyler is known for his rugs and at lhc Portsmouth Navy Yard in the early 1880’s. An- coverlets, which he produced as a professional weaver ot cr group includes small eagles carved in the round. from 1834 to 1858. Tyler received the thread from his clamy i s best known for his eagles, in which he clients, after he had instructed them how to spin the W°r Cl^ oul a well defined style, more marked than in wool and how much would be needed.

[ 87] ppywi,h.he»n,^* kis „«»l.«gc.toh1 Jackson, seventh I’resi Tins gaunt figure of Andrew about 1»34, is a str.k- carved for the Constitution Beecher, represented work. The carver. Laban S. upright oee» contemporary dress in a determine,!, und.siurbed b, ickson in dignified drapery, drapery, for i„,„ the cloak look like . tried to make , )SC He [,ss] This figurehead is wood sculpture with its grim, por- of the Navy. Eventually a new head was carved to repair iraitlikc head. Hat and roll arc hardly more than minor the damage. interruptions that interfere but little with the essential The artist who created this tavern sign probably had simplicity of the uncomplicated pose. in mind the American eagle from the Great Seal. This A good deal of feeling was aroused at the time this he fused with the symbol from the seal of Rhode Island, Nc ^cl was lying at anchor in Boston harbor. a On for in place of the customary arrows, the eagle holds i ar an incensed naval officer to rowed out the an anchor. The artist was experienced in lettering, CSScl and imaged to saw off Jackson's head, ! which which he handled with professional aptitude. C In addi- earned in triumph through the streets of Bos- tion, he showed good a feeling for design in the placing ^ is act was the culmination of a widespread re- of the eagle, as well as in the forceful ntment manner in which against having Jackson, an Army man, so he developed the silhouette. °SC y associalcd wilh a vessel held dear by all followers

I 1 Ml. George Washington, carved plaque; thirty-eight by

fifty-six inches; bv Samuel Mclntirc of Salem, Massachu-

setts; early nineteenth century.

folk artist. has been so revered and so often >tor and the No other American and Washington visited Salem i October 29, 1789, first president. During his life- represented in art as the bal- the Courthouse cssed the townspeople from time, twenty-seven different painters and sculptors im- near-by, made a Mclntirc. seated at a window list, . Gilbert Stuart heads the - mortalized his likeness. painstaking < plaque is a h of him. The carved about one hundred portraits. The painter, Charles with the craftsman. the point of view of pursued their tion from Pcalc, his two sons and daughter, as much Willson delicacy receives irm in its ornamental determination. On one occasion all four gath- was pa hero with For years the plaque tjon as the features. to sketch the President. ered around in a semicircle common, known gateway to Salem's over from France, is the best opposite pag< Houdon, who came top of the type of eagle at the Washington can be seen c sculptors. His bust of ' ^ewer of the with Bellamy, though from late today it was modeled at Mount Vernon where as to(|ay carved eagles, as well also engaged in this 1785. Folk artists were vogue. Whom life in he had established a Washington on a wider good deal *1 endeavor to popularize eagle shows a worthy have been, this the academ.c a place between scale. Mclntire occupies

[ 1

373. Headboard of a Bed, walnut, carved; from Wilmington, Delaware; ISll).

,CK is muc ^ freedom in the disposition of the wings. gestal but not carried out in any mechanical way. J’ the contour J°ug of the pennant is The artist shows taste in the way he has ' halting and uncer- simplified the « « l * lc cas y» gleeful curvature characteristic- details and treated the surface of the bird dccorativcly am ^‘ *)cr^ a s P Ac nearest approach to is using the grained surface of the in in Bellamy wood the head- n lhc carv’ing of the beak. board itself. This still shows something of the easy incc thc eagle was the popular motif of the day, the grace of thc eighteenth century, combined with a ' S ^Cai * ^oarc * n ° doubt was also meant to re|v more severe treatment characteristic of thc Empire rese T *ln Ca ^'C * cvcrl ^ hdess, neither the proportions manner, which was just getting started. nor There is here C ^UKTa ' c ^araclcr shows any striking resern- an appreciation for surfaces blan and textures, in the way in

^ ' C; |° CaS l ^ c * Kat* cou^ he taken for a which thc rock on which the bird is perched Parrot is handled. ' S 3 rC markable dcsi n particularly success- place of the usual « - In sharp crags meant to suggest fu| in the thC Wa l ^ l * lc artist has accepted the stony th l . challenge of eagle's home, this carver subdued and c s softened ^ C° nt0Ur l he headboard and worked it contrasts to bring into realism into harmony with the unob- thc curv ed wings of the bird. Symmetry is sug- trusive background of the headboard. Connecticut, in 1777; 375. Sign for the Bisscll Tavern, made in East Windsor, repainted in 1S01.

began well known artists required it. Even Connecticut, which if necessity Collectors have been active in pa study the art o enough to • signs as craftsmen to earn account for the fact that many of the tavern ^ may known as t c The The cap here represented is been preserved come from this State. that have an old Ronun gets its name from shape of the Cap" and a5 this sign is high, both in the artistic level of to wear a slave was permitted The motifs arc that a freed ^ panel and in the design itself. are wooden freedom. Sixteen stars P a symbol of his those of late colonial architecture. the lead- We must remember that below the level of division in what there was no sharp ing portrait painters The itinerant be called upon to do. a painter might also make a sign a portrait might artist who painted

[ 192 ] 1

376. Justice, wood, about six feet high; probably from the Skillins' workshop

in Boston; about 1SU0.

January 28, 1800, William Bentley of Salem wrote of and the ends of the skirt blown against the ankle as if hitn in his “Diary” as “an eminent carver in Boston.” by a wind coming from behind. The spiral-shaped f Was Simeon Skillin who carved the Mercury on the drapery over the breasts is also a characteristic detail Boston Post Office (sec No. 135). Today the Skillins which occurs elsewhere in the work of these carvers. rn nk with William Rush of Philadelphia as the first According to tradition, the actual carving was done in scu ptors of the early Republic. reason for The the attri- a shop on Front Street, in Worcester, Massachusetts, tion of this figure to the Skillins may be found its in and the statue was put up on the cupola of the New resemblance to other known works by them. Here are Worcester Court House some years after this building C S' cni^ cr roportions, P with the drooping shoulders had been erected in 1803.

[ >93 J

377. Ejglc on .1 Cannon, wood, covered with gesso and gilded; early nineteenth century.

Drums were made of pine or Tile eagle here is in an attitude of defiance, pre- regimental designation. hard woot this case mahogany, with pared to stand its ground. This is an interpretation of a iprucc, or as in use, head and bottom. When not in new country, proud and sensitive of its strength. Older, loops and calfskin tension to the the leather flaps used to give more static symbols, like the spread eagle, are here modi- he cars, release the tension, u-ad, were pulled down in order to fied to fit a spirit of lively self-confidence. The cannon in t ie four instruments used occupied a place where a rhe drum is one of the suggests that this ornament and the fife, trumpet, nilitary band for field music; martial topic was appropriate in some architectural con- Aside from their use in maki- but luglc are the other three. nection on land or sea. The design is imaginative, used for signals, beat time, drums were also and the bottom indicates that it ng, to of a basic simplicity, bo) , with the drummer issociatc the Civil War drums rested on a flat support. the ca the colors at vho were known .0 have joined kinds of military drums: the snare- There are three ' cl battle they too of twelve years. During bass drum, and the brass or ge for of the infantry, the a. hand drum in order .0 be drums ion near the commander kettledrum used by the cavalry. Few copper charge, or assembly. irdcrs to signal retreat, are in existence; but Civil from the Revolutionary War Volunteers, 9th Regiment of Vermont page, arc com- The zcd like the one on the opposite War drums, was the first regime the his drum belonged, conspicuous part of the drums was ^ mon. The most summons for help I beneath mder the President's eagle holding the shield colors, the American lational capital. half of the bande- a banderole. Usually a and for the uninscribed to allow room role was delivered

1

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

of the origi In almost every ease, the location

Charlotte Angus, Pennsylvania END PAPER. EMBROIDERED COVERLET, ISOS; rendered by Lefevre, New Project. Original privately owned. about 1790; rendered by Jules Z. eighteenth cen- York City Project. Original privately owned. 15. WATER COLOR, last quarter tury; rendered by Albert Levone, Pennsylvania 1. Bird and Tulip Project. Original in Philadelphia Museum. DISH. 1786; rendered by 1. EARTHENWARE rendered by Frances 16. SHOWJ TOWEL, 1829; Frances Lichten, Pennsylvania Project. Original Lichten, Pennsylvania Project. Original in Phila- Philadelphia Museum of Art. xvin in delphia Museum. 10 1S12; 2. EARTHENWARE PLATE (detail). ren 17. CHANDELIER; rendered by Elmer R. Kott- dered by Austin L. Davison, Pennsylvania Project. camp, Pennsylvania Project. Original privately Original in Philadelphia Museum of Art. 1 owned. 11

3. SALT CUP, 1860-1880; rendered by Charles Hen IS. PATCH BOX FROM A KENTUCKY RIFLE, ning, New York City Project. Original privately about 1790-1810; rendered by Albert ). Levone. owned. 2 Pennsylvania Project. Original privately owned. 11

4. OVAL DISH. 1823; rendered by Albert ). Le- 19. HINGE; rendered by Nicholas Amantca, New vonc, Pennsylvania Project. Original in Philadel- York City Project. Original privately owned. 11 phia Museum of Art 3 by Mil- 20 . TOLEWARE BREAD TRAY; rendered 5. WATER WHISTLE, nineteenth century; ren- dred Ford, New York City Project. Original dered by Elmer G. Anderson, Pennsylvania Proj- privately owned. 12 ect. Original owned by Bucks G>unty Historical

21 . COFFEE POT; rendered by Society, Doylcstown. 3 TOLEWARE Charles Henning, New York City Project. Orig- 6. PIE PLATE, 1805; rendered by Albert J. Levone, inal privately owned. 12 Pennsylvania Project. Original in Philadelphia 1S(X); 22 . BOX. about rendered by Christa- Museum of Art. 4 UTILITY bcl Scrvmscr, New York State Project. Original 7. DOUGH TROUGH, probably eighteenth cen- privately owned. 12 tury; rendered by M. Roscnshicld-von-Paulin. 23. COFFEE POT, nineteenth century; rendered by New York City Project. Original in Metropolitan Kochi, Illinois Project. Original privately Museum of Art. 5 John owned. 13 8. CANDLEBOX, 1777; rendered by Carl Streblau, 24. TOLEWARE TEA CADDY; rendered by Mil- Pennsylvania Project. Original in Barnes Founda- Ford, City Project. Original tion, Mcrion. 5 dred New York pri- DISH, vately owned. 13 nineteenth century; rendered by Eugene Shcllady, 25. BASIN, 1867-1S84; rendered by John H.Tcrcuz/i, Pennsylvania Project. Original in Phila- delphia York City Project. Original privately Museum of Art. New owned. 13 10. BOWL, nineteenth century; rendered by Alvin 2. Work and Faith hiren, New York City Project. Original in Metro- 26. RELIGIOUS INSPIRATIONAL DRAWING, P°Man Museum of Art. 1847; rendered by Orville Cline, Ohio Project. 11. DOWRY CHEST, 1782; rendered by Frances Original owned by Western Reserve Historical E'chten, Pennsylvania Project. Original in Phila- Society, Cleveland. 14 delphia Museum of Art. 27 SPINNING WHEEL, nineteenth century; ren- DOWIO CHEST, 1784; rendered by Francis dered by George V. Vczollcs, Kentucky Project. ’ Ncw York City Project. Original in Metro- Original privately owned. 15 P°man Museum of Art. 2S. MAN’S BEAVER HAT, nineteenth century; ren- 11 PAI S' TED WOODEN SPLINT BOX, eight- dered by Ingrid Sclmcr-Larscn, Massachusetts Cm | ccntury; rendered by Elmer G. Anderson. Project. Original privately owned. 16 pennsy vania Project. Original owned by Bucks ^>unty DRESSMAKERS* COUNTER, nineteenth cen- Historical Society, Doylcstown. tury. rendered by John W. Kellcher, Massachusetts IRTH AN& BAPTISMAL CERTIFICATE. Project. Original privately owned. 17

f *97 30 INTERIOR WITH STOVE, nineteenth cen- 49. HOTEL LANTERN, about 1854; rendered by tury; rendered by John \V. Kcllcher, Massachusetts Archie Thompson, Illinois Project. Original pri- Project. Original privately owned. IS vately owned. 26 31. SHARER BASKET nineteenth 50. , century; ren- BARLEY AND STRAW FORK, nineteenth dered by Alfred H. Smith, Massachusetts Project. century; rendered by Archie Thompson, Illinois (Name of owner not on file.) Project. 18 Original privately owned. 27 32. STOOL, nineteenth century; rendered by Law- 51. DOWNSPOUT HEAD, 1842; rendered by Kurt rence Foster, Massachusetts Project. Original pri- Melzer, Illinois Project. Original privately owned. 27 vately owned. 18 52. CALENDAR, 1836; rendered by Fritz Bochmcr, 33. DIPPER, about 1800; rendered by Adelaide Dy- Ohio Project. Original in Zoar Museum. 27 ball, Ohio Project. Original owned by Western 3. Saints and Saddles Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland. 19 53. SAINT FRANCIS, late eighteenth or early nine- 34. CHILDS CHAIR, 1800-1850; rendered by Victor teenth century; rendered by Robert W. R. Taylor, F. Muollo, Massachusetts Project. Original pri- Southern California Project. Original in South- vately owned. 19 west Museum, Los Angeles. 28 35. ARMED ROCKING CHAIR, nineteenth cen- 54. SIDESADDLE, mid-nineteenth century; ren- tury; rendered by Victor F. Muollo, Massachusetts dered by Randolph F. Miller, Southern California Project. Original privately owned. 19 Project. Original privately owned. 28 36. MANS SUIT, nineteenth century; rendered by 55. GOLD PIN, nineteenth century; rendered by Elizabeth Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original Tulita Westfall, California Project. Original pri- privately owned. 20 vately owned. 29 37. WOMAN’S DRESS, nineteenth century; ren- 56. BASKET, 1822; rendered by Gordena Jackson, dered by Lucille Chabot, Massachusetts Project. California Project. Original in Museum of An- Original privately owned. 20 thropology, University of California, Berkeley. 30 38. nineteenth century; rendered by George V. RUG, 57. CARVED WOODEN STIRRUP, nineteenth Vezolles, Kentucky Project. Original privately century; rendered by Rose C. Gcrkc, California 21 owned. Project. Original privately owned. 31

39. WEAVE-CHEST, nineteenth century; rendered 58. CHAIR; rendered by Ursula Lauderdale, Texas by Anne Gcr, Massachusetts Project. Original pri- Project. Original in Spanish Governor’s Palace, vately owned. 22 San Antonio. 31 4 rendered 40. 'FALL CLOCK, 1806; rendered by Irving I. 59. SMALL CHEST, nineteenth century; Original 44. Smith, Massachusetts Project. Original privately by Samuel Faigin, Wisconsin Project. 31 owned. privately owned. 60. HOLY FAMILY; rendered by George E. Rhone, 41. BLANKET CHEST, 1836; rendered by Alfred H. Southern California Project. Original in Junipcro Smith, Massachusetts Project. Original privately 32 Scrra Museum, San Diego. owned. eighteenth century; rendered rendered 61. SAINT ACACIUS, 42. SEWING TABLE, nineteenth century; by Eldora P. Lorcnzini, Colorado Project. Original Massachusetts Project. Orig- by Alfred H. Smith, Arts in Taylor Museum, Colorado Springs bine inal privately owned. Center. ^ rendered by Lawrence 43. BED, nineteenth century; Lorcn- 62. SAINT ISIDORE; rendered by Eldora P. Massachusetts Project. Original privately Mu- Foster, zini, Colorado Project. Original in Taylor owned. seum, Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center. ALTARP1ECE, rendered by CENTER PANEL FROM 63. WALL PAINTING, after 1822; Neumann, Orig- 1880-1890; rendered by Raymond Geoffrey Holt, Southern California Project. Norwcgian-Amertcan Iowa Project. Original in inal in Mission San Fernando. Dccorah. Polly Dun- Museum, 64. VIRGIN AND CHILD; rendered by Museum, WITH GRAIN Colorado Project. Original in Taylor 45 PAINTING, "HARVESTING can, CRADLES," 1875—1R95; rendered by Stanley Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center. owned by Village 1800-1850; rendered by E. Mazur, Illinois Project. Original 65. PAINTED CHEST, privately New Mexico Project. Original of Bishop Hill. Boyd, ^ Illinois owned. rendered by Archie Thompson, 46. SHEARS; CANDLESTICK, about privately owned. 66. ECCLESIASTICAL Project. Original Southern by Harry M. Waddell, by Archie 1817; rendered nineteenth century; rendered Santa Incs. 47 BED, Original at Mission privately California Project. Illinois Project. Original Thompson, mid-nineteenth century; 67. CABALLERO SUIT, California owned. Hal Blakeley, Southern Angc o rendered by century; rendered by County Museum- BENCH, nineteenth Original in Los Angeles 48. owned. Project. Original privately Bulone, Ohio Project. [9«1 owned by Edison Institute ot I eth- BAPTISMAL FONT AND STAND, about cct. Original 6S. 47 Southern nology, Dearborn. 1S12; rendered by William Kicckhofcl, Mission San Luis 1806; rendered by Elmer (.. An California Project. Original in 86 . EIRE ENGINE, 59 owned by Obispo. derson, Pennsylvania Project. Original Doylestown. -is late eighteenth cen- Bucks County Historical Society, 6'). ALTAR TABERNACLE, South- tury; rendered by Cornelius ChristolTels, 87. EIRE MARK, after 1817; rendered by Rose C. Mission San ern California Project. Original in (ierke, California Project. Original privately

>9 •)>) Luis Obispo. owned.

STAND, after 1797; rendered by Vera Rose 70. MISSAL 88 . FIRE MARK, after 1784; rendered by C. Original in Museum Van Voris, California Project. Gcrke, California Project. Original privately >9 at Mission San Jose. owned. CROSS, about 71. THIRD STATION OF THE 89. BANDBOX, 1851-1844; rendered by Walter William Herbert, Southern 1779; rendered by Doran, New York City Project. Original m Camper California Project. Original m Mission San Union Museum, New 'l ork City. W Gabriel. 411 90. FIREMAN'S AX, before 1850; rendered by Elmer 72. SPUR, nineteenth century; rendered by Edward / 4 G. Anderson, Pennsylvania Project. Original Southern California Project. Original T. Jewett. owned by Bucks County Historical Society, 40 in Pony Express Museum, Arcadia. Doylestown. 50 4

4. Life on the Frontier 91. FIRE MARSHALS TRUMPET, 1877; rendered by Thomas Dooley, Wisconsin Project. Original 73. WOODCARVING, " SAW- owned by Racine County Historical Society. 50 ING A LOG," nineteenth century; rendered bv

Frank Eiscman, Iowa Project. Original in Norwe- 92. FIREMANS BELT, nineteenth century; ren-

gian-Amcrican I listorical Museum, Decorah. 41 dered by Gerald Scalisc, Iowa Project. Original by Webster County 74. , 1891; rendered by Elizabeth owned Historical Society, Fort Dodge. Jordan, Arizona Project. Original privately owned. 42 50 95. FIRE 75. CONESTOGA WAGON, about 1S00; rendered HELMET, about 1890; rendered by Wil- liam by H. Lingdcn Brown, Illinois Project. Original Ling, Wisconsin Project. Original in Ken- osha owned by Chicago Historical Society. 45 County Court House, Wisconsin. 51 94. EIRE 76. RED RIVER OXCART, 1845-1870; rendered by HAT, about 1850-1860, rendered by Samuel Ford, Wilbur M. Rice, Minnesota Project. Original W. Delaware Project. Original privately owned. owned by Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul. 44 51

77. 95. FIRE DRAWKNIFE, 1850-1900; rendered by Max BUCKET, mid-nineteenth century; ren- dered Ecrnckcs, Wisconsin Project. Original in Kenosha by Georgina King, Southern California Court House Historical Room. 44 Project. Original privately owned.

78. 96. BROADAX, 1745; rendered by Paul Polfinlxirgcr, EMBER CARRIER, eighteenth century; rendered by Iowa Project. Original in Davenport Public Mu- Oscar Bluhmc, Illinois Project. Original owned seum. 44 by Chicago Historical Society.

79. ADZE, 1850-1900; rendered 97. C APE by Lloyd C. Lemckc, COD LIGHTER, early nineteenth cen- Wisconsin Project. Original tury; rendered owned by Manitowoc by William Ludwig, Illinois Proj- Historical Society. ect. Original 45 owned by Chicago Historical Society. 52 80. PEAVEY 1850-1900; 98. \\ , rendered by Max Fernekes, ARMING PAN; rendered by Marie Famularo, Wisconsin Project. Original privately owned. 45 New Jersey Project. Original privately owned. 52 81. : PACKSADDLE, nineteenth century; 99. l rendered by OOT WARMER, 1800-1850; rendered by Rob- Robert W. R. Taylor, Southern California ert Gilson, Project. Iowa Project. Original in Davenport Original privately owned. Public Museum. 45 *>> 82. PLOW, mid-eighteenth 100 . century; rendered by John FOOT WARMER, early nineteenth century; ren- 4 borsen, Illinois Project. Original owned by Chi- dcred by Gordon K. Saltar and James M. Lawson cago Historical Society. 45 Delaware Project. Original in Delaware Historic 8T SHARPS Society, RIFLE, nineteenth century; rendered Wilmington. by Clyde L. Cheney, Utah Project. 101 Original pri- . "HESSIAN SOLDIER" ANDIRON, vately owned. late eight- 45 centh century; rendered by Cushman Parker, New H 'ork State JJ'NTED COTTON, 1825-1850; rendered Project. (Name of by owner not on file.) Michael Trekur, New York Ci.y Project Original 6 - privately owned. The Image at the 46 IW

102 . EAGLE HEAD, about 5. Fire 1850; rendered by Helen Gilman, Massachusetts 85. FIRE ENGINE WEATHERVANE, Project. Original in Pea- 1860-1880- •“xly Museum, rendered Salem. by Beverly Chichester, 54 Michigan Proj- 105. CAT HEAD, nineteenth century; rendered by

[ 199 ] Harricttc Gale, Massachusetts Project. Original century; rendered by John Matulis, Connecticut owned by Marblehead Historical Society. 55 Project. Original privately owned. 65 104. BILLE'I HEAD; rendered by Dorothy Hay, 122 . SIGN FROM RED LION INN, 1800-1850; ren- Maine Project. Original in Boat House Museum, dered by Martin Partyka, Connecticut Project Kennebunkport. 56 Original privately owned. 65 105. FIGUREHEAD, “LADY WITH A ROSE,** be- 123. CIGAR-STORE FIGURE, nineteenth century; fore 1814; rendered by Mary E. Humes, Virginia rendered by George Constantine, Massachusetts Project. Original in Mariners* Museum, Newport Project. Original privately owned. 66 News. >b 124. BUNCH OF GRAPES, eighteenth or nineteenth 106. FIGUREHEAD, nineteenth century; rendered by ccniury; rendered by Alice Stearns, Massachu- Elizabeth Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original setts Project. Original privately owned. 66

privately owned. :>/ 125. CIGAR-STORE INDIAN, nineteenth century; 107. SEA SERPENT HEAD, about 1855; rendered by rendered by Robert Pohlc, Rhode Island Project. Hyde, Massachusetts Project. Original Original privately owned. 66 owned by Cape Ann Scientific, Literary and His- 126. BARBER POLE, late nineteenth century; ren- torical Association, Gloucester. dered by Vera Van Voris, California Project. 108. FIGUREHEAD, 1818-1853; rendered by Eliza- Original privately owned. 67 beth Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original in 127. INN SIGN, about 1795; rendered by Sumner Mer- Old State House, Boston. rill, Massachusetts Project. Original in Old State

109. FIGUREHEAD, “JENNY LIND," about 1851; House, Boston. 67 rendered by Mary E. Humes, Virginia Project. 128. CIGAR-STORE INDIAN, late nineteenth cen- Original in Mariners’ Museum, Newport News. 58 tury; rendered by Albert Ryder, Rhode Island

110. FIGUREHEAD, early nineteenth century; ren- Project. (Name of owner not on file.) 67 dered by Constantine, Massachusetts Proj- George 129. IMPORTER’S SIGN, nineteenth century; ren-

ect. Original privately owned. 58 dered by Joseph Goldberg, Massachusetts Project.

111. FIGUREHEAD, early nineteenth century; ren- Original privately owned. 68

dered by Elizabeth Moutal, Maine Project. Orig- 130. SIGN, early nineteenth century; rendered by Alice

inal privately owned. 59 Stearns, Massachusetts Project. Original in Old

112. FIGUREHEAD, “QUAKER," nineteenth cen- State House, Boston. 68

tury; rendered by Elizabeth Moutal, Massachu- 131. LOCKSMITH’S SIGN, 1895; rendered by Joseph

setts Project. Original privately owned. 59 L. Boyd, Louisiana Project. Original privately 68 113. FIGUREHEAD, nineteenth century; rendered by owned. Hcntz, Elizabeth Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original 132. TAVERN FIGURE; rendered by Karl J. 69 in Whaling Museum, New Bedford. 59 Maine Project. Original privately owned. rendered by 114. FIGUREHEAD, “COMMODORE PERRY”; 133. BUTCHER’S SIGN, 1800-1850; Original rendered by Elizabeth Moutal, Massachusetts Laura Bilodeau, Massachusetts Project. Bedford. 69 Project. Original privately owned. 60 in Whaling Museum, New

before 134. CIGAR-STORE FIGURE, nineteenth century; 115. BUST FIGURE, “SOLOMON PIPER." Dorothy Van Dunker, Massachusetts 1854; rendered by Ingrid Sclmcr-Lirscn, Massa- rendered by 69 Original privately owned. chusetts Project. Original in Peabody Museum, Project. 61 Elizabeth Salem. 135. MERCURY, 1750-1800; rendered by Old Hcntz, Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original in PIECE; rendered by Karl J. 116. STERN 70 61 State House, Boston. Maine Project. Original privately owned. century; rendered by century; rendered by 136. SHOP FIGURE, nineteenth 117. NAVIGATOR, nineteenth Massachusetts Project. Original Massachusetts Project. Orig- John W. Kcllchcr, Ingrid Selmer-Larscn, 70 Bedford. 62 privately owned. inal in Whaling Museum, New Hitching Post Indian 8. Wcathcrvane and 7. At the Sign of the Wooden POST, about 1881; ccniury; 137. JOCKEY BOY HITCHING CIGAR-STORE INDIAN, ninctecnih owner 118. (Names of artist and Massachusetts Proj- Rhode Island Project. rendered by Harricttc Gale, 71 63 not on file.) privately owned. ect. Original Lucille 1673; rendered by nineteenth 138. WEATHERVANE, 9 TAVERN SIGN, “TEMPERANCE,” Original in Con- H Chabot, Massachusetts Project. Matulis, Conncd.cut century; rendered by John 71 Free Library. owned. 64 cord Project. Original privately Samuel Fine- 1687; rendered by Donald Dono- 139. NUMERALS, 1750-1800; rendered by Historic.! 120. FELON, Delaware Project. Original in by man. 72 Project. Original owned van, Rhode Island Museum, New Gistle. Providence. 65 Island Historical Society. rendered by Rhode nineteenth century; 140. CROSS, early FROM BLACK HORSE INN, eighteenth 121 . SIGN 2**0 [ ) 80 Original cct. Original privately owned. H. Langdcn Brown, Illinois Project. > ETHAN owned by Chicago Historical Society. / 159. WEAT1 IERVANE, TROTTER ALLEN AND SULKY, about 1871; rendered by CROSS, 1SU6; rendered by Aldous R. Curry, HI. Original Victor F. Muollo, Massachusetts Project. Louisiana Project. Original in Saint Louis Ceme- SO /-> privately owned. tery, New Orleans. 160. LOCOMOTIVE AND TENDER WEATHER- HITCHING POS T, late nineteenth century; ren- H2. Ramage, Original VANE, about 1870; rendered by David dered by Pearl Torell, California Project. /> Michigan Project. Original owned by Edison privately owned. HI Institute of Technology, Dearborn. nineteenth century; rendered by Zabellc 143 . EAGLE, 161. nineteenth cen- Missirian, Massachusetts Project. Original pri- HORSE WEATHERVANE, uirv; rendered by Selma Sandler, New Y ork City vately owned. • 4 Project. Original privately owned. 81 or early nine- 144. WEATHERVANE, late eighteenth Carol Larson, Ohio teenth century; rendered by 9. From Parlor to Pantry Project. Original privately owned. 74 century; ren- 162 . CHALKWARE DEER, nineteenth HITCHING POST, mid-nine- 145. HORSE HEAD dered by Mina Lowry, New York City Project. teenth century; rendered by Elizabeth Fairchild, Original privately owned. 82 New York City Project. Original privately owned. 163. PITCHER, 1862; rendered by Richard Barnett, 146. ANGEL GABRIEL WEATHERVANE, nine- Ohm Project. Original in Ohio Stale Museum. teenth century; rendered by Harriettc Gale, Mas- Columbus. 83 sachusetts Project. Original privately owned. n 164. PAINTING ON VELVET, mid-nineteenth cen- 147. FISH WEATHERVANE; Rhode Island Project. tury; rendered by James FI. C. Vail, Illinois Proj- (Names of artist and owner not on file.) n ect. Original privately owned. 84 148. COCK WEATHERVANE, nineteenth century; 165. PLATE, nineteenth century; rendered by Anna rendered by Selma Sandler, New York City Proj- Aloisi, New York City Project. Original privately ect. Original privately owned. 76 owned. 85 149. WHALE WEATHERVANE, early nineteenth 166. BANDBOX, 1823-1824; rendered by Arsen Mara- century; rendered by Albert Ryder, Rhode Island lian. New York City Project. Original in Cooper Project. Original privately owned. n Union Museum, New York City. 85 150. COCK WEATHERVANE, eighteenth century; 167. STONEWARE INK BOTTLE, mid-nineteenth rendered by Marian Page, Massachusetts Project. century; rendered by Harley Kempter and Sydney Original on steeple of First Church in Cam- Roberts, Iowa Project. Original in Pottawattamie bridge, Congregational. // County Historical Society, Gmncil Bluffs, Iowa. 85 151. DEER, 1S70; rendered by Elisabeth Fulda, New 16S. 1NKW ELL, 1828; rendered by John Tarantino, York City Project. Original privately owned. // New York City Project. Original privately owned. S5 152. WHIRLIGIG, nineteenth century; rendered by 169. PITCHER, nineteenth century; Yolandc DeLasscr, New York City Project. Orig- rendered by Elsie Wcin, York City inal privately owned. 78 New Project. Original privately owned. 85 153. GATE, mid-nineteenth century; rendered by Ed- 170. IANKARD, 1725-1750; ward DiGcnncro, Connecticut Project. Original rendered by Palmyra Pimentel, owned by Mattatuck Historical Society, Water- New York City Project. Original in bury. 78 Metropolitan Museum of Art. 80

154. 171. I l'-A LION'S HEAD, mid-nineteenth century; ren- CADDY, about 1750; rendered by Hester dered Duany, by Edward DiGcnncro, Connecticut Proj- New York City Project. Original in Mu- ect. seum of Original owned by Mattatuck Historical So- the City of New York. 80 ciety, Watcrbury. 79 172 MUG, 1725-1750; rendered by Hester Duany, New 155. CARVED York GRASSHOPPER WEATHER- City Project. Original in Metropolitan Mu- VANE; rendered by seum of Art. Alfred Dcnghauscn, Massa- SO chusetts Project. Original in Wells Historical 173. MUC», 1768; rendered by Hester Duany, Museum, New Soulhbridge. 79 York City Project. Original in Brooklyn Museum. St) 156. COW WEATHERVANE, nineteenth century; 174. TEAPOT, early eighteenth century; rendered by rendered by Beverly Chichester, Michigan Project. Lco ttrozdolT, New Y ork City Project. Original Original owned by Edison Institute of Tcchnol- in Metropolitan Museum of Art. ogy, Dearborn. 87 79 175. WA1ER PH CHER, 157. HORSE nineteenth century; ren- WEATHERVANE. mid-nine.eenth dered by John Matulis, century; Connecticut Project. rendered by Helen Hobart, New York Original m Wadsworth City Project. Athcncum. Hartford. SS Original privately owned. SO 176. JAR 158. WITH LID, early GARDEN nineteenth century; ren- URN, late nineteenth century; ren- dered by Aaron Fastovsky, dered by John New York City Proj- H. Tcrcuzzi, New York City Proj- ect. Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 88 1//. POT 1 ER'i DOG ORNAMENT, mid-nineteenth by Frank Budash, New York City Project. Orig- century; rendered by Clco Lovett. Vermont inal privately owned. 95 Project. Original privately owned. 88 196. CREAM PITCHER, probably 1769-1774; ren- l/N 1859-1861; JUG, rendered by Giacinto Capclli, dered by John Dana, New York City Project. New ^ork City Project. Original owned by New Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 98 ^ork Historical Society. 89 4 19/. PITCHER, nineteenth century; rendered by Bev- 1/9. GRO 1 ESQL E JUG; rendered by George Lough- erly Chichester, Michigan Project. Original in ridge, New York City Project. Original privately Detroit Institute of Arts. % owned. 89 198. MORTAR AND PESTLE, late eighteenth cen- ISO. CROCK, nineteenth century; rendered bv George tury; rendered by Isidore Steinberg, New York Loughridge, York New City Project. Original City Project. Original in Metropolitan Museum privately owned. 89 of Art. 93 181. FLATIRON STAND, nineteenth century; ren- 199. BOWL, 1833-1860; rendered by Beverly Chiches- dered by Ed Bashaw, Iowa Project. Original pri- ter, Michigan Project. Original in Detroit Museum vately owned. 90 of Arts. 98

182. FLAT IRON STAND, nineteenth century; ren- 200. SUGAR BOWL, probably 1769-1774; rendered by

dered by Ed Bashaw, Iowa Project. Original pri- Isidore Steinberg, New York City Project. Orig- vately owned. 91 inal in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 99

183. TRAMMEL, early eighteenth century; rendered 201. FLASK, eighteenth century; rendered by George

by Wellington Blcwett, Illinois Project. Original J. File, Michigan Project. Original in University privately owned. 92 of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. 99

184. CANDLE MOLD, nineteenth century; rendered 202. BOTTLE FOR TOILET WATER, probably by Ed Bashaw, Iowa Project. Original in Public 1769-1774; rendered by John Dana, New York Library, Fort Dodge. 92 City Project. Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 99 185. NORFOLK LATCH, early nineteenth century; rendered by Fritz Boehmer, Ohio Project. Orig- 203. COVERED GOBLET, 1788; rendered by John

inal privately owned. 92 Dana, New York City Project. Original in Metro- politan Museum of Art. 100 186. PAN, latter part eighteenth century; rendered by Nicholas Amantea, New York City Project. 2(H. SALT CELLAR, 1800-1850; rendered by Janet Original privately owned. 93 Riza, New York City Project. Original in Metro- politan Museum of Art. 100 187. TANKARD, probably latter part eighteenth cen- 1S00-1850; by tury; rendered by Hester Dually, New York City 205. NURSING BOTTLE, rendered Original in Project. Original privately owned. 93 Gordon K. Saltar, Delaware Project. Zwaanendael Museum, Lewes, Delaware. 100 188. DOOR LATCH, 1876; rendered by Alexander Anderson, Wisconsin Project. Original in Racine 206. QUART DECANTER, 1800-1850; rendered by County Court House. 93 Van Silvay, New York City Project. Original privately owned. 101 189. STRAINER, early nineteenth century; rendered nineteenth century; ren- by Isidore Danziger, New York City Project. 207. WHISKY FLASK, early Southern California Original privately owned. 93 dered by William Kicckltofcl, privately owned. 101 century; Project. Original 190. DUTCH BAKE OVEN, mid-nineteenth 1860; rendered by Dorothy rendered by Violet Hartcnstcin, Iowa Project. 208. BITTERS BOTTLE, Michigan Project. Original privately Original owned by Pottawattamie County His- Brennan, 102 94 owned. torical Society, Council BIulTs. rendered by John rendered by John 209. FINGER BOWL, 1S00-1»50; 191. TAILOR’S STOVE, 1800-1850; Chi- New York City Project. Original pri- Bodinc, Project. Original owned by Tarantino, 102 94 vatcly owned. cage# Historical Society. 1800-1X50; rendered by Gia- century; rendered 210. CANDLESTICK, 192. TEAKETTLE, mid-nineteenth York City Project. Original Tuccio, New York City Project. Orig- cinto Capclli, New by Amelia 102 of Art. 94 in Metropolitan Museum inal privately owned.

(detail), 1835; rendered by Linen Chest 193. CASWELL CARPET 11. The York City Project. Orig- ren- Charlotte Winter, New APPLIQUE PICTURE, nineteenth century; 95 ’ll Metropolitan Museum of Art. Florida Project. Orig- inal in dered by Carmel Wilson, ^ privately owned. 10. Pitcher and Tumbler inal (detail), eighteenth cen- rendered >12 PETTICOAT BORDER early nineteenth century: 194 PITCHER, Lawrence Peterson Massachu- York City Pro,ect. tury; rendered by Elisabeth Fulda, New Fine Arts. by in Museum of 96 setts Project. Original Original privately owned. ^ rendered Boston. nineteenth century; 195. TUMBLER, early

i nineteenth century; rendered by ; BEDSPREAD, (detail), eighteenth century; - - 213. BED VALANCE Fowler, New ^ork City Project. Orig- Marion Gaylord, Connection Project. Catherine rcndcrcd by ®*9 inal privately owned. Original owned by New Milford Historical 105 KERCI IIEP, nineteenth century; Society. 2K. PRINTED Capaldo, by Dorothy Dwm and Ernest BED CURTAIN (detail), 1745; rendered by Mil- rendered 2H. owned. 119 Gaol New York City Project. Original privately dred Bent, Maine Project. Original in OKI Museum, York. I"0 12. Furniture from Farmhouse rendered by Eleanor Alexander, 215. PURSE, 176-4; and Mansion New Hampshire Project. Original privately century; rendered owned. - *T ARMCHAIR, mid-nineteenth California Proj- century; by Harry M. Waddell. Southern 216. BEDSPREAD (detail), mid eighteenth Arcadia. ect. Original in Pony Express Museum, rendered by Lawrence Peterson, Massachusetts California. Project. Original in Museum of l ine Arts, Boston. 107 245. EMPIRE CHAIR, nineteenth century; rendered 217. BEDSPREAD BORDER (detail), mid-eight- Murphy, Rhode Island Project. Original tenth century; rendered by Helen Gilman, Mas- by Henry 12d sachusetts Project. Original m Museum of Fine privately owned.

Arts, Boston. 107 2 >6. WARDROBE, early eighteenth century; rendered City Project. 218. COVERLET (detail), eighteenth century; ren- by Lorenz Rothkranz, New York dered bv Cornelius ChristolTcls, Southern Cali- Original in Brooklyn Museum. 122 4 I0S fornia Project. Original privately owned. 257. GATE-LEGGED TABLE, late seventeenth cen-

219. COVERLET (detail), 1800-1850; rendered by tury; rendered by Amos C. Brinton, Delaware

Fred Hasscbrock, Florida Project. Original pri- Project. Original privately owned. 122

vately owned. 109 23s. LOWBOY, 171KM75U; rendered by Arthur John- 220. COVERLET, nineteenth century; rendered by son, New York City Project. Original privately Edward White, Pennsylvania Project. Original owned. 123

225. privately owned. 110 259. DESK BOX, early eighteenth century; rendered

221. COVERLET, nineteenth century; rendered by by I larry Eisman, New York City Project. Orig-

Charlotte Winter, New York City Project. Orig- inal in Brooklyn Museum. 123

inal privately owned. 1 1 1 240 HARTFORD CHEST, late seventeenth century; 222. COVERLET (detail), about 1850; rendered by rendered by Harold Merriam, Connecticut Proj-

Cornelius ChristolTcls, Southern California Proj- ect. Original in Yale University Art Gallery, New ect. Original privately owned. 112 Haven. 124

COVERLET (detail), about 1819; rendered bv 241. WING CHAIR, early eighteenth century; ren- Girnelius ChristofTels, Southern California Proj- dered by Rolland Livingstone, New York City ect. Original privately owned. 112 Project. Original in Metro|x>litan Museum of Art. 125 224. COVERLET (detail), about 1850; by rendered 242. HIGHBOY, 1700-1750; rendered by Leonard Bat- Girnelius ChristofTels, Southern California Proj- tcc, Maryland Project. Original privately owned. 126 ect. Original privately owned. 112 ^ \\ INDSOR CHAIR, mid-eighteenth century; 225. COVERLET, about 1817; rendered by Ruth M. rendered by Rolland Livingstone, New York City Barnes, Southern California Project. Original in Project. Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 127 Los Angeles County Museum. 112 ^ SIDE CHAIR, about 1765; rendered by Bernard 226. 1 ABLECLOT H, nineteenth century; rendered Gussow, New York City Project. Original j>ri- by Paul Ward, New Jersey Project. Original pri- vatcly owned. 127 vately owned. in BLOCK-FRON 1 DESK, 1769; rendered by 227. QUILT, 1853; rendered by Edith M. Magnetic, Ferdinand Cartier, New York City Project. New Jersey Project. Original privately owned. 114 Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 12S 228. QUILT, 1800-1850; rendered by Edith M. Mag- 246. ( HAIR, early nineteenth century; rendered bv nettc, New Jersey Project. Original privately Charles Henning, New York City Project. Orig- owned. ' m inal in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 12S 229. QUILT, 1800-1850; rendered by Catherine Fow- 247. SETTEE, 1/57-1761); rendered by Rolland Icr, New 't ork Liv- City Project. Original in Brooklyn ingstone, New York Museum. City Project. Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. m APPLIQUE BEDSPREAD; rendered by Arlene 248. ARMCHAIR, Perkins and early nineteenth century; rendered Charlotte Winter, New York City by M. Roscnshicld-von-Pmlin, Project. Original privately New York City owned. 117 Project. Original in 231 Metropolitan Museum of Art. 129 (detail), early nineteenth century; ren- 249 S0FA dered rABLE » car by Maud . *y nineteenth century; M. Holme, Florida Project. Orig- ren- dered by inal privately Francis Borelli, New owned. us York City Project. Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 129 [*> 3 ] 250. CHEST OF DRAWERS, 1796-1S03; rendered bv New ^ ork City Project. Original privately owned. 137 Ferdinand Cartier, New York City Project. Orig- 270. POODLE DOG, 1850-1900; rendered inal privately owned. by Selma Sandler, New York City Project. Original privately 231. SIDE CHAIR, 1S29-1S43; rendered bv Lawrence owned. ] 37 Flynn, Connecticut Project. Origin.il privately 271. DECOY, mid-nineteenth owned. century; rendered by Selma Sandler, New York City Project. Original 252. SIDE CHAIR, nineteenth century; rendered bv privately owned. I 37 Lchh Nelson, Iowa Project. Original privately 271 HEAD, nineteenth century; rendered by Corne- owned. 130 lius ChristolTels, Southern California Project. 253. SHAVING STAND. 1S0U-1S50; rendered by Original in Pony Express Museum, Arcadia. 138 William H. Edwards, Delaware Project. Original 273. DECOY, nineteenth century; rendered by Sam- privately owned. 130 uel W. Ford, Delaware Project. Original pri- 254. \\ ALL CLOCK, 1800-1850; rendered bv Ernest vately owned. 139 Busenbark, New York City Project. Original pri- 274. HORSE: rendered by Adele Brooks, Missouri vately owned. 131 Project. Original privately owned. 139 255. SHELF CLOCK, 1800—1850; rendered by M. 275. “LOG HAULING,’ nineteenth century; rendered Rosenshield-von-Paulin, New York City Project. by Claude Marshall, Iowa Project. Original in Original in Metropolitan Museum of Art. 131 Norwcgian-Amcrican Historical Museum, De- 256. ARMCHAIR, about 1844-1865; rendered by Elis- corah. 140 abeth Fulda, New York City Project. Original 276. “WHALING SCENE," nineteenth century; ren- privately owned. 131 dered by Carl Strchlau, Pennsylvania Project. 257. FOUR-POSTER BED, 1842: rendered by Peter Original privately owned. 140 C. Ustinoff, Texas Project. Original owned bv 277. CHARGING BUFFALO, 1850-1900; rendered Baylor University, Waco. 132 by Robert Gilson, Iowa Project. Original in Nor- 258. ARMCHAIR, 1800—1850; rendered bv Dorothy wcgian-Amcrican Historical Museum, Decorah. 141 E. Johnson, Texas Project. Original privately 278. OXEN AND CART, nineteenth century; ren- owned. 132 dered by Eugene Bartz, Wisconsin Project. Orig-

259. CHAIR, 1846-1850: rendered by Rafacla Gomez. inal privately owned. 141 Texas Project. Original privately owned. 132 279. “CYCLE OF LIFE,” 1834; rendered by Aldous 260. CHEST, probably about 1860; rendered by Esther R. Curry, Louisiana Project. Original in Louisiana Molina, Texas Project. Original privately owned. 132 State Museum, New Orleans. 142

261. about 1860; rendered by Paul SEAT TABLE, 14. Playthings Poffinb.irgcr, Iowa Project. Original privately 280. ROCKING HORSE, nineteenth century; ren- owned. 133 dered by Helen Gilman, Massachusetts Project. 262. LADDER-BACK CHAIR, mid-nineteenth cen- Original in Wells Historical Museum, South- tury; rendered by Annie B. Johnston, Florida bridge. Project. Original in Florida State Museum, Gaines- rendered by 281. DOLL, "CAMELA," about 1855; ville. 133 Eugene Croc, Michigan Project. Original privately CHAIR, nineteenth century; ren- 263. ROCKING owned. dered by Leroy Griffith, Iowa Project. Original about 1886; ren- 282. DOLL, “MOLL1E BENTLEY," privately owned. 133 Towner, dered by Josephine Roman and Edith eighteenth century; rendered by privately 264. BIBLE BOX, Southern California Project. Original 144 Alfred Kochn, Illinois Project. Original privately owned. 133 owned. rendered by Robert Clark, 283. TRAIN, patented 1880; nineteenth century; owned. 145 265. CORNER CUPBOARD, Illinois Project. Original privately rendered by Gladys M. Guillaudcu, Texas Project. Mina Lowry, New 284. TOP. 1800-1850; rendered by Original privately owned. 133 of the City York City Project. Original in Museum 145 Leslie Macklcm, 266. CUPBOARD; rendered by J. of New York. Delaware Project. Original privately owned. 134 STAGECOACH, rendered by 285. MODEL FOR A Project. Original in Carving Lucille Chabot, Massachusetts 13. Whittling and Wood 145 Southbridge. Wells Historical Museum, Alice Domey. 267. EAGLE, 1850-1900; rendered by DOLL, about 18S0; rendered by Original in Wells Histor- 286. CORNHUSK Massachusetts Project. by Project. Original owned 135 Albert Rudin, Illinois ical Museum, Southbridge. 146 icago Historical Society. rendered by Aldous R. 268 CHICKEN, 1800-1825; by Char- (AKER DOLL, about 1S65; rendered Louisiana Project. Original privately Curry, jeer. Original » 136 c Angus, Pennsylvania ^ owned. 146 rendered by Hester Duany. 269. EAGLE, 1850-1900; 1 5

lv) Original privately owned. about 1830; rendered by Frances 2SS. RAG DOLL, 1SS7-1SS9; rendered by- Project. Original in Phila- 3u7. CIRCUS WAGON, Lichten, Pennsylvania 140 Weld, Connecticut Project. Original delphia Museum of Art. Howard SKATES, mid nineteenth century; privately owned. 2s»). ROLLER century; Project. Ord- S. ROOSTER, nineteenth rendered by Albert Rudm. Illinois 30 CARROUSEL Project. Historical Society. 147 rendered by Howard Weld, Connecticut inal owned by Chicago privately owned. w nineteenth century; rendered by Original 290. HOBBY GOAT, Original about 1884; rendered by Laura Henrietta S. Hukill, Delaware Project. W. BEAR S HEAD, Project. Original pri- privately owned. Bilodeau, Massachusetts Tomaszewski. Rhode vately owned. 201. DOLL; rendered by Henry nineteenth century; ren- Island Project. Original in South County Museum. >10. CARROUSEL HORSE, Project. North Kingston. H/ dered by Henry Murphy, Rhode Island Original privately owned. 1^ >92. MECHANICAL TOY BANK, ‘SPEAKING Kath- DOG/’ patented 1885; rendered by Edward L. ill. SEATED LION, about 1900; rendered by Loper, Delaware Project. Original privately arine Merrill, Florida Project. Original privately owned. HS owned. 1^

293. MECHANICAL TOY BANK. -TEDD* AND 312. CARROUSEL GIRAFFE, about 1888; rendered THE BEAR’*; rendered by Pearl Torell, Cali by Henry Tomaszcwski, Rhode Island Project. s fornia Project. Original privately owned. H Original privately owned. 159

294. LOCOMOTIVE, nineteenth century; rendered by 16. Gadgets and Mechanical Devices Charles Henning, New York City Project. Orig- 313. APPLE PEELER, eighteenth or nineteenth cen- inal privately owned. w tury; rendered by Henrietta S. Hukill, Delaware 295. TOY HORSE, nineteenth century; rendered by Project. Original privately owned. 160 Mina Lowry, New York City Project. Original 514. SCALES, nineteenth century; rendered by Rob- privately owned. H9 ert W. R. Taylor, Southern California Project. 296. KNITTED DOLL, nineteenth century; rendered Original in Pony Express Museum, Arcadia. 160 by Verna Tollman, California Project. Original 515. COFFEE MILL, late eighteenth century; ren- privately owned. 149 dered by Nicholas Amantea, New York City 297. HARLEQUIN DANCING FIGURE, about Project. Original privately owned. 162 1800; rendered by Mina Lowry, New York City 510. CHERRY STONER, nineteenth century; ren- Project. Original in New York Historical Society. 149 dered by George C. Brown, Iowa Project. Orig- 298. MARIONETTE, “SIMON LEG REE,” nine- inal privately owned. 162 teenth century; rendered by Hilda Olson, Cali- 517. 1850-1900; fornia Project. Original privately owned. ISO CLOTHES WRINGER, rendered by Herndon Hightower, Iowa Project. Original in 299. HAND PUPPET, “PUNCH,” about 1870; ren- Davenport Public Museum. 1<*2 dered by Edward Strazalkowski, Michigan Proj- 518. ect. Original privately owned. 150 STAMP CANCELING MACHINE, nineteenth century; rendered by Samuel Fineman, Delaware 300. BLACK MAMMY DOLL, nineteenth century; Project. Original privately owned. 1<>> rendered by Jacob Giclcns, Wisconsin Project. 519. FLY Original in Milwaukee Public Museum. 151 CATCHER, patented 1856; rendered by

Frank McEntcc, Illinois Project. Original pri- 15. Circuses and Carrousels vately owned. 301. CARROUSEL HORSE, 18S5-1890; rendered by 320. BOO I JACK, nineteenth century; rendered by Al- Albert Ryder, Rhode Island Project. Original pri- bert Gcuppcrt, Wisconsin Project. Original in vately owned. 152 Giurt House, Kenosha, Wisconsin. 1 (»> 302. DANCING GIRL, about 1900; rendered by xll. PEPPER MILL, nineteenth century; rendered by Katharine Merrill, Florida Project. Original pri- Daniel Grant, J. Delaware Project. Original pri- vately owned. 15 ; vately owned. j (v j 303. FIGURE, 1880-1903; rendered by John Matulis, 522. SEWING MACHINE, patented 1857; rendered Connecticut Project. Original privately owned. 154 by Harold Oldfield, Iowa Project. Original in 304. LION ' HEAD, about 1890; rendered by Clayton Davenport Public Museum. Clement, Missouri Project. Original privately >23. ' MARINERS COMPASS, owned. about 1870; rendered bv Lloyd C. Lcmckc, Wisconsin Project. Original 305. ORNAMENTAL HEAD, about 1890; rendered owned by ' Manitowoc Historical Society. by It , Harry King, Missouri Project. Original pri- '24. POLIC E RATTLE, vately owned. nineteenth century; ren- 155 dered by Ray Price, Louisiana 306. FIGURE, Project. Original “MEDIEVAL LADY,” about 1890; privately owned. rendered by John Matulis, Connecticut Project. 325. STATIC ELECTRIC GENERATOR, cight-

°5 tenth century; rendered by Cirl Buergerniss, New torical Society. 174 Jersey Project. Original in Haddonficld Historical 343. WHALE-OIL LAMP, nineteenth century; ren- Society, Haddonficld, New Jersey. 166 dered by William Frank, Wisconsin Project. Orig- 326. GRAMOPHONE, 1887; rendered by Charles inal in Milwaukee Public Museum. 174 Bowman, Maryland Project. Original in Municipal 344. SMALL WHALE-OIL LAMP, 1800-1850; Museum of ren- the City of Baltimore. 16 ; dered by John Dana, New York City Project. a27. ICE CREAM FREEZER, about 1860; rendered Original in Brooklyn Museum. 175 H. Edwards. Delaware . Project. 345. LARD OIL LAMP, nineteenth century; rendered Original privately owned. 167 by Francis L. Durand, New Jersey Project. Orig- 17. Rushlight to Kerosene Lamp inal privately owned. 175 346. CAMPHENE LAMP, 1830-1859; rendered 32S. RUSH AND CANDLE HOLDER, eighteenth by Paul Ward, New Jersey Project. Original in New- century; rendered by Jack Staloff, New York City ark Museum. Project. Original privately owned. 16S 175

( 32 >. KEROSENE LAMP, late nineteenth century; 18. A Century of Costume rendered by Paul Ward, New Jersey Project. 347. DRESS, about 1770; rendered by Julie C. Brush, Original in Newark Museum. 168 New Jersey Project. Original privately owned. 176 330. ERN, eighteenth LAN! to nineteenth century; 348. WOMANS SHOES, about 1758; rendered by rendered by Oscar Bluhmc, Illinois Project. Orig- Marie Alain, Maryland Project. Original privately inal owned Historical by Chicago Society. 170 owned. 177

331. BETTY LAMP, early nineteenth century; ren- 349. DRESS, 1750-1760; rendered by Jean Peszel, New

dered by Maurice Van Felix, New York City York City Project. Original in Museum of the Project. Original privately owned. 170 City of New York. 178

332. SLUT* LAMP, early type; rendered by Jacob Lip- 350. GIRL'S DRESS, 1830-1840; rendered by Nancy kin, New York City Project. Original privately Crimi, New York City Project. Original in owned. 170 Brooklyn Museum. 179

333. SCONCE, eighteenth century; rendered by 351. TAFFETA BONNET, mid-nineteenth century; rendered Isabelle York State Amelia Tuccio, New York City Project. Original by dc Strange, New Project. Original privately 179 privately owned. 171 owned.

352. SLIPPER, about 1812; rendered by Dor- 334. CANDLESTICK, nineteenth century; rendered LADY'S othy Dwin, New York City Project. Original in by Fritz Bochmcr, Ohio Project. Original pri- Museum of Costume Art. 179 vately owned. 171 353. DRESS, about 1840; rendered by Julie C. Brush, 335. CANDLESTICK, SNUFFER AND WICK New Jersey Project. Original privately owned. ISO T RIMMER, nineteenth century; rendered by Mil- Hester Duany, ton Bevier, Illinois Project. Original privately 354. COMB, about 1840; rendered by privately owned. 180 owned. 171 New York City Project. Original nineteenth century; rendered by 336. "IPSWICH" BETTY LAMP, eighteenth to nine- 355. EARRING, York City Project. teenth century; rendered by Claude Marshall, Frank Fumagalli, New owned. 180 Iowa Project. Original in Public Library, Fort Original privately by Corne- Dodge. 172 356. COIN PURSE, about 1850; rendered Project. lius ChristofTcIs, Southern California 337. BETTY LAMP AND STAND, mid-eighteenth 181 Original in Los Angeles County Museum. century; rendered by Oscar Bluhmc, Illinois Proj- 1844; rendered by Virginic ect. Original in Museum of Science and Industry, 357. LADY’S SLIPPER, City Project. Original in Mu- Chicago. 172 Berge, New York 181 seum of the City of New York. 338. WHALE-OIL LAMP, nineteenth century; ren- rendered by Ray Price, Louisiana dered by Leroy Griffith, Iowa Project. Original in 358. DRESS, 1845; 181 privately owned. Davenport Public Museum. 173 Project. Original 1880; rendered by rendered 359. WOMAN’S WRAPPER, about 339. LAMP, late eighteenth century; BETTY privately Scalisc, Iowa Project. Original Kudin, Illinois Project. Original owned Gerald by Albert 182 owned. by Chicago Historical Society. 173 1892; rendered by Wilford H. rendered by 360. SUNHONNET, 340. ELECTION TORCH, about I860; owned, 1U Project. Original privately privately ShurililT, Utah Iv.ir Julius, Illinois Project. Original nineteenth century; ren- owned. 173 361. MAN'S SHOE, early Project. Rose C. Gerke, California century; ren- dered by 341. CARRIAGE LAMP, nineteenth ^ privately owned. Original Original dered by Stanley Mazur, Illinois Project. 1885-1895; rendered by Dan- 174 WOMAN'S SHOE, owned by Chicago Historical Society. 362. Project. Or.gmai Marshack, New York City Charles Cascau, New iel 183 342. LAMP, 185?; rendered by owned. York His- privately York City Project. Original in New [206] CLOG, eighteenth century; rendered by H.irry 371. SIGN FOR RICHARD ANGLLL'S TAVERN, 1*3 MiS; nulls, Connecticut Proj- Grossen, Illinois Project. Original privately owned. 1 rendered by John M

ect. Original privately owned. 1*9 j(d. SEALSKIN CAP, about 1850; rendered by Dana

Bartlett, Southern California Project. Original 372. GEORGE WASHINGTON, early nineteenth

privately owned. IN' century; rendered by Jane Iverson, Massachusetts Essex Institute, Salem. P'9 b\ Project. Original in 365. TWO-PIECE DRESS, about 1895; rendered Winifred Gibbes, New York City Project. Orig- 573. EAGLE, late nineteenth century; rendered by

inal privately owned. 183 Elizabeth Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original privately owned. 191 366. WOMAN’S GYMNASIUM SUIT, 1895; ren- dered by Daniel Marshack, New York City Proj- 574. HEADBOARD OF A BED, 1810; rendered by

ect. Original in Brooklyn Museum. 184 James M. Lawson and Gordon Saltar, Delaware

Project. Original privately owned. I'd 19 . Symbols of a Nation 575. SIGN FOR THE BISSELL TAVERN, 1777; 367. WALL PAINTING (detail), 1772-1779; ren- rendered by Alfred Parys, Connecticut Project. dered by Michael Lauretano, Connecticut Project. Original privately owned. 192 Original privately owned. 1*5 576. JUSTICE, about 1800; rendered by Elizabeth 36S. SHIP'S ORNAMENT, late nineteenth century; Moutal, Massachusetts Project. Original owned rendered by Elizabeth Moutal. Original privately- by Worcester Historical Society. 195 owned. 186 577. EAGLE ON A CANNON, early nineteenth cen- 369. COVERLET (detail), 1853; rendered by Arthur tury; rendered by Hazel Hyde, Massachusetts G. Mcrklcy, New York State Project. Original Project. Original privately owned. 194 privately owned. 1S7 57S. CIVIL WAR DRUM, about I860; rendered bv 570. "ANDREW JACKSON,” FIGUREHEAD, # Wavnc White, Illinois Project. Chicago Historical about 1834; rendered by Elizabeth Fairchild, New Society. 195 York City Project. Original in Marine Museum of 4 the City of New York. 188

SUBJECT LIST

This list cover* the entire collection ol water color rendering* .uul photograph* in

(he Index ol American Design it the National (>allery ol Art. The illustration* reproduced hi this volume represent a selection ol the renderings.

A bark |K.eler> barometers accordions barrels advertisements ol branding irons basins: sec also lonts basket*: met. bee, bread, cake, cap, clothespin, Iruit, key. market, atghans immature, sewing, traveling

AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT: see beehives, bells, carts, basques combs, corn jobbers and planters, cradles, cultivators, bar bathtubs rows, hayforks, IMPLEMENTS, nose pieces lor weaning work

calves, ox stocks, plows, jKitato planters, snubbers for bulls, beakers

yokes beds: inel. day, double, folding, lour jvstcr, three quarter. altarpicccs trundle altars beehives

Amana, Iowa bell jars anchor links and trip hooks bellows anchors bells: inel. church, cow, dinner, door, locomotive, sheep, ship, andirons sleigh, streetcar, wagon. See also chimes animals: me!, carrousel, circus wagon, figurine. garden, toy belts: inel. firemen’s apple peelers benches: inel. carpenter s, church, dough trough, garden, jew aprons tier's, saddler s, shoemaker's, tailor's, wagon, woodcarvcr’s arches bibs ARCHI I EC 1 URAL DECORATION: see arches, balconies, bicycles balustrades, banisters, brackets, bricks, buildings, capitals, bille (heads conductor heads, corbels, cornices, cresting, doors, doorways, bird cages

downspouts, drain tiles, lences, finials, fireplaces, gargoyles, birds: see also eagles, TOYS gateposts, gates, gratings, grilles, keystones, lintels, lunettes, biscuit hoards mantels, newel posts, niches, panels, park shelters, pillars. Bishop I hll, Illinois RELIGIOUS ARTICLES, sills, snow breakers, spandrels, blacksmith's equipment: inel. bellows, flatters, , hot staircases, transoms, windows cutters, knives, ARMS markers, measuring wheels, punches, tongs AND ARMOR: see army kits, bags, breast plates, bullet blankets: see also afghans, coverlets, quilts molds, bullet pouches, bullets, burgonets. canteens, cross- blouses vvs. daggers, drums, guns, holsters, insignia, patch boxes, bodices pistols, powder flasks and horns, racks, revolvers, rilles. sabers, boleros scabbards, swords, tomahawks bologna st offers army kits bolts asparagus bunchcrs bone augers bonnets: see also hats, hoods, snoods, veils axes: inel. firemen's Book covers and markers bcK»kcascs B books: inel. music boot forms Ivootccs bootjacks j>ap: inel. ammunition, mail, money, saddle balconies boots bottle ballot boxes corkers hollies: balustrades w,L barber's, liquor, medicine nurxing. toilet bandboxes boundary markers bandwagons: bouquet holders see al,o carrousels, circus animals banisters bow pieces banjos *»*• banknotes «•*». *** banks (toy) lx»xec: wd. Kami. KiKIr. bootjack. bread, bride's, hul.er e barber poles mdle baritone horns

[200] in-, shadow, silverware, snutf, spice, strawberry, strong. sugar, mals tea, tinder, tobacco, toilet, tool, trinket cartouches brace bits carts: incl. ox bracelets carving: incl. bone, stone, wood brackets: incl. architectural, draper), lamp, mirror, shell cascarons brailing pins (lumberman’s) eases: incl. card, cartridge, comb, document, dressing, branding irons: see also advertisements of branding irons needle, lancet, match, needle, portrait, brands sewing, spectacle, thimble, watch braziers cash registers breast plates casks bricks casters bridles ceiling decorations brisdc removers celery holders broilers cellarets brooches ceramics: incl. bow ware, china, earthenware, lustcnvarc, ma- brooms jolica, Parian ware, porcelain, redware, sgraffito, slip decora- brush cutters tion, stoneware, whitcwarc brushes certificates: incl. baptismal, birth, christening, discharge, mar- buckboards riage buckets: incl. fire chains buckles: incl. belt, knee, shoe chair scats buggies: incl. doll chairs: incl. arm, barber, billiard, camp, children’s, church, com- buildings: incl. barns, churches, dormitories, elevated stations, mode, corner, dental, folding, garden, high, ox-cart, rocking,

exteriors, houses, interiors, laundries, refectories sewing, side, swivel, wing, writing built-in furniture chalices bullet molds chalkware bullet pouches chandeliers bullets chaps bureaus chatelaines burgoncts cheese draining boards bustles cheese presses butler’s tables chemises butter boxes and dishes chest protectors incl. blanket, medicine, money, sea, sugar, wine butter firkins arid tubs chests: chests of drawers butter molds chcsts-on-chests butter paddles, scoops and workers chimes: see also bells buttonhole cutters china closets buttonhooks chisels buttons olatc pots C •pers: incl. meat tening caps and robes

ns cabinets: incl. egg. medicine • presses caddies: incl. tea • lighters calendars -store figures car- banners also bandwagons, campaign ^animals, figures and wagons. See machines canceling uscls candelabra jacks and sconces p candle holders, pendants and molds candle makers rs candlestick drapery candlesticks sticks canes: see also walking wall. thin,' hour. marine, shelf, steeple, tall, canisters incl. banjo, cans canteens dogs wringers Cape Cod lighters clothes dolmans clothespins capes: see also coaches capitals coal scuttles carafes coasters card holders coats carpet stretchers coats of arms ctbagi and roasters coffee grinders horse-drawn baby. do", coffeepots Ig„. incl. colanders 2SS- - - " circus ani- DECORATION AND ORNAMENT: see animals, AR( HI collars backdrops, bell |ars, birds, *>•'* TECITKAL DECORATION, ior lbs. hows. i'o|.lc. comln : cartouches, book covers and markers, candlestick drapery, commode lorms decorations, coals ot arms, COS I L ME, dnp>. wrvcyur > cjscaroiis. ceiling compjsics: met. dry c.ird, hand. daguerreotypes, eagles, embroidery, figures, figurines, I' I RE- compotes hra^itn, frames, nspouts. ram -utter stirrups PLACE EQUIPMENT, fish, fountains, conductor heads: ice also dow , numerals, lace, masks, mosaics, mourning confessionals paintings, panels, pictures, plaques, relicts. KELKdOl S convict boots ARTICLES, scrimshaw, seals, ship models, SHIPS DECO- cookie cutters signs, stove plates and urns, 1 EX 1 ILLS, tiles, corbels RAHON, paintings, wallpaper, wcathervanes, whirligigs, witch cork compressors wall balls, wreaths corn jobbers and planters cornices decoys corsets dtmt|ohns COSTUME: see aprons, ARMS AND ARMOR, babies cloth- desks: incl. accounting, lap. school, w riling bools, ing, basques, belts, blouses, bodices, boleros, bonnets, dies bouquet holders, buckles, bustles, buttons, capes, chemises, chest dippers

protectors, cloaks, clogs, coats, collars, combs, corsets, cravats, dishes: incl. alms, pickle

culls, dolls’, dolmans, drawers, dresses, dressing gowns, eye- documents: see also certificates

glasses, tans, hchus, gaiters, garters, gloves, gymnasium suits, doilies

hair ornaments, handbags, handkerchiefs, hats, hoods, hoops, doll carriages, clothes and furniture

jackets, JEWELRY, mantillas, mittens, milts, mulls, ncckcr dolls: incl. children's, lashion. witchcraft

chiefs, neckties, nightcaps, nightgowns, pantalets, pants, dolmans: see jIso capes

parasols, pattens, pelisses, petticoats, pockctbooks. pockets, door handles

reticules, riding habits, sabots, scarves, shawls, shirts, shoes, door knockers

skirts, slippers, snoods, spats, stockings, stocks, suits, sus- doors

penders, tippets, trains, trousers, uniforms, veils, vestments, doorstops vests, waistcoats, waists, wallets, wrappers doorways coverlets dough bins, mixers and troughs cradles: incl. babies’, grain cutters cranberry pickers downs|M>u(s: see also conductor heads, rain gutter stirrups cravats drain tiles creamers draperies: See also curtain tassels, curtains, tiebacks cresting drawer pulls crimpers for pastry drawers (underwear) crocks: see also jars crossbows dressers crosses dresses crowns dressing gowns crucifixes dressing tables cruets cull links drums culls dulcimers cultivators dumb irons cup holders Dutch ovens cup plates

cupboards: incl. corner, court, press, wall. See also cabinets, E wardrobes cups: incl. caudle, communion, egg. invalid’s, loving, mustache. eagles spot, wetting earrings curb bits Economites (Pennsylvania) curtain tassels: see also curtains, draperies, tiebacks egg beaters, boilers and roasters curtains: /re also curtain tassels, draperies, tiebacks election posters cushions electric generators cuspidor holders elevated cuspidors stations ember carriers cutlery kits embroidery: incl. crewel, «mcrs: /»«•/. brush, cross-stitch, eyelet, featherstitch, cabbage, cookie, dowel, shingle, needle sugar, point. See also chair scats thread or screw, tobacco epaulettes ewers eye shades Aggers eyeglasses daguerreotypes dashers F deadeyes

decanters fans

deck eyes AGR,cu, -TURAI. equipment ”

fichus boards, desks, dolls', dressers, fifes footstools, FURNISHINGS highboys, love scats, lowboys, mirrors, figureheads ottomans, secretaries’ settees, settles, shelves, sideboards, smoking figures: incl. lounges, sofas,’ allegorical, cigar-store, circus, classical, figurines, stands, stools, tables, tailorcsscs’ counters, garden, historical, wardrobes,’ wash- hitching post, merry-go-round, military, stands, window scats religious, shop, tavern figurines G files filters gaiters finger bowls gangboards fi nials garden designs: see also LANDSCAPE GARDENING lire engines garden furniture and ornaments: see also LANDSCAPE FIRE 1 incl. EXTINCTION : extinguishers, helmets, hydrants, GARDENING trumpets. See also axes, belts, buckets, fire engines, fire marks, gargoyles hats, hose holders and reels, pumps, shirts, torches garters fire marks gateposts FIREPLACE EQUIPMENT: incl. fire grate covers, firebacks, gates fireplace fenders and grates, fireplace sets, fire screens. See also gauges andirons, bellows. Cape Cod lighters, coal scuttles, ember gavels carriers, fireplaces, jacks, kettle rings and tillers, pokers, pole gesso screens, , spits, tongs, trammels gilding fireplaces glass: incl. free-blown, mold blown, pressed; Amclung, Sand- first-aid kits (lumberman's) wich, South Jersey, Stiegel, etc. fish glasses fish net menders globes fish spears gloves flagons: incl. communion goblets flags grain cradles and scoops flails Gramophones flambeau: see also torches grape crushers flasks graters: incl. nutmeg flatiron stands gratings flatirons grave markers: see also tombs, tombstones flint strikers gravy boats flour bins and sifters griddlecakc turners flower pots and stands griddles gridirons flowers grilles flutes flycatchers grills grinders: incl. cofTec, meat, potato, sausage, spice fonts: incl. baptismal, holy-water guns foot baths and tubs gymnasium suits foot scrapers footstools forceps (dental)

hay, pitch, table s forks: incl. pins, ribbons, wreat hair ornaments: incl. brooches, combs, fountains: incl. drinking, garden halyard bands and blocks Vraktur hammers: incl. blacksmith’s incl. mirror, picture frames: handbags frows handcuffs presses and slicers fruit handholds (for horse racing) cases blankets, calendars, handkerchief FURNISHINGS: see afghans, bird cages, clocks, coverlets curia, nm- carpets, chair scats clevises, card holders, see bolts, brackets, cuspidors, DECORA HARDWARE: cushions, cuspidor holders, drawer pulls, eck curtains, door handles, door knockers, ‘"gj' doorstops, drapcr.es figurines. kf.,, ORNAMENT, IMPLEMENT , O TION AND hooks, hound's bands, pjrcORA- pots EQUIPMENT, flower gutter stirrups, S FIREPLACE locks, nails, rain «se,.HOUSEH^^ latches, uh $ handkerchief ^ shutter fasteners, P frames. FURNITURE, TION AND EQUIPMENT, MUSICAL IN- harp pianos fTSC'Sa harps harrows hasps

s *a hatboxes racks. r "« - ' towels, urns. T l ,,, FWARE, ticbacks, . veils ind hoods., kcsh.ivcs, stretchers hide extractors, turpentine sugar industry, tar |>ots, longs, tooth highboys wrenches dip irons, tweezers, wire nuking machines, hinges inhalers hitching posts inkst.uuls and inkwells hobbles insignia hobby horses plastering, lor solder- irons: mil. curling, flat, fluting, wafer; lor hoes ing holsters ironwork hoods: see jIso bonnets, hats, snoods, veils hooks: mil. anchor trip, apple, bucket, button, ceiling, grappling.

log loading, meat, pot, rug. sled starting, weaving I hoops horse collars jackets horseshoes lacks: met. , clock, w agon hose holders and reels japjimcd tin hound's bands (tor wagons) jars: iml. honey, slop, tobacco. See also crocks HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT: see apple peelers, barometers, IEWELRY: see bracelets, brooches, buckles, chains, chatelaines,

barrels, basins, baskets, bathtubs, beakers, bells, biscuit boards, crosses, cull links, earrings, lockets, necklaces, pins, rings,

bootjacks, bottles, bowls, boxes, bra/icrs, broilers, brooms, watch chains, w atches

brushes, buckets, butter boxes and molds, caddies, canistc rs. cans, fugs

carafes, cases, casks, cheese draining boards, choppers, churns, clothes wringers, clothespins, coasters, codec grinders and K roasters, coffeepots, colanders, compotes, cookie cutters,

crimpers for pastry, crocks, cup holders, cups, cutlers kits, kegs dashers, DECORATION AND ORNAMENT, demijohns, keno dippers, dough bins, Dutch ovens, egg beaters, ewers, biters. kettle rings and tiltcrs

FIREPLACE EQUIPMENT, flatiron stands, flatirons, flint kettles strikers, flour bins sifters, foot baths, foot and scrapers, fruit keyhole plates slicers, funnels, FURNISHINGS, FURNITURE, grape keys crushers, graters, griddlccakc turners, griddles, gridirons, keystones grills, grinders, ice cream freezers, IMPLEMENTS, inhalers, knapsacks irons, jars, jugs, kegs, kettles, ladles, lavabos. lids. LIGHT- knife sharpeners ING DEVICES, mangles, mashers, match holders, measuring knitting needle holders utensils, MECHANICAL DEVICES, molds, mortars and knitting shields pestles, muffin pans, mugs, nutcrackers, ovens, pails, pan knives: mcl. blacksmith's sliders, pans, pastry squeezers, pic markers, piggins, pitchers, pitters, pojKorn poppers, pots, presses, roach traps, rolling L pins, rug beaters, salvers, saucepans, sauerkraut stomjKrs,

sausage stuffers, , scouring boards. SEWING EQUIP- lace MENT, skewers, skillets, skimmers, spatulas, spiders, SPIN ladles NING EQUIPMENT, springcrlc boards, sto\c lid lifters, lamp shades strainers, sugar chests and tubs, TABLEWARE, tankards, lamps: incl. Argand, astral, Betty, baker's oven, bull's-eye, teakettles, teapots, thermometers, tinderhoxes, toasters, Toby hunker, camp, camphcnc, candle, carriage, garden, grease, jugs, trivets, tubs, wafer irons, waffle irons, warmers, wash- hurricane, kerosene, miner's, peg. petticoat, boards, sinumhra. spark, washing machines, water coolers and heaters, water- spirit, spout, street, student, wall, whale ing oil. See also LIGHT- cans ING DEVICES humidors lancets hurricane shades LANDSCAPE GARDENING: animals, fences, figures, fountains, FURNITURE, garden designs, sundials, urns, I water nozzles lanterns: incl. candle, hotel, kerosene, Paul Revere, policemans, ice-cream freezers railroad, ship, street IM ENTS: Mfvt ad7es> agricultural equii lasts (shoe) NT’ as ara UJ P K Punchers, augers, axes, bark peelers, b latches , n s,u rs "* > bottle corkers, . ? brace bits, brailing pins, bran, lathes lng ,rons ' removers, brush cullers, buttonhooks, cal lavabos pers, carpet stretchers, chisels, clamps, cleavers, commoc leather guide markers orms, cork compressors, cranberry pickers, cutters, die lecterns arawkmvcs, drills, files, FIREPLACE EQUIPMENT, fish n leg irons - Cf s '' cars - ^ils, l' forceps, forks, front, gauges, grai letter openers , 01"' hammers, hatchets, hide stretchers, levels J"flnoks, rrHOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT, irons, jacks, kni lids 5 ' ,ance,s> la,hcs ’ leather guide marker EVICFS levru'T' bfackm c ’ log loa 5nu,l Pr,n,Cr S mcasurcs Printing '“- <»^hes, wick pumm - blocks and stamp !rZen reamers, , scoops, scrapers, screen lintels SEW I MrG E(raS, ^UIf MENT, shears, SHIPS DECORATIO lithographs 1

lockets necklaces locks neckties l°g load tighteners newel posts looms: incl. tape niches lottery wheels nightcaps love seats nightgowns lowboys ninepins LUGGAGE: sec baskets, boxes, carpetbags, knapsacks, satchels, noggins: see also mugs trunks nose pieces (lor weaning calves) lunch boxes numerals lunettes nutcrackers

M O

mail bags and boxes octants mangles organs: incl. church, cottage, gem roller, pipe manicure sets ottomans mannequin shoes ovens: incl. Dutch, Franklin, roasting mannequins (hat models) ox carts mantels ox stocks mantillas mantles marionettes martingales paddle-wheel covers mashers: incl. corn, grape, potato pails: incl. milk. See also piggins masks paintings: incl. landscape, portrait, religious. See also pictures,

mast sheaths tavern signs, wall paintings

match holders pan sliders measuring utensils panels see canceling machines, cash reg- MECHANICAL DEVICES: pans: incl. frying, roasting isters, compasses, electric generators, flycatchers, Gramophones, pantalets HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT, IMPLEMENTS, keno, pants lottery wheels, mouse and rat traps, music boxes, scales, paper stereopticons, SHIP'S DECORATION AND EQUIPMENT, paper clips and cutters machines stereoscopes, ticket punches, 'I OYS, washing paper weights medicine cabinets papier-mache melodeons parasols copper, gold, iron, metal: incl. brass, britannia metal, bronze, park shelters

lead, pewter, silver, steel, tin, zinc party emblems milk pails and tubs pastry squeezers millstones patch boxes mirrors pattens peaveys missal stands mittens pelisses pencils cheese. bullet, butter, cake, candle, Pennsylvania German molds: incl. aspic, bonnet, sugar, pudding, spoon pens cookie, ice-cream, jelly, maple petticoats money bags and vests pews mortars and pestles pewter mosaics photograph albums mourning embroideries pianos mouse traps pickle dishes muffin pans DECORATION AND ORNAMENT, litho- noggins pictures: /re also shaving. Toby. See also mugs: incl. beer, graphs, paintings, spirit writings

pie markers piggins: see also pails pikes

pill coalers mustard pots pillars pillow cases N pillow sham holders pillows pincushions nails pinkers napkin rings pins napkins pipe stands Nauvoo, Illinois neckerchiefs [ 214 rosaries pipes rug heaters pistols rugs: incl. braided, hooked, woven pitchers: incl. cream, syrup rush holders pitchforks pitters: incl. cherry S planes plaques plaster sabers plates: incl. communion, cup sal*ots plows saddle bags cinches, curb hits, handholds, hobbles, plumb lines SADDLERY: see bridles, robes, saddle bags, pockctbooks horse collars, horseshoes, martingales, jx»ny jackets saddles, spurs, stirrups, whips pokers saddles: mcl. pack, side pole screens safes: incl. kitchen, letter, match police belts and clubs salad howls pony robes saltcellars popcorn poppers salvers porringers samplers portraits sand shakers potato planters satchels: incl. boot, hand pothooks saucepans pots: incl. flower, mustard saucers powder flasks and horns sauerkraut stampers presses: incl. cheese, cider, fruit sausage stulTers printer’s measures, presses and rollers saws: incl. bone saw, bucksaw, butcher’s, coupcrsmith's, hack- printing blocks and stamps saw, sawknife, psal mod icons scabbards pulpits scales pumps: incl. firemen’s scarves punch bowls scissors puppets sconces

scoops: incl. butter, grain, sugar 0 scouring boards

scrapers: incl. dough trough, foot, oven, turpentine quilt covers screens (lead miner's) quilts: incl. applique, patchwork, tufted scrimshaw

seals: incl. letter, school, state R secretaries

settees racks: incl. book, clock, clothes, comb and brush, drying, gun. settles hall, hanging, hat, magazine, mirror, newspaper, spool, spoon, SEWING EQUIPMENT: incl. birds, emeries, kits, machines, towel sailors' horns, spool holders. See also baskets, boxes, button- railings: sec also balconies, balustrades, banisters, fences hole cutters, cabinets, cases, pincushions, pins, scissors, shears, rain gutter stirrups: see also conductor heads, downspouts stands, tables, thimbles, thread holders rakes: incl. hay shadow boxes rat traps Shaker rattles: incl. babies’, police, watchmen's shaving horses razors shaving mugs reamers shaving stands recorders shawls reels: incl. clock shears reliefs shelves RELIGIOUS ARTICLES: see altarpicccs, altars, basins, bells, ship models *nc cs, chalices, chimes, clappers, confessionals, crosses, SHIPS DECORATION AND EQUIPMENT: crowns, crucifixes, anchor dishes, flagons, fonts, grave markers, lec- l.nks and trip hooks, anchors, terns, bells, billcthcads, bow pieces missal stands, organs, paintings, pews, plates, pulpits, compasses, dumb irons, railings, figureheads, gangboards, rcredos. rosaries, shrines, halyard stands, tabernacles, tombs, hands and blocks, hawsing beetles and irons, tombstones, trays, vestments mast sheaths, octants, rcredos paddle-wheel covers, spreaders, stern pieces, trail hoards reticules shirts: incl. revolvers firemen’s riding SHOEMAKER S EQUIPMENT: habits benches, boot forms, lasts. rifles shoeshinc foot rests

rings shoes shoeshinc roach traps foot rests shovels rocking horses shrines rolling pins shutter fasteners

[215] shuttles suits sickles sundials sideboards survey marks ns: '»

skillets skimmers T

skirts tabernacles (altar) slave collars tablccovcrs sled starting hooks tables: incl. bedside, butterfly, candle, card, chair, communion, sleds: incl. children's, dog console, dining, drawing, dressing, drop-leaf, game, sleighs gate- legged, hutch, ironing, kitchen, occasional, pier, refectory, slippers serving, sewing, side, silver, sofa, SMOKING EQUIPMENT: tailor’s, tavern, tea, tip-top, see boxes, cigar lighters, humidors, trestle, work jars, pipe stands, pipes, tobacco cutters TABLEWARE: see casters, celery holders, chocolate pots, smoking lounges creamers, cruets, cups, decanters, dishes, doilies, forks, glasses, snoods: see also bonnets, hats, hoods, veils goblets, gravy boats, HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT, knives, snow breakers napkin rings, napkins, pitchers, plates, porringers, saltcellars, snowshocs saucers, spoons, sugar bowls, tablccovcrs, teapots, tongs, trays, snubbers (for bulls) tumblers, tureens, urns snuff boxes tailorcsscs’ counters snuffers tankards

sofas tar pots soldering irons tavern signs

spades tea caddies spandrels teakettles Spanish Southwest teapots

spats TEXTILES: incl. applique, broadcloth, brocade, candlcwick, spatulas chalis, chintz, crocheting, homespun, Jacquard, knitting, linen, spiders (flapjack) muslin, netting, prints, satin, silk, taffeta, velvet, wool SPINNING EQUIPMENT: incl. cards, combs, reels, sticks. thermometers swifts, wheels thimbles

spirit writings (drawings) thread cutters

spits thread holders and winds splint holders ticket punches tiebacks: see also curtain tassels, curtains, draperies splints (cooper's) tiles souvenir, tinderboxes spoons: incl. baby, folding, funeral, marrow, salt, tippets sugar, tea toasters spreaders ( for schooner rigging) tobacco cutters springerle boards Toby jugs and mugs spurs tolcwarc stage coaches tomahawks staircases . grave markers, tombstones incense burner, ink. music, tombs: see also stands: incl. bedside, candle, flower, tombstones: see also grave markers, tombs sewing, shaving, snulTcr, urn- pipe, prayer, reading, roasting, tongs: incl. fireplace, grape pomicc, sugar hrclla, vase, wash tool kits stenciling tools: see IMPLEMENTS stepping stones tooth extractors stcreopticons lumber lend miner’s, stereoscopes !“cKrf. election, firemen’s. "jacking." stern pieces camp, parade. See also flambeaux stirrups towel racks stockings engines, stocks (neckwear) TOYS: incl. boats, fire banks See also animals, stone arks, soldiers, trains. ,, puppe . dolls, marionettes, stools: incl. foot coaches, doll carriages, whistles sleds, wagons, stove lid lifters horses, skates, boards <-* trail ztzrtxz™. trains (court) trammels th ’‘“pr “" transoms 11(Slw. to. dough, pin trays: incl. altar, sugar bowls tubs trivets sugar chests and implement. sugar industry ( Jl6 j washing machines trousers washstaiuls trunks watch chains, lobs and keys loot, milk, sugar tubs: incl. bath, watch holders tumblers watches tureens and heaters scrapers water coolers turpentine dip irons, lucks, and water noz/les. pipes and \|h>»us tweezers U watering cans wtJthcrvanes: see al>o whirligigs shuttles, MMNNINC* I\(JL IILMEN I epaulettes weaving: sec also looms, uniforms: see also ARMS AND ARMOR, stove, tea wheelbarrows urns: incl. codec, garden, hot water, whip sockets utensils: see IMPLEMENTS whips V whirligigs: see also wcathervanes whistles: incl. toy, water valances wig blocks valentines windlasses vases windmill counterbalances VEHICLES: see bandwagons, bicycles, buckltoards, buggies, window scats carriages, carts, coaches, hearses, sleighs, stage coaches, 'I OY S. windows wagons, wheelbarrows wine chests veils: see also bonnets, hats, hoods, snoods coolers vestments: incl. chasubles, maniples, stoles wine wire making machines (jeweler s) vests witch balls violins witchcraft dolls W wood wrappers hair wafer irons wreaths: incl. bridal, cemetery, framed, waffle irons wrenches inkstands inkwells, wagons: incl. circus, Conestoga, farm, toy WRITING MATERIALS: incl. and letter waistcoats openers, paper clips, pajKr cutters and weights, pencils, pens, waists sand shakers, seals walking sticks: sec also canes wall paintings Y wall pockets wallets yokes wallpaper wardrobes Z warmers: incl. bed, foot, hand, milk, plate, j»ocket washboards Zoar, Ohio

, ,

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1943. corn ELI rs, America, 1941. ALLEN, EDWARD b.. American Style,” Antiques, Mar., VD VMS, JAMES T., The F.pIC of An Duncan Phyfc, P’2v, 1926. Alston, j. w.. Hint, to • it ariln o.. Furniture Mdsteipicccs of £irly American Wall Paintings. we also iiai.'Ey ). cosTLLLo. Furniture. P'2<» t Young Practitioners, 1804. andrlxvs, Edward d.. Community f atly American

! nun |SS7. t Ol>IN', » rank, and l*l 1 1 L M. Oil Fill . Industries of the Shakers, 1932; ‘The Kentucky Shakers, Alt.l'IISL t.. Mclntire. Ills lal< 1947. Andrews, edward d. and mitii, Shalpi RiLtY. The Wood Carva of Salem: Samuel . In tit/ ues. Nov.,

‘ |9|t». » k prisulla « The Boston and Sand Furniture, 1937; "The Furniture of an American Religious and Wor{. an t, .. Intiqucs, Apr.. I**2\ n aland, edav akd i... An I nierpreiat ion ot Shaker lurm wich (.lass Company," Sect," . I utilities, Apr., 1929; In Scrimshaw," Antiques. Oct., P'3S. i»\ais. lure," Antu/ues, )an., 1953. \non.: .lineman hue Slai fa: I 'Tlngraved Types ot II.// the Revolution. Insurance Company of North Amem a Colin lion, l**3j; .lit i.iilrardi. Regimental Color., in the of 1946. Dow, Recreations 18(>0; Glass, The Metropolitan Museum ol Art. 1907. Dili in. joiin c. av.. The Kentucky Rifle, 1704-1 775, P'27. 1936; Illustrations of Iron Archilectun, ISOS; Life in America. t.Enkt.E i.. Arts and Crafts in A etc F.ngland. The Metropolitan Museum ot Art, 1939; Sew Yu>{ Clippei, im »avn\. iosepii. "American |apanned Furniture.” Bulletin of

Mar. 26 and Apr. 9, IS,Si; Publications of the Rhode Island III, Metropolitan Mus.. Mar., 1933; "New )ork State Furniture. torical Society. New Series, vols. S-<», 1897-1898; Tobacconist' Hull, of Metro. Mus.. Feb., 1934; “A (lift ot Ncav York Furm

Figures by the W.P.A. Art Program. Index ot American turc." Hull, of Metro. Mus.. May, 1942; ”|ohn Henry Belter

Design MS., 1937; Worcester Historical Satiety Proceedings, and Company,’ Antiques, Sept., I94S. drake, samill a.. Old vol. 8. asmley, LtM.Nk l., ‘ Spanish Blonde Lice,” Antnjues. Aug., Landmarks and Histone Personages of Boston, 1 900. dripperd.

1922. ailr, may ii., "Variety in Uhl Apple Parers, Antiques. « arl av., "Origins ol Pennsylvania Folk Art.” Antiques. Feb..

Aug., 1942. aveky, c. Loi t'E. Fatly American Silver, 1930. rsklr. 1 940; "What Is Primitive and What Is Not?" Antiques, May.

|oel c., 1**42; Bw>ks the People." Antiques, lune, Revised Roster of The Vermont Volunteers ( 1861-1865 1 . "Art Instruction for

1**42; 3. 1892. B\Nc Ron, lltbERT ll., California Pastoral (History of the "The Decline and Fall of Adam." Antiques. Mar.. P'4

Pacific States, vol. 29). |SHS. iurber, edwin a.. Tulip II are of the DfNMIEE, KENNETH ll„ I nline ! I nline ! 1939. nt'NTON, wit it am

Old Ouilts, 1946. a.. Pennsylvania Goman Potters, 1903; The Pottery and Porcelain r.. | r.. dyer. Walter "Farlv Poiiery ol of the United States, 1909. barber, joel. Wild Foul Decoys. Ncav Fnglaml." Intiqucs, |an.. 1922; The lineman Bureau.

P'34. barber, lai renve l., “Massachusetts Shelf Clocks." An Primitive to Chippendale. 1928. earle. ai n e m.. Tiro Centuries lit} ues, July, 1937. bear, donald (see iioccland). bicelow. of Costume in America. 1 903; Home Life in Colonial Days. 1937. Francis it., Historic Silver of the Colonies and its Makers, 1917. EATON, allen ii.. Immigrant Gifts to American Life, 1**32; bement, alov. “Is There an American Design?” Antiques. Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands. 1937; Handicrafts of

I an New F.ngland, |949. encelii ardt, er. zephyrin. * 1W. BENTLEY", william. The Diary of If Bentley. o.e.m.. Santa 'ol. Barbara Mission. 2 ( 1793-1802). 1907. horseman, henry s.. Pennsylvania 1923; San Fernando Rcy. 1**27; San Gabriel. German San Ventura. Illuminated Manuscripts, 1937. boyd, e.. Saints and P»27; Buen |930. EN'ko. STEPHEN American Saint Silversmiths and Their Makers of New Mexico. 1946. brackftt. r. w., A History Marlas III. PMS. ervinc. henry w.. of the Ranchos of San Diego County, California. 1939. brazer. The Hartford Chest. 1**44. Farnsworth, money. Illumination, r'TMER s., "The of Stevens Plains." Antiques. |unc |923. FAWCETT. CLARA MALI AKD. Dolls: A Guide lor Collators. and Sept., 1939; F.urly American Decoration. 1940; "The Farlv PM7. federal WRITER'’ pro|i»t. American Guide Senes: R°9°n Maine. lapanners,” Antiques, May. 1943 (see also eraser). 1937; Vermont. 1**47; Iowa. 1**3S; \eir Hampshire. BREITENBACII, EDGAR (sec P*38; Texas. PM0; Missouri. 1 '*4 WILDER), Santos, |943. BROAVN. ALEX- 1 . fielding. mantle (set* 'nder <;., Paddle Box Decorations MORGAN"). FINE EY. RI TII Old of American Sound Stcan E.. Patchworlf Omits, P»2‘) FI.OWI K. l^ats." American Neptune, vol. milton e.. "Schimmcl the 3. No. I. 1943. BROWN. 1 Wood Carver." Antiques M ARY , Oct.. P'4 3. Min Welch. Carver,” FOCILLON, < HENRI, 1 in ion Antique,. |an„ 1926. bbysn. John roduct lo An Populate, vol. 1. P'sl ‘ ,0,dcd Iron in m*rd. Ai.it the Middle West," .In,,,/,,,.. Feb., I'M e. Pictorial Fid{art. Xetr Fngland to California. PM»)

American * '.N, Primitives. " * 1950: New Horizons i ” • * hl /nr/./Hf.-. ' seum of Mt"lern Art. 1936: ni. Aug.. 1940. ebeemsn. Emblems ol I kith vno i sbbv. Cor.,I, ,ule ‘>n TT" V" reetlom illustrated " VI catalogue. T . I "42. LB SMB. L'Tiit b s. (sec Metropolitan Museum i also i.bvzkbI, “The Coldcn CA,,,U - tloLCEB, Age Ol AND ELINOR Robinson. American Fm Stencilling." In„q,,e<. I<>22: 1, Apr.. “Painted I urniture (“"re- '«!. chapman, ETTA T.. •The m America ( 1817-1835)," a Tyler Coverlets Antique*. Sept.. I»23- “Piintesl Mar., 1928. Furniture Chippendale, tiiomas. The Centlem„ in America ( I83S-|S4S)“ |.,n.. |»'S. - a ' nelm er ! Director. ? , k 1762. cicrand. Bernard Slot Pennsylvania Bride Boxes ^ t.. and Dosser Chests." Intiquc. real ^ |ulx ,7le V ""eJ S,al" or History of America and Aug.. 1925; “Pennsylvania r.mb'ems.F 1.1 Cerman Dosser Chests" In 1892; “Flag of the United States," in F.ncyclopeJ Feb.. Apr., an, I |une. 1927. “The V0 American Bo, him- '- lm cu Chau. “- The Clipper Sh. „e<. Feb.. 1928; ' Z'ZT rUBK “Zachariah Bracket. Stevens' ’ v,CTO* History ol Manufacture in l) Anttquet. Mar |936. lblv. , .. The C.„,cto S s, II / ,„ CLEMENT. ART, UR AV.. O, easier County HistonejI pZtr r- Society. Iliitoricjl Pjpen Potters. 1947. comstock, and I.Ure- c Helen, “Federal Furnitur L,neater. Pa.. 1930. osbdneb. s. bebt t. e.. Yankee Stonecutter | .

1945. O.LL.SCHAM, h.arrold e„ The Fascinaung F,re Mark 19’3 1939. L,CHTES F NCES ’ - Fol Art *,' K in Rural Pennsylvania |m b.. 193/, LI PM.MASW^-The Ear/y American Wooden Study of Folk Art," Ware, 19-12. crancsvy LenmZ STEPHEN- v„ American Engraved Powder Homs. ’ P Anm“n ****** 1936 green' Jan- 1947°- /«"* S hn 194/ MermaidsNr"' | fu'" M EdbUr> Ha,Ch: in Folk An," Antiques. D°" n EjSt C—" Mar. 1948- ".94 ' 9 '' S ' 8 ' Zd ' C EEN ' mXCES “' VOOD - ,saac ’ E"‘ J-. TAp Circus, 1898. y Amen n grober. Textiles"t extiles. R ; 1931.1 Lockwood, like ^Childrens Toys of v„ A Collection Bygone Days. 1928 (transl. by Philip of English Furniture o] the Hereford) XVII and XVIII Ccntuncs. ,ull, carr.e a., and rose 1907; Colonial g. kretsincer, The Ro- Furniture ,n America. 1926. long, mance of the Patchwork Quilt evan w. (see watk.ns, America. 1935. hall, eliza c„ " 0 ?“'* F" Thc H3dlc ° Uand-lVoven Coverlets. > Chest," Antiques. 1931. halm, ph.lipp m., rv"' ,oi t?"”- if ? Oct.. 19 8; The Hadley Chest, Hie I 1935. lynes, wilson, easant Furniture of Southern Germany," "Slat-Back Antiques. )an„ Chairs of 1V.9. New England and the Middle-Atlanlic HALSEY, R. T. H., AND CHARLES Slates," An- O. CORNELIUS, A Handbook, tiques. Dec., 1933, and Mar., 1934. lyon, of the American Wing irv.nc p„ "Origin of (Metropolitan Museum of An), rev. cd., the Rocking Chair," Antiques, 1942. Apr., 1928. mcclellan, elizs- HALSEY, R. T. H., AND ELIZABETH TOWER, The Homes o/ betii. History of American Costume. 1607-1870, 1937. McClel- Our Ancestors. 1937. Harlow, alvin f.. Old Towpaths. 1926. land, nancy, Duncan Phyfe and the English Regency, HAYDEN, ARTHUR, Furniture 1939. Designs of Chippendale. Hepple- mckearin, ceorge s. and Helen, American Glass, 1941. maclay, white and Sheraton. 1938. Hayward, arthl r h.. Colonial Light- ALFRED b.. Early American Bottles and Flasks, 1945. marceau, ing, 192/; "Lard-Oil Lamps," Antiques, Nov., 1938. HERTZ, henri, John Rush, 1937. melcher, marguerite f., The Shaker loi is h., Mechanical Toy Banks, 1947. hicley, mary g., "The Adventure, 1941. mercer, henry c., The Survival of the Medie- Caswell Carpet, Antiques, June, 1926. hill, Hamilton a., His- val Art of Illuminative Writing Among Pennsylvania Germans, tory of the Old South Church, 1890. hill, harry s., The 1897; The Bible in Iron, 1914; Ancient Carpenters' Tools, 1929. Conestoga Wagon. 1930. hipkiss, edwin Eighteenth Century j., mikkelsen, MICHAEL a., The Bishop Hill Colony, 1892. miller, American Arts, 1941. holme, c. ceoffrey, Children's Toys of Catharine r., "Some Hand Woven Coverlets," Antiques, Feb., Yesterday, 1932. honey, w. b.. Glass, 1946. hough, Walter, 1925. miller, edcar c., jr., American Antique Furniture, 1937. "Collection of Heating and Lighting Utensils in the United miniter, edith, "When Tree Ware Was Thc Ware,’ " Antiques, States," Bulletin 141 of the National Museum, 1928. houcland, Dec., 1930. moore, Harris w., . 1922. moore,

WILLARD, and donald bear (), Santos: A Primitive mabel r.. Hitchcoc^ Chairs, 1933. Morgan, John h., and mantle American Art, 1946. howe, Florence t., "Carved Wood Circus- fielding, The Life Portraits of Washington and Their Replicas, Aug., Wagon Figures," Antiques, Aug., 1947. hulbert, a. b.. The 1931. MORGAN, VIVIAN E., “Memorial Wreaths," Antiques, Indian, Paths of Inland Commerce, 1918. Humphreys, gregor n., "For- 1955. MORRISON, JOHN l., "The Passing of thc Wooden “Bishop eign Influences in American Glass," Antiques, Sept.. 1928 (see Scribner's Magazine, Oct., 1928. morton, stratford l., Living," Antiques, Feb., also norman-wilcox). hunter, Frederick w., Stiegel Glass, Hill: An Experiment in Communal Burcn Versus Harrison: Thc 1914. JACKSON, JOSEPH, Encyclopedia o/ Philadelphia, 1932. 1943. Murray, anne w., “Van Zachar) Community Campaign of 1840," American Collector, Oct., 1948; JACOBSON, MARGARET e., "The Painted Record of a Col- President: Thc Campaign of 1848," American Experiment." journal of Illinois State Historical Society, June, Taylor for Anne Chain; o Tobacconists' Tribe of Treen," lector, Nov., 1948. MYERS, LOUIS c., "Queen 1941. JESSUP, LAWRENCE f., "The rexford, W Colonial Days,” Antiques, Dec., 1932. newcomb. Sept., 1930. karlinger, hans, Deutsche Vol^unst, Antiques. H->. Churches and Historic Houses of California, "Paintings on Velvet," Antiques. Sept., 1931. Old Mission 1938. KARR, LOUISE, Antiques, gregor, "Is It Pcnnsylvania-Dutch? Dutch, 1946. kerfoot, J. B., norman-wilcox, HENRY, Pennsylvania quincey, KAUFFMAN, Norton, c. a. Furniture of Mar., 1944 (see also Humphreys). kettell. rlssell »«., Pine American Pewter. 1924. nutting, Wal- “Limp." Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 16. 1940. keyes. home* e. "Two \ mdsor New England. 1929. Treasury. V§a Early Windsor Handbook. 1917; Furniture More the Betty Lamp lace, A Antiques. Oct.. 1923; "Once American Furnl u Chairs." ormsbee. thomas h., Early Models, Antiques. Mar and 1948. 1925; "Sandwich American Antiques, Mar., “Poughkeepsie Was Also a lugtown. 1930. Makers. 1930; Lantern, Antiques. Dec., 5/r- . "Paul Rcvcrc’s The Conestoga I 977 Feb., 1936. omwake, John, Hunting Americana, Antiques. Collector, Pottery" and "Title nlexitics in T.. 19)0. ..*> M n Lang picken.mary b. The g Quilts." Antique,. July, 1942. Dolls of 8 pierce, en.d c.. ‘The p of Fashion. 1939. pinckney. »««« Vermont," Antiques, Oc... 1942. p.sckne^ — and Their Carvers M0. ^ lean Figureheads Figures, * Tobacconist FISKE Some • .. ROSALIND wricht, KIMBALL, oscph AND aBERT ||>f 1935. |923; (\V.P.A.MS.).Pi Federal Art Project . ' '*« Design. , hc •ire" »"»«. and Engrav- of I‘"-is Folk Pottery ('" cU s of F American and the Por««'> . Portraits Early 7« WriKht Wf gh| an(1 , hc U Pol.e ). 1918. nn. »•*« May. 192 . I P Bennington 0 <>IES ,. Antiques. . Hr. Samuel ings." ^ 19i0 Old Boston. EDWARD G.. Rambles m • Pot . Scul ure - marie. rev. Waica(1 of Washington: P' * 94 o. kimball. { | Art. Ml- Ram^'- Modern Negro ' rs and Carver, the and Dec pollf Nov. mi.A[ ^ ^ Mclnttre. Antiques. Oct.. Mon >ccl tcry: A Resume I944 . of . . Early ^ Furnishing M t •The- ^ "Zoar and I.s 1939; Missouri." ELIZABETH, Amer- Pottery. in KINO. A Made in 1 927. |IN „ «-*«'«*' A Glass. 1937. ca-*.b *.)•«»«»• American Feb..b™5o Z'J Figures. mk\W- BOSE «• - Antiques“"*“‘r ?ottcr KRETS.NCER, <« 1925 ot T . y ica 1948. ^ t/ta l Independence -»o ol ol A. U H * l 1 - —c r .. R» ^ AnUqllfi DIXON rnilS A AND ,;»»•. .

&rfy »""' '•“V“ . «- c Got wther, A [220 ,942. LEWirrM, *

Townsend, gertride, *A Set of Eighteenth Century WO. rogeks, clarence s., “Figureheads." iiaisfy). fatiaue,, Feb., ol Boston Museum <>i r.h rke, "Index ot Embroidered Bed Curtains, Bulletin j lliillenn. Feb., I’M'., Shipu' Brocade Costume, l Arts. Dec.. PM2: "Eighteenth C-entury o ./- r. Apr.. 1’T: the ine American Do*..," ShSJ:wc t |945. irson, roli \ m.. Household Manufacture j saih>rd, victor, John Haley Bel- Intique *. May, tmerican Culture. 1942. States. |9|7. taler, aide I., Free- P'35. m. ceorge. Eleanor, The Dull, of in the in,led iamv," Antiques, Mar., war ini., wet, Farly .Imoican Stencil, Robert, Das Clas. 1912. slabolt. dom's Foment. P»44. | yesterday. 1948. schmidt, # "Latch and Door • I >7. avarner, Roger, Schools Colonial Boston. 1 935. sey- on Wall and Furniture. roblkt The Private of 1*03. Warwick. Edward, and iienra "Houdon’s Washington at Mount Vernon Knocker. Intiques. lib.. MOI’R, charles, anier, Beaux .Ins. Mar.. P'48. siivw, pit/. Early American Costume, 1*09. Washington, w. i Re-examined.” Gazette des Playfellows," Antiques. Parers," Antiques. No a.. P05. avatkins, c. malcolm, "Black Boys and I heir "Apple CHARLES g., ‘ Development, Signs in Modern New York. "The Whale Oil Burner: Its Invention and Mar., 1934; "Ancient Trade " America, In Antiques. Antique *. Apr., 1**35; I he Limps of Colonial Antiques, Oct., 1938; "Spiking of Wooden Indians” Domestic Machine,’ \ "Illuminated Birth Certificates, ttques. Oct., |9>7; "The Early American Sept., 1939. Shelley, donald M Blacksmith,’ 1945. singleton, Antiques, l ib.. 19411; "Notes on the Nesv England \cw York Historical Society Ouanerly. July, Engine Antique-, Mar.. 1947. \vatkin>. h r a av., Cambridge Glass. 1**30; ESTHER, Dolls. 1927. SMITH, JEROME 1 ., "Painted Fire Sharps "American s Lamps, Antiques. Apr., 1936. av atkins, h ha Panels” .Intiques. Nov., |9C. smith, win>ton u.. The Tarty .lineman Wiought Iron. w„ and evan av. long, "Old-Time Foot Stoves," Antiques. Mar.. Rifle, 1943. sons, albert ii.,

1926. 1939. i rank, "Cigar Store Indians," Magazine 1928. sparco, JOHN, Rotters and Tottery of Bennington. weitenk ampe,

1 "American Design. STEPHENSON, Nathaniel \v„ Abraham Lincoln and the L nion. ol lit. Dee.. 948. WELLMAN. RiiA, House Garden. |uly, |93S; Wcathcrvancs,’ House 1918. STEWARD, JULIAN ii.. Petroglyphs of California and Adjoin- and "American

ai I Candle ing States. 1929. stoddard, henry b.. "Windsors; Suggested Beautiful. |an., 1939. win* iii'Iek. n e, American in Iconography Antiques, Aug., 1936; "Tr.ins|H)rtacion Textile," Criteria," . Intiques, |an., 1938. stokes, i. n. piielps, Sconces." Chairs," of Manhattan Island. 1928. stokes, j. stogdell, "The American Antiques, Mar, 1940; "The ABCs ot Hitchcock

Windsor Chair," Antiques, Apr., 1926. stoudt, John j., Penn- Antiques, June, PM2; “Antiques and Business, Antiques, Sept., sylvania Foll( Art. 1948. stovai l, saraii e., "Two Aspects of Vic- 1942: American Antiques in Words and Pictures. 1943. west- torianism," Antiques. Nov., 1932. swan, mabel m., "The V illage ROPP. M. s. DUDLEY. Irish Glas>. 1 920. WHEELER, « AND Ai E. The

Tinsmith. Antiques. Mar., 1928; "The Man Who Made Simon Development of Fmbroider\ m America. POL white, harry H.,

Willard’s Clock Cases: John Doggett o! Roxhury," Antiques. "Migrations ol Early <»las\workcrs" Antiques. Aug., 1937.

Mar., 1929; "The Man Who Made Brass Work lor Willard Whitmore, eleanore m., "Origins of Pennsylvania Folk Art.”

Clocks," Antiques. June, 1930; "A Revised Estimate ol Mein- Antiques, Sept.. 1940. wilder, mit* hell a., and eik.ar breites-

tire," Antiques. Dec., 1931; "On Wcathcrvancs." Antiques, b\« ii. Santos. 1943. wit i.l \mson, scott w.. The American

Feb., 1933; "Mdntirc Vindicated," Antiques. Oct., 1934; Craftsman. 1940. wit son, * t "Scrimshaw, the Whale-

Samuel Melntire. Career, and the Sandersons, 1934; "The mans Art." Antiques. Nov.. 1**44. wood, t. kennetii. "Mediae- lohnstons and the Reas—|apanncrs." Antiques. May, 1943; val Art Among Pennsylvania Hermans," Antiques. May, 1925. “Ship Carvers of Newburyport," Antique ... Aug., PMS; "The wooD'iDF. .it arifs l., "Marked American Pewter." Antiques. Goddard and Townsend loiners," Antiques, Apr. and May, May, 1926; "Farlv American Lamps," Antiques. Dec., 1927, 1946; "Boston Carvers and loiners," Antiques. Mar. and Apr.. and Ian., 1*08; "Further Light on the Betty Lamp." Antiques. 1948. tancerm an, elmer j.. Whittling and Woodcarving. 1936. Apr.. 1929. WRIGHT, ri. iiardson, Haulers and Walters in terry, Marian d., Old Inns of Connecticut, 1937. Thompson, mrs. Fatly America. 1**27. wrk.iit. romi ind, and pai line pini kney, c.nox, "Hitchcock of Hitchcocks-villc," Antiques. Aug.. 1923. "Tobacconist Figures," Index of American Design, Federal

Thompson, j. ii., Bitters Bottles . 1947. tiiwing, leroy l.. "The Art Project (W.P..A. MS.), wyatt, edavin m., Common Wood- Four Carving Skillins," Antiques. )unc. 1 9 38; "A Note About wording Tools, 1936. Rushlight,” Antiques, Aug., 1944. tower, Elizabeth (see

1

INDEX

66-67, 77. X6-S7, Baumlcr. See Bunder Boston. Mass.. 57. 61, Adams, John ( President of the 170-177, 189 Germany, 8. 13t» 131, United States), 101 Bavaria, Bottles, bitters, dl. 102; ink. ill. 85; Beads, steel, ill. 181 Adzes, ill. 45 99 158 nursing, ill. 100; toilet water, ill. African mtluence, 89 Bears, 149; .11. 148, Bowers, |oc (wood carver ), 55 Beaver hats. ill. 16 Alden, John (wood worker ). 1 20 Bowls, ill. 6. 98; linger, ill. 102; Allen, Etlun, MO Beds: sugar, ill. 99 Bishop I lill. ill. 26 Altarpiccc, ill. 24 "Brakes,* lire, 47 Altars, house, 20, 44 curtains, ill. 106 42 headboards, ill. 191 Branding irons, ill. Amclung glass, ill. 100 Brass. See Metals Amclung, |ohn Frederick Shaker. .11.24 52 ill. 105 Braziers. (glass maker ). 100 valances,

(wood carver ). 1 54 1 / 1 19; Breit. Peter American Revolution, 54. MO. 1 42. 167, Bedspreads, ill. 107, 1 . 100 177-170 borders, ill. lo7 Bremen. German), 1SS 8 Amish, 0 Beecher, Laban S. ( wood carver), Brides' boxes, 2; ill. Bridgeton. Maine. 171 Anchors, ill. 57 Bellamy. |ohn ( wood carver), 55,

ill. 44 Andirons, 4S; ill. 54 1 86- 1 87, 190-191 Broadaxcs,

1 ill. 51 Andrew /dc^ion (figurehead), ill. IMS. Belter, )ohn 11. (cabinetmaker), 121, 41 Buckets, lire, 47;

See dlso Jackson, Andrew Belts, tire. 47; ill. 50 Bucks County, Pa., 1-2. 6 BulTalo. 141 Angel Gabriel ( weal her vane), ill. 75 Benches, ill. 26 ill.

Animals. Sec Birds, Cows, I )ogs, etc. Bennington. Vt.. 84, 88 Bulman. Mrs. Mary ( nccdlcworker). lUo

Ann Lee. Mother (Shaker), 14, 15 Bentley. William (author). 194 Hutto*, ill. 28, 44-34, 36

Apple parers. See Apple peelers Bcrchtcsgadcn, Germany, 8. 14 4 Burnam, Beniamin (furniture

Apple |K*elers, 161; ill. 160 Berks County, Pa.. I. 7 maker), 128

Arizona. 28, 42 Berlin, Conn.. 84, 144 Buttcrick. Ellen (dress pattern Art, popular. See Folk Art Berlin embroidery, 104 originator), 177

Art, study of, 84, 105 Berliner, Emile (designer of Artists. .SVc Craftsmen Gramophone), 167 Caduceus, 27

Ash. See Woods Berryman. Clifford (cartoonist). 149 Cahokia, III., 74

Astronomical symbols, 27 Beslcy, Thauvct (silversmith). Sc* Cairo Pottery. 89

Atwater, B. (sewing machine Bettv lamps, 169; ill. 170, 172-174 Calendars, ill. 27 maker), 164 Bible boxes, ill. 133 Calico. See Textiles Austria, 8, 144 Billet heads. 55; ill. 56 Calicut, India. 144 Awls, bone, 40 Bimcler, Joseph Michael ( religious California, 28-40, 40 1 41. 4s. 149 | so. Axes, 42; ill. 44, 50 leader), 16 182

Birds, ill. 1-2. 6-7. 29. 84. 9. |4, 99. 107. California Gold Rush. 1 48 Bailey, Mary (seamstress), 18 1 Ill, 117. See tdfo Eagles. Birds of Calligraphy, 9 Ball-and-socket device, 10 Paradise, Parrots Calliopes, 1 52 Baltimore, 41, Md., 64, 121.177 Birds of paradise, ill. 10 Cjnnno Redl, 29 Bandboxes, ill. 40, 85 Birth and baptismal certificates, ill. 9 Gimphene burners, 1<>9; ill. 173-175 Banks, toy, ill. 148 Bishop Hill. III., 15-16. 25-27 Candle holders, ill. loS Baptismal certificates, I, 2; ill. 9 Bitters bottles, ill. 102 Gandlcboxes, ill. 5 Baptismal fonts, ill. 49 "Black Boys'* ( shop figures), 64 Candlcmolds, ill. 92 Baraboo, Wis., 154 Forest, Black Germany, 1 46 Candles. 169 Barber poles, ill. 67 66; Blacksmiths, 42-44, 45. 84 Candlesticks, ill. 38. 102. 171 Barley forks, ill. 27 Blanket chests, 24 ill. Candlewood. See Woods Barnes, H. & Co. (bandbox Block printing, 1 19, 125 Caps. Liberty, ill. |92; sealskin, manufacturers), 40 ill IS4 Bloomers, 184 ill. Cape Cod Lighters, Barnum and 48, ill. 52 Bailey Circus, 154-155 Boats, ill. 46. 140 Carlisle. Pa., 134, 1 149 Barnum, P. T., 156 47, Bone. See Awls. Scrimshaw Carpet, Caswell, ill. 95 Basins, ill. 14 Bonnets, ill. 179. |82; Quaker, ill. 146 Carriage lamps, Basketmaking, 30 ill. 174 Boone, Daniel, 1 Carrousels. Baskets, Indian, 152, |57- |5x ill. 40; mission, ill. 40; Bootjacks, ill. 163 Carts, hose, Shaker, ill. 18 fire, 47; Red Riser. 42- Boston ic Sandwich Glass Companv Baumann, S. (blacksmith), 93 ill. 44, 141 97, 102. 169, 175 Carving: animals, ill. 135-137. 139, 191, 194 Coney, John (silversmith), 87 silversmiths, 86-87 cigar-store Indians, 83, 64; ill. 63, 66-67 Conestoga wagons, 41-42, 46; ill. 43 stone carvers, 79 circus, ill. 152-159 Congress, Continental, 127, 185 upholsterer, 128 furniture, ill. 123-124, 191 Connecticut, 22, 88-89, 120, 126, 128, weavers, 108-109, 112, 187 general, ill. 41, 65, 140-142, 190, 193 131, 164,192 Cream pitchers, ill. 98 heads, ill. 138 Constitution (ship), 188 Crewel embroidery, 103; ill. 104-107 playthings, ill. 143, 145, 147, 149-150 Constitution, Preamble to, 185 Crocks, ill. 89 religious, ill. 24, 28, 33-34, 36 Continental Congress, 127, 185 Cromwell, Conn., 148 ship. 55; ill. 54, 56-62,186,188 Copper. See Metals Crosses, 35; ill. 57,73 shop signs, ill. 62, 66-70 Cornhusk doll, ill. 146 Cross-stitch, ill. 10 stone, ill. 79 Costume: Crucifix, ill. 24, 33 tavern signs, ill. 64-67, 69 beads, steel, ill. 181 Cumbic family (weavers), 109 Cast iron. See Metals belts, 47; ill. 50 Cupboards, 2; ill. 22, 134 Caswell carpet, ill. 95 bloomers, ill. 184 Cups, salt, ill. 2 Catholic Church, 28 bonnets, ill. 146, 179, 182 Currier & Ives (lithographers), 75, 80 Cats, ill. 55 caps, sealskin, ill. 183 Cutler, 42 Cedar. See Woods caps. Liberty, ill. 192 Cypress. See Woods Ceramics, 2; earthenware, ill. xviii, 1, clogs, ill. 183

3-4, 6, 85, 88; stoneware, ill. 83, 85, combs, tortoise shell, ill. 180 Dancing girls, ill. 153 89 design, 178 Dauphin County, Pa., 1 Certificates, baptismal, 1-2; birth and dolls, 143 Davis, Jefferson, 174 baptismal, 1-2 ill. 9; marriage, dresses, ill. 20, 176, 178-181, 183 Dccalcomania, 13

Chairs, 121; ill. 2, 19,31, 120-123, 125, earrings, tortoise shell, ill. 180 Decanters, ill. 101 127-133 gymnasium suit, ill. 184 Declaration of Independence, 127, 185

Chalkwarc, ill. 82 hats, beaver, ill. 16 Dccorah, Iowa, 17

Chandeliers, ill. 11 hats, fire, 47; ill. 51 Decoys, ill. 137, 139

Cherry. See Woods hooped skirts, ill. 178 Deer, ill. 35, 77, 82

Cherry stoners, ill. 162 pantalets, ill. 179 Deerskin, ill. 31 Chestnut. See Woods patterns, 177 Demuth, William (wood carver and

Chests, 1-2, 9; ill. 7, 23, 31, 37, 124 pins, ill. 29 metal worker), 64

Chests of drawers, ill. 22, 129, 132 purses, ill. 107, 181 Denial of Saint Peter, 76

China, 12, 72,83, 182 shoes, ill. 177, 179, 181-183 Design, 78-79, 81, 90-91, 112-113,127,

Chintzes. See Textiles suits, ill. 20, 38 178, 191

Chip carving, 124; ill. 123 veils, net and lace, ill. 179 abstract, 21

Chippendale, 121, 126; ill. 127-128 wrappers, ill. 182 Indian. 30 134 Chip|K-ndalc, Thomas Cotton, printed. See Textiles Pennsylvania German, 1-3, 5-10, (cabinetmaker), 121 Cottonwood. See Woods Shaker, 16-17,21 Spanish, 30 Christ Child, ill. 32, 36 Counters, dressmakers', ill. 17 Desk boxes, ill. 123 Christensen, Lirs ( wood carver), 24 Coventry, Conn., 101

Desks, ill. 128 Churches, Catholic, 28; Lutheran. 9; Coverlets, 103-104; ill. 108-112 Dewing, Francis (printer and engraver ), Reformed, 9; Shaker. 14-15 Cows. ill. 79 119 Cigar-store Indians. See Shop figures Cox, Joseph (upholsterer), 128 Diadem (ship), 57 Circus: Craftsmen and artists, 5, 9, 14, 25, Dickens, Charles, 42, 62 Barnum and Bailey, 154-155 189-190, 192 Dippers, ill. 19 carving, ill. 152-159 basket weaver, 30 121 93 Directoire style, general, 152, 159 blacksmiths, 42-43, 45, 83, Dogs, ill. 88. 137, 148 152 cabinetmakers, 120-121, 128-129, 131 Robinson, John, 149, 151 ill. HI, 146-147. 149 Dolls. M3; Sparks, 153, 159 cartoonist, Dough troughs, ill. 5 makers, 22, 131 Civil War, 194-195 clock Doves, 6; ill. 7 designers, circus, 154, 156 6c Fox (potters), 85 Clark Down Easters, 55 dress pattern originator, 17/ Classical influence, 1 1, 22, 27, 56-59, 70. pout head, ill. 27 72,121.156,159,173,177.179.185 engravers, 1 19 chests, 2; ill. 7 furniture makers, 120-121, 128, Clocks, shelf, ill. 131; tall. ill. 22; i.a-w , . in7 132-133 manufacturer ), 1U- wall, ill. 131 S. T. (bitters ,1.28. 82-83.186.192 Clogs, ill. 183 nives, 43; ill. 44 korkers, 97, 100, 169 162 Clothes wringers, ill. s, ill. 134 167 100 >phonc maker, 176,178-180.183 Coats of arms, 43, 73; ill. xviii, 30. 87, ,111.20. nent makers, 62, 165 See Roosters boxes, ill. 8 Cocks. 166, 169 g ors, 13,45,97, 163. 1" akers’ counters, ill. CofTcc mills, ill. 162 makers, 29 worker, wood 12-13 y r.Shem (metal Coffee pots, ill. aphers, 75, 80 (inventor), 166 ver), 54, 77 Coles, Joseph 195 194; ill. 33, Collinsville, Conn.. 42 160 ill. 137, 139 use of, 1.32 115, Color, nccdlcworkcrs, 95, 106-107. ^ rKnrlotte 185 Columbia, 118,181 shell, ill- 180 Comb, tortoise 3-4, 6, 85 potters, xviii, Durham, Pa., 2 Perry (fij-urchcad). ill. 164 Commodore sewing machine maker, 165 Com passes, ill. 5 1 3

II.inIk.I, ill. Ill" W>-07. 74. 84. IOS. 134 Dutch influence, >2. 1-0, 125 milk, ill. HIU motifs. 10, 33, 55. SO. 91.101, 108-1 1 1. ovens, ill. *'4 Dutch M7; ill. 102, 174—175 115,117-118 prcvM-.l, Dyes, 20. 112 ,11.1112.175 S.imjw uli, '<7. I (.9; motivating intent, xviii, 7, 10, 14. 16, |cr«y,ill.%,0S 159 So,uli i'n inn. 187 89,90, /•; Vlunbus 98-90 163 Shekel, 97, ,11. 65, 74. originality. I. 10. 28. 80, 90, Eagles, xviii, 48, 55; ill. 1 1, 54, S, 12. 2(>, ( ioats, ill. 14. ‘ European, xviii, 4. 85,114,129, 131. 135. 137, 185- traditions, 71-74.76,88,92.117.152,140, Goblets, ill. 100 187,191,194-195 Goddards (furniture makers). 121 147, 149, 173 Earrings, tortoise shell, ill. 1X0 ’ Codes > Lady’s 1 14 baptismal, ill. 39 Earthenware. See Ceramics Fonts, (iold. See Metals Foot warmers. 48; ill. 53 East India trading companies, 46 Goose quills, 85 ill. 27 Economic motivations, 82-83 Forks, barley, Gothic tradition, 11 straw, ill. 27 Election torches, ill. 175 68 Grain cradles, ill. 25 Fowle. Isaac ( wood carver), 54, 57, Elkins, John, lewelry Company, 50 9 Gramophones, ill. 167 . See Woods Frj^tur. 2. 8; ill. 79 Franklin. Benjamin, 49, 169 Grasshoppers. ill. Ember carriers, 48; ill. 52 Grease lamps, ill. 170 Embroidery. See Textiles French influence, 73, 121 185, 1 89 Islands, 124 Great Seal of the United States, Empire, 121, 130, 132, 177. 179, 181, 191 Frisian Greek Revival, 27, 72 Engines, fire, ill. 47, 49 Fruit, ill. 84 23, 26, 94, 165, 167, Griffin, Mark (wood carver), 1 37 English influence, 1, 12-13, 65, 85, 86, Functional, 16, 53,73, prede- Gross, Magdalena ( needle-worker ), 10 93, 103, 120-122,129.143-144.150, 169. .SVc also Modernism,

I liglcy 171 cessors of: Simplification Guernsey. Zeruah

( needle worker), 95 Ephrata, Pa., 12, 15; Cloisters, 9 Furniture: chests, 120 Erie Canal, 42 beds. ill. 2 3. 26, 132: headboards, Guilford

Find (river boat), 46 ill. 191 Gum. See Woods 184 benches, ill. 26 Gymnasium suit, ill.

Falcs, )amcs (instrument maker), 62 Bible boxes, ill. 1 33

Fancuil Hall, Poston, 77 carved, ill. 123-124.191 Hadley chests. 120

Farrier. See Blacksmiths chairs. 2. 121-123; ill. 19,31, 120. 125, 1 land pumps, 47; ill. 48

Father James (Shaker). 14 127-133 I lardware. See I linges. Latches

Father William (Shaker), 14 chests, 1-2. 9; ill. 7. 23, 31. 37. 124 I harlequin dancing figure, ill. 149

Federal Period, 121 chests of drawers, ill. 22, 129. 1 32 Harriman, Me hitable (weaver), 108

Fiddle-heads. See Billethcads clocks, ill. 22. 1 31 1 larris Company ( weathervanc

Fielding, George (silversmith), 86 counters, dressmakers*, ill. 17 manufacturers). 79

Figurehead carvers. See Craftsmen, cupboards. 2: ill. 22. 134 Hartford chests. 120; ill. 124

wood carvers desk boxes, ill. 123 Harvard seal. 87

Figureheads, 54-55, ill. 56-61. 188; desks, ill. 128 Harvesting, ill. 25

classical 56-59; influence, folk art dough troughs, ill. 5 Hats, beaver, ill. 16; fire. 47. ill. 51

character. 56, 58; subjects, 55 dressers, ill. 1 34 Hawkers, S3 Figures, shop. See Shop figures highboys, ill. 126 Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 77

Finger bowls, ill. 102 kas, ill. 122 Heaters, portable, 48 Fire companies, volunteer, 47-5(1 lowboys, ill. 123 Helmets, fire. 47; ill. 5| hire company equipment, ill. 47-51 mirrors, 27 Hcpplewhite, 121. 128-129

Fire marks, 47-48; ill. 49 missal stands, ill. 39 Hessian Soldier, ill. 53 Firearms. See Rifles painted, 121; ill. 7, 37.124 Hickory. See Woods Firebacks, 48 settees, ill. 128 Highboy, ill. 126 Firedogs. See Andirons shaving stands, ill. 130 Hinges, ill. 1 Firemen, 47-48 spinning wheels, 15 ill. Historical Societies. See Illustrations, Fireplaces, 48 stools, 18 ill. list of Fish, ill. 75, 102 tables. 120; ill. 23, 122. 129, 1 33 Hitchcock, Alford x Co. ( furniture Fiske, J. W„ Ornamental Iron Works, wardrobes, ill. 122 makers), 1 50 74, 77

Hitchcock chairs, 121: ill. 1 30 Fitzmaicr, Louis ( inventor), 1 Gadgets. See Mechanical devices Hitchcock, Lambert (furniture maker), Flag of the United Statcs, 185 Gadroons and sunbursts, ill. 101 121 Flasks, enameled, ill. 99; whiskey, Gates, ill. 78 Hitchcocksville, Conn., 121 ill. 101 Generator, static electric, ill. 166 Hitching posts, 72; ill. 71. 73-74 Flatiron stands, ill. 90-91 German influence, 99-100, 1 32. See dlso Hobby goats, ill. 147 Fleur-de-lis, ill. 92 Pennsylvania German Holy family, Flint, 48 ill. 52 Gesso. 33, 39 Homespun, Florida, 29, 133 10, 21, II Gift boxes, ill. 8 Flowers, I looped skirts, ill. 178 ill. 3.9, 12. 13. 27, 28, 37, 39. Gilbert, George (inventor). 163 Horses, 52. 89.95.105.106-107,111, ill. 4. 21, 37. 47, 64. 65, 74.80 SL 117, Gingham. See Textiles 119. See also Tulips 119, 139. |43. 149 152, 158 Giraffes, ill. 159 Fluid lamp, 169 Hose carts, fire, 47 Glass: Hotel Flycatchers, ill. 163 lanterns, ill. 26 A melung, ill. 100 Folk art, 1 9- Houdon, lean , 10 , 12. 28 Antoine (sculptor), 190 blown, ill. 96-101, 175 character, 1, 4, 9-10, Howe, General William. 167 24, 33, 55, 56, 59, enameled, 99 ill. Hubener, Georg (potter), xviii, 3

\ 2lsl 1

Hydrants, fire, 48. 49 Lebanon County, Pa., 1 Mt. Vernon Glass Works, 101 Lebanon, Pa., 12 New England Glass Company, 97, 169 Icecream freezers, ill. 167 Legree, Simon (fictional character), Parker Carnival Supply Company. Illinois, 25-26 16, ill. 150 154-155 Illumination. See Lighting devices Lehigh County, Pa., 1,9 Pioneer Iron Works, 73 Illustrations, List of, 197-207 Lehman. Lewis Sc Co. pottery ( Putnam & Rolf (bandboxes), 85 Independence Hall, Philadelphia. 49 manufacturers), 89 Schmolz, W. (scales), 160 India fabrics. See Textiles, chintzes Lchn, Joseph (wood carver), 2 Stevens Foundry (toys), 148 Indiana, 109, 111 Lenzi, Philip (confectioner). 167 United States Gramophone Company, Indians, 28-29, 35, 37, 39-40. 77. 137, Liberty, 185 167

145-146, 182; ill. 63, 66-67, 74 Liberty cap, ill. 192 United States Potteries, 88 Industrial Revolution. 82, 161, 164 Lighting devices: Maple. See Woods bottles, Ink ill. 85 Betty lamps, ill. 169-170, 172-173 Marionettes, ill. 150

Inkwells, ill. 85 camphcnc burners, 169; ill. 174-175 Marks, fire, 48; ill. 49

Inventions, Shaker, 16. See also candle holders, ill. 168 Marriage certificates, 1-2

Craftsmen, inventors candles, 169 Marriage chests. See Dowry chests

Iowa, 24, 141 candlesticks, ill. 38, 102, 171 Marta, Anna Maria (basket weaver), 30

Iron. See Metals Cape Cod lighters, 48; ill. 52 Maryland, 41, 163

Irons, branding, ill. 42 carriage lamps, ill. 174 Massachusetts, 51, 75, 87

Itinerants, 1,9, 37, 136, 192 election torches, ill. 173 Materials, appropriate use of, 1 1, 26, 30, fluid lamps, 169 94, 115, 164. See also Metals, Woods,

(ackson, Andrew, 101; ill. 188 grease lamps, ill. 170 etc. 160-167 Jacquard loom, 104, 1 1 1, 187 kerosene lamps, 169; ill. 168 cchanical devices,

James, Father. See Father James lanterns, ill. 26, 170 apple peelers, 161; ill. 160

Jansson, Eric (religious leader), 16 lard-oil lamps, ill. 175 bootjacks, ill. 163

Janssonists, 16 rush and candle holders, ill. 168 cherry stoners, 161; ill. 162

ill. 162 Japanned tinware. See Tolcware sconces, ill. 171 clothes wringers,

coffee mills, ill. 162 Jars, ill. 88 slut lamps, ill. 170

compasses, ill. 165 Jarvis, Deming (inventor of glass “sparking" lamps, ill. 174 flycatchers, 163 pressing machine), 97 "tavern" lamps, ill. 174 ill. 173-175 generators, static electric, ill. 166 JclTcrson, Thomas. 45, 127, 185 whale-oil lamps, 172, 169; ill. Gramophones, ill. 167 jenny Lind (figurehead), ill. 58 Lincoln, Abraham, 173 Lind icecream freezers, ill. 167 Jersey Glass Company, 100 Lind, Jenny, 101. See also jenny (figurehead) motivating intent, 164 Jewelry, combs, ill. 180; earrings, ill. 180; Linen. See Textiles pepper mills, ill. 164 pins, ill. 29 159 rattles, ill. 166 Johnson, Andrew, 94 Lions, ill. 30, 79, 154, 160 Liverpool, England, 186 scales, ill. Jugs, ill. 89, 186 machines, 177; ill. 164 Locomotives, toy, ill. 145, 148; sewing Jupiter, 27 stamp canceling machines, 162; ill. 163 weathervane, ill. 81 Justice (wood carving), 186; ill. 193 (wood carver), 64 I-ondon, England, 86, 121, 177 clchers, Julius ennonites, 9 lowboys, ill. 123 Kas, ill. 122 70 crcury, wood carving, 193; ill. Lumberjacks, ill. 41 27; Kcag, Amos (fire engine manufacturer), Lutheran Church, 9 etals: 47 52,81,92, 168.171, Lyon, Patrick (builder of fire pumps), 48 brass, ill. 11,47, Keene, N. H., 101 173-174

Kentucky, 1 1, 15, 21, 1 12 47. 74-77, 79-81. 93 Mclntirc, Samuel (wood carver), 54. 190 copper, 71. 83; ill. rifles, 1 Kentucky 180 gold, ill. 29. 50, Magic, 10, 29, 35 1 19 Kerchiefs, ill. 52, 78, 81, 92-93, Mahogany. See Woods iron, 171; ill. 45. 47. Kerosene lamps, 169; ill. 168 Maine, 171 N. Y., 89, 139 Kingston, 143; ill. Mangin, John A. (metal worker). 68 iron, cast, 72,83, Kittery Point, Maine, 186-187 90-91,94,145,148, 71,74. 80, Manheim, Pa., 97 Knife. See Drawknives 162-164 Mansion House of Joseph Smith, 16, 27 (artist), 25 51-52. 68. 80 Krans, Olof sheet. 71; ill. 26, Manufacturers: iron, 1 1-1 ’ 49 iron, tinned sheet, ill. Barnes, H. & Co. (bandboxes), 179 11.40. 44-4^8. Lace, ill. Company, iron, wrought, ill. Boston & Sandwich Glass 168,170 Lafayette, Marquis dc, 101 71-73, 80,92, 132,162, 97, 102, 169. 175 Lafitte, Jean, 1 56 49 85 lead, ill. Clark Sc Fox (potters), 7. 9, 41, 144 Lancaster County, Pa., 1-2, nickel, ill. 50 102 Drake, S.T. (bitters), 171 jjmeaster, U.S.S. (ship), 18/ pewter. 83, 143. 169; >11. Jewelry Company, 50 Elkins. John, 8fr-87 Pierre Joseph (wood carver ), 83; ill. 50, Landry, Iron Works, silver. Fiske. W., Ornamental 142 J. 74,77 hotel, ill. 26 Lanterns, ill. 170; (weathert vanes), Harris Sc Company Lard-oil lamps, ill. 175 79 92-93 Latches, ill. (chairs). 130 Hitchcock. Alford & Co. jjuvrcnce(sW\\)),M 100 DO Jersey Glass Company, George (circus dcs.gncr), Lawrence, (fire engines), 47 Kcag, Amos inds, ill. 39 132 ill. 40, 50-51, (poitcrs). 89 Leather, Lehman, Lewis & Co. 154-155 Ixavcnwortb, Kans., 22f> [ ) 1 19

151 dolU, 143; ill. 144, 146-147, 149, Carnival Supply Company, 3W0 Parker 149 Missions, 29-30, 35, Harlequin dancing figure, ill. 154-155 River travel, 4o Mississippi hobby goats, ill. 14> Parrots, ill. 9 predecessors ol, lo, >0, 53. Modernism, horses, ill. 149 Patch-boxes, ill. II also Functional: Simplification See locomotives, ill. 145, 148 Patches, 1 ill. 45 Moldboards, marionettes, ill. 15U Patents, 161-164 Calit., -'A R3- Monterey, puppet, Punch, ill. I5U 1-3 Peacocks, ill. 7, Montgomcry County, Fa.. "»•>• rocking horses, ill. 143 Pealc, Charles Willson (painter). 190 Moons, 2/ roller skates, ill. 147 Peasant style, I, 12-1 3, 2/ Mormons, 16, 27, 1/3 stagecoaches, ill. 145 Pcaveys, ill. 45 Mortar and pestle, ill. 98 4*> lops, ill. 145 Peavey, Joseph (inventor ). Mother Ann Lee (Shaker), H-15 trains, ill. 145 Pecan. See Woods Motivating intent, mechanical device*. Pleasant 1 lill, Ky. t 15, 21 Pegboards, ill. 18 164 Plows. 42; ill. 45 Penn, William, 48 Ml. Vernon Glass Works, 101 14'*. 1/2 Plugs, lire. 48 VO Pennsylvania, 80,92, 133, 1 34, Mount Vernon, Virginia, 127, 1 Poplar. See Woods 36-1 3/ Pennsylvania Dutch. See Pennsylvania Mounts, Aaron (wood carver), 1 German Popular art. See Folk art Mugs, ill. 86 German, win, 1-13, 15 Porter, |ohn (inventor). 169 Museums. See Illustrations, list ol Pennsylvania Portland. Maine, S8 bedspreads, ill. 1 17 Muslin. See Textiles Portsmouth, N. 1 L, 58, 1 87 brides’ boxes, 2; ill. 8 Posts, 72; ill. 71. 73-74 candicboxes. ill. 5 hitching, Nantes, France, 142 3-4. 6 Pottery. See Ceramics Nantucket, Mass., 138 ceramics, ill. xviii, 1, 83 chairs, 2 Pottery, making ol. Nauvoo, 111., 16, 27, 173 Presidents the United States. 4. 45. 51. ware. ill. 82 of , ill. 130 chalk 94, 101, 127, 148, 185-190 Needlework. See Textiles chandeliers, ill. II Priests, Spanish. 28 ). 4 chests, 2; ill. 7 Necsz, johannes ( potter Printed textiles. See Textile* Negroes, 72, 89, 136 cupboards, 2 Profilers, screw, 16 Neolithic, 21, 35 design: character, 1,7,9-10, 134; Providence. R. L, 189 New Bed lord, Mass., 62, 77, 140 decorative quality, I, 5-6; molds.

89. 1 45, New Bremen, Md., 100 1-2, 5-9 Psychological motivations,

ill. 5 164-165 New England. 93, 1 19, 1 2 1, 1 25, 1 27, 1 70 dough troughs,

47, ill. 48; suction. 47; New Jersey, 175, 180 dressing boxes, ill. 8 Pumps, hand,

New Lebanon, N. V., 14-15, 18-19 Fralitur. 2. 8; ill. 9 tub, 47

1 33 New Mexico, 28-29, 34. 36-37, 123 gift boxes, ill. 8 Puncheon floor,

ill. 150 New Orleans, 46, 68, 72—73 hinges, ill. 1 PupjK't, Punch, Puritans, 177 New York City, 77, 86, 80 , 121, 128-129, horses, toy, ill. 149 120.

131, 143, 154, 177, 179 patch-boxes, ill. II Purses, ill. 107. 1 SI New York Gazette, 167 pottery. See ceramics Putnam Roll (bandbox

New York State, 14. 17-19. 22-23. 29, rifles, 11 manufacturers), SS

101,117,122,183 salt boxes, 2 59 Newport, R. U 121 salt cups, ill. 2 Oua{er ( figurehead), ill.

Nickel. See Metals show towels, ill. 10 Quaker doll and bonnet, ill. 146

Nightingale (ship), 58 splint boxes, ill. 8 Queen Ann style, 121, 123. 126-127 Nipomo Ranch, 28 stove plates, 2 Quilting bee, 104 North Tonowanda, N. Y., 158 tolcwarc. ill. 12-13 Quilts. 104; ill. 114-116. IIS

Norwegian influence. 17-24 utility boxes, ill. 12 Nursing bottles, 100 ill. whirligigs, ill. 78 Rag dolls, ill. 146

Nutting, Calvin, Sr. ( iron Pepper mills, ill. 164 Randolph. Benjamin (cabinetmaker), manufacturer), 73 Percale. See Textiles 120

Perkins coat of arms, ill. 87 Rattles, ill. 166 Oak. See Woods Perry, Commodore Oliver 1 la/ard. See Red River cart, 42: ill. 44 Ohio, 15-16, 26, 41, 46,92, 94, 171 Commodore Perry ( figurehead) Redwood, N. Y.. 98 Oregon, 15, 41 Petroglyphs. See Petrographs Reed. Polly (artist). 14 Organdie. See Textiles Petrographs, 29, 35 Reformed Church. 9 Otto, Heinrich (artist), 9 Pewter. See Metals Retablos. 29. ill. 32 Oxen, ill. 140-141 Philadelphia. 41-42. 4H-50. 46. 55, 73, Revere. Paul (silversmith). X6-S7. 170 121, 127.167,177.193 Rhode Island, 75 Packsaddlcs, 41; ill. 45 Phyfc, Duncan (cabinetmaker). Q 121. I2 Rice. William (sign painter). 6> Painting, easel, ill. 25. 40; panel. 29. 47. Pigs, ill. 69 Rifles, flintlock. 1 1 ; Kentucky, 11; 50, ill. velvet, 32; ill. 84; wall. ill. 35. Pimar. Arthur ( furniture maker). 1 53 Sharps, 45 185 ill. Pine. See Woods Riverside. R. I.. 159 Palatinate, 2 Pins, gold. ill. 29 Riverton. Conn.. 1 Pan, 159 121. 50 Pitchers, ill. 83,85, 88. 96. 98 Robb. Samuel (wood carver). 55, |55 Pans, ill. 93; warming, 48. ill. 52 Pittsburgh. 41,46 Robinson. Enoch Pantalets, ill. (inventor). 97 179 Plates, ill. xviii, 1.3-4, 6, 85 Papier-mache, Robinson, John (originator of first 144, 146, 149 Playthings: circus), 152 Parcll, Sarah (needle worker), 115 Kinks, toy, ill. 148 Rocking chairs, ill. 19, | 53 Rocking horses, ill. 143 clocks, ill. 22 Crucifix, ill. 33 Roller skates, ill. 147 counters, dressmakers', ill. 17 design, 30 Roosevelt. Theodore. 148 cupboards, ill. 22 Diego, Juan, Indian, Roosters, 37 ill. 3, 52, 7(>-77, 157 design, 16-17,21 Franciscan Fathers, 35 Rosettes, ill. 13. 101 dippers, ill. 19 gesso, 33, 39 Rosewood. See W oods dresses, ill. 20 Holy Family (retablo), ill. 32 Rubber, 167 general, 14-23 Indians, 35, 37, 39-40 Rugs. Caswell carpet, ill. 95; Shaker, hats, beaver, ill. 16 iron, wrought, 40 ill. 21 industries, 16 jewelry, ill. 29 Rush candle and holder, ill. 168 inventions, 16 leather, ill. 28, 40 Rush, William (wood carver). 55. 193 name, origin of, 15 missal stands, ill. 39 Rushlights, 169 rugs, ill. 21 missions, 29, 30, 35, 38-40 Rye, New York, 145 spirit drawings, ill. 14 New Mexico, 28-29, 34, 36-37 stools, ill. 18 petrographs, 29, 35 Saddles. See Packsaddlcs; Sidesaddles suits, ill. 20 retablos, 29; ill. 32 Saint ( Acacius buho ), ill. 33 tables, ill. 23 saddles, ill. 28 Saint Francis (bulto), ill. 28 Share, iron, ill. 45 Saint Acacius (bulto), ill. 33 Ste. Genevieve, Mo., 134 Sharps, Christian (inventor of rifle), 45 Saint Isidore (bulto), ill. 34 Saint Isidore (buho), ill. 34 Shaving stands, ill. 130 San Acacio. See Saint Acacius St. Johnsbury, Yt., 157 Shaw, R. L. (instrument maker), 165 santeros, 29 Saint Peter s denial, 76 Shears, ill. 26 santos, 29 Salem County, N. 96 J., Sheet iron. See Metals spurs, 29; ill. 40 Salem, Mass., 55, 59, 190 Shellac, 18 Stations of the Cross, 29; ill. 40 Salt boxes, 2 Sheraton, Thomas (cabinetmaker). 121, stirrups, ill. 31

Salt cellars, ill. 100 128 suits, ill. 38

Salt cups, ill. 2 Shoes, ill. 177, 179, 181-183 tabernacles, altar, ill. 39

Sampson, Charles A. L. (wood carver), Shop figures: Virgin, Our Lady of Solitude, 37 55 carvers, 64 Virgin, Our Lady of Sorrows, 37

San Acacio. See Saint Acacius Indians, 64; ill. 63, 66-67 Virgin and Child (bulto), ill. 36

San Andreas, Calif., 120 jail, ill. 65 Virgin of Guadalupe, 37

San Antonio, Texas, 31, 132 making of, 64 wall paintings, 29; ill. 35

San Diego, Calif., 29 other types, 64; ill. 66, 68-70 "Sparking" lamps, ill. 174

San Francisco, Calif., 73, 160 post office, ill. 70 Sparks Circus, 159

Sandwich glass, 97; ill. 102 prices paid, 69 Spinner, David (potter), 6

Santeros, 29 Show towels, ill. 10 Spinning wheels, ill. 15

Santos, 29 Sickles, 27 Spirit drawings, ill. 14

Satinwood. See Woods Sidesaddles, ill. 28 Splint boxes, ill. 8 40 Saturn, 27 Signs, shop. ill. 67-69; tavern, ill. 64-67, Spurs, 29; ill. Savery. William (cabinetmaker), 120 189, 192 Stagecoaches, toy, ill. 145 canceling machines, 162; ill. 163 Saws, 16, 44 Silk. See Textiles Stamp

Stars, ill. 10,27, 114, 129 Scales, ill. 160.193 Sill cupboards, ill. 22 Cross (easel paintings), Schimmcl. Wilhelm (wood carver), Silversmiths, 83, 86-87, 170 Stations of the 40 135-137 Simplification, 18-23, 26, 82. See also ill. See Metals Schmolz, W. (manufacturer of scales), Functional; Modernism, predecessors Steel. Stenciling, ill. 84, 130, 185 160 of (wood Stcrnpicccs, ill. 61 Schuylkill County, Pa., I Skillin, Simeon and |ohn Stevens Foundry (toy manufacturers), Schwcer-Balsen, B. (furniture maker), carvers), 54, 70, 192, 193 148 Slip decorated ware, 2; ill. 6 132 98-99 Sticgcl glass, 97; ill. ill. 171 Slippers. See Shoes Sconces, (glass Stiegel, Heinrich Wilhelm Scrimshaw, 135; ill. 140 Slut lamps, ill. 170 maker), 97-99 56-58 Smith, Joseph (Mormon leader), 27 Scrolls, ill. 1 1, 31, Stirrups, ill. 31 Piper (figurehead), ill. 61 Sculpture. See Carving Solomon Stone Age, 28 (ship), 174 Scythes, 27 South America Stone carving. See Carving South Jersey glass, 97; ill. 96, 98 Sea Serpent (figurehead), ill. 57 Stools, ill. 18 Spanish influence, I, 28-29, 132 Sealskin caps, ill. 183 Stove plates, 2 Southwest: John, circus designer. 154 Spanish Sebastian. Stoves, 16, 48; ill. 18, 94 34 Christian (artist), 5 altars, 29, (author). DO Selzer, Stowe, Harriet Beecher 30 128 awls, bone, Settees, ill. Strainers, ill. 93 baptismal fonts, ill. 39 177. ill. 164 Sewing machines, Straw forks, ill. 27 basketmaking, 30 xviii, 1. 3-4 190 Sgraffito ware, 2; ill. Stuart. Gilbert (artist), baskets, ill. 30 Shaker: Suction pumps. 47 ill. 28. 33-34. 36 19 bultos. 29; 99 all-and socket device, Sugar bowls, ill. l, 28-30, 40-41 California, 38 (men’s), ill- 20, baskets, ill. 18 Suits candlesticks, ill. 38 27 beds, ill. 23 Sun, chairs, ill. 31 Surgery, 66-67 chairs, ill. 19 chests, ill. 31. 37 Swabia, 2 chests, ill. 22-23 Christ Child, ill. 32, 36 church, 15 [228] 1 5

80-81 dtarcs, iron, ill. 45 Swales, 15, 17, 25 Weave-chests, ill. 22 sickles, 27 Swedish influence. Sic Bishop Hill Weaving, 103-11)4; ill. 108-113, 187 shears, ill. 26 influence, H7 Swiss Weaving, h.i'kct, 30 straw fork*, ill. 27 2. 8 Switzerland, 1 12 Weddell, Li/a lane ( weaver ). 57, SO. trammels, ill. 92 Symbols, 10, H,27,4S. 54, 75, Weiton, Hobart \ ictory (metal worker, 193-194 Tops, ill. 145 185-191, /8-/9 wood carver, stone carver ), Towels ill. 10 Whale-oil lamps, 169; ill. 1/2-1/ Town crier, emblem ot, ill. 67 Tabernacles, altar, ill. 39 Towme nds (cabinetnukerN). 121 Whales, ill. 77 ill. 113 Tableclothcs, 42-43 Toys. Sec Playthings Wheelwrights, Tables, 120; ill. 23. 122, 129, 133 Whirligigs, ill. 78 Trains, toys, ill. 145, 148; wc.it tiers a lies Talfcta. See Textiles Whistles, water, ill. 3 11. 81 Tankards, ill. S6, 93 Whitesmiths, S3 Trammels, ill. 92 Taste, decline ol, 72, 82 135-142 Transportation, 4 1 -42: ill. 43-46.81, 145 Whittling, "Tavern lamps, ill. 174 William and Mary ot Orange, 121 Taylor, Zachary (President «»l the Trays, ill. 12 Willard. Simon and Benjamin (clock United States), 51 Trees of life, ill. 10 Trenchers, 93 makers), 1 50 Tea caddies, 12; ill. 13, 86 80 Father. See Father \Y ill iam Sulky ( wcathcrvauc 1. ill. William, Teakettles, ill. 94 Trotter and Samuel (potter), 3 Williams, May ( weaver ), 1 12 Teapots, ill. 87 Troxel, 53, 191 ‘*.12 >. 89. 191 Celcstino (jewelry maker ). 29 Wilmington, Del., 130, Technique, professional, l Trujillo,

ill. 50 Windmills. 16 Tenders, ill. 81 Trumpets, lire, 47;

5-8 chairs, 122; ill. 127 Tennessee, 15 Tulips, ill. xviu, 1-2, Windsor (silversmith St>-H7 Terry, Eli and Samuel (clock makers), Tumblers, ill. 96 Winslow. Edward ).

131 Tyler, Harry (weaver), 187 Wisconsin. 41, 45, 50, 84 Texas, 123 Wistar, Caspar (glass maker), 96, l(>9

Textiles: Unicorns, ill. 7 Wolves, ill. 155

bead embroidery, ill. 181 United States Gramophone Company, Wood carving. See Cars ing

bedspreads, ill. 107, 1 17, 1 19 167 Woods:

Berlin embroidery, 103 United States Potteries, 88 ash, 141; ill. 15. 183

calico, ill. 144, 146 Upper Rhein, 2 candlewood, 169

carpet, Caswell, ill. 95 Urns, garden, ill. 80 cedar, ill. 67, 167

chintzes, ill. 46 Utah. 182 cherry, ill. 19. 128

coverlets, ill. 108- 1 12 Utensils: chestnut, ill. 128, 160

crewel embroidery, 103; ill. 104-107 andirons, 48; ill. 53 cottonwood, 33

gingham, ill. 144, 151, 182 candle-molds ill. 92 cypress, ill. 31.132

homespun, ill. 10,21, 113 dippers ill. 19 dm, ill. 142

jacquard loom, 104, 111, 187 ember carriers, 48; ill. 52 gum. 43

lace, ill. 179 pans, ill. 93 hickory, 43, 141; ill. 27, 45 linen, ill. 10, 178 ill. warming pans. 48; 52 mahogany, ill. 127-1 51. 1 64

muslin, ill. 144 Utility boxes, ill. 12 maple, ill. 17, 19, 23-24. 26. 93. 126, needlepoint, ill. 130 160 organdie, ill. 179 Valances, bed, ill. 105 oak. 43; ill. 1 5, 24. 44. 53, 128. 1 32. percale, ill. 151 Varnish. 12 133,166 printed, ill. 46, 119, 178, 180 Veils, net, ill. 179 pecan, ill. 1 32 quilts, 104; ill. 114-116, 118-119 Venus 27 pine, 64; ill. 5, 1 7- 1 S. 22-25. 3|. 37-59, rugs, ill. 21, 95 Vermont Volunteers, 194-195 54, 77-78, 1 33.141 show towels, ill. 10 Victorian, 72, 74,91. 121. 131. 143. 146. poplar. 43; ill. 134 silk. ill. 182 177, 180-181 rosewood, ill. 1 3 taffeta, ill. 179, 181 Virgin anil bulio Child ( ), ill. 36 satinwood. 129 weaving, ill. 103-104; ill. 108-113, 187 Virgin Mary, 7, 37; ill. 32. 36. See also walnut, 141; ill. 24. 130, 133. 134. 15S, Thales of Miletus (scientist), 166 Spanish Southwest 191 Theorems. See Stenciling Virginia. 114 Worcester. Mass., 1 93 Tin. See Metals Wrappers, ill. 182 Tinned sheet iron. See Metals Wagons, Conestoga, 4 1 -42, 46; ill. 43 Toilet Wrought iron. See Metals water bottles, ill. 99 Wall paintings, ill. 35, 185 Tolcwarc, 2; ill. 12-13 Wallpaper, ill. 49 Yokes, ill. 141 Tools, ill. 68 Walnut. See Woods Youngs, Benjamin adzes, ill. 45 (clock maker), 22 Wardrobes, ill. 122 awls, bone, 50 Waring, David ( pottery designer). 6 axes, Zeus. 27 42-43; ill. 44, 50 Warmers, foot. 48; ill. 53 barley Zigzag line. 35 forks, ill. 27 Warming pans, 48; 52 ill. Zinc. See Metals branding irons, ill. 42 Washing machines, 16 Zoar, Ohio, 15-16. , ill. 44 26-27 Washington, D.C., 167 drawknives, 43; ill. 44 Washington, George, 4. 101, 127, plows, 42; ill. 45 186-187; ill. 190 W'VS, 16, 44; ill. 68 Watervlict, X. Y., 1 5, 17, 22 scythes, 27 Wcathcrvancs, ill. 47. 69, 71, 74-77. 79, ~

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