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WAVE EXPOSURE STUDIES on ROCKY SHORES in SHETLAND a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Of

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WAVE EXPOSURE STUDIES on ROCKY SHORES in SHETLAND a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Of WAVE EXPOSURE STUDIES ON ROCKY SHORES IN SHETLAND A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science in the University of London and for the Diploma of Imperial College. by ROBIN A.D. WRIGHT B.Sc. \ University of London Imperial College of Science and Technology, Department of Botany and Plant Technology Field Station, Silwood Park, Ascot Berkshire. January 1981 Extracts from Oliver Goldsmith (1859): Exposure. "Where the sea meets no obstacles, it spreads its waters with a gentle intumescence, till all its power is destroyed, by wanting depth to aid the motion* But when its progress is checked in the midst, by the prominence of rocks, or the abrupt elevation of the land, it dashes with all the force of its depth against the obstacle, and forms, by its repeated violence, that abruptness of the shore which confines its impetuousity." Shelter M1he deafening noise of the deep sea, is here converted into gentle murmers; instead of the waters dashing against the surface of the rock, It advances and recedes, still going forward, but with just force enough to push its weeds and shells, by insensible approaches, to the shore," Northmavine, Shetland Hillswickness, Shetland Frontispiece (iii) ABSTRACT The relevence of wave exposure studies to rocky shore monitoring is discussed, and an exposure scale developed for a biological monitoring programme in Norway is described. The same biological exposure scale is applied to the Shetland Islands and reformed to make one that is more appropriate to the new geographical area. An investigation is carried out into various aspects of the technique whereby shoreline sites are assigned to grades on the scale. The reliability of the exposure scale is tested, both spatially in relation to the effect of other environmental variables besides wave action, and temporally over different seasons and from year to year. The physical basis of the exposure scale is examined through the measurement of wave impact pressures at a number of sites. The development and testing of an electronic wave pressure measuring system is described. It consists of pressure sensors in the intertidal zone connected to an amplifier and chart recorder system upshore. The recorded wave pressures are discussed. A method for reducing the data into various statistics is outlined, and the significant wave pressures between sites are compared. An attempt is made to extrapolate the wave pressure records over a longer time scale, by considering long term records of wind speed and wave height. The biological exposure scale is believed to be an approximately inverse expression of wave action, and this conclusion is supported by changes in various characteristics of certain species over the exposure range. A hypothesis is developed as to the way in which wave action influences rocky shore ecology. CONTENTS PAGE FRONTISPIECE ii ABSTRACT lii. PART I INTRODUCTION 1 The Relevance of Wave Exposure Studies to Biological Monitoring 1 The Shetland Islands 3 Early Attempts at Estimating Wave Exposure 7 PART II THE SHETLAND EXPOSURE SCALE 17 CHAPTER 1. The Shetland Exposure Scale - Introduction 17 CHAPTER 2. The Preparation of the Exposure Scale 18 2.1 Raw Data Collection 18 2.2 Application of the Norwegian Scale 27 2.3 Formation of the Shetland Scale 34 2.4 The Exposure Scale in Practice 47 CHAPTER 3. A Critical Assessment of the Exposure Grading Technique- 5 3 3.1 Data Collection - Abundance Measurement 53 3.2 Data Collection - Selection of Different Vertical Intervals 60 3.3 Preparation of Exposure Scale - Cycling of Computer Smoothing Process 63 3.4 Operation of Exposure Scale - Effect of Using a Different Species Selection 67 3.5 Summary 72 CHAPTER 4. The Effect of Environmental Variables other than Wave Action on Exposure Grade 73 4.1 The Environmental Variables 73 4.2 The Environmental Variables Related to Exposure Grade- 82 4.3 The Relative Importance of the Environmental Variables- 96 (v) TAGE 4.4 The Effect of Secondary Physical Factors on Exposure Grade 103 4.5 The Abundance of Fuous vestculosus Related to the Particularity of the Substrate 115 CHAPTER 5. The Effect of Time on Exposure Grade 120 5.1 The Seasonal Study at Mavis Grind 121 5.2 Annual Variation in Exposure Grade 143 CHAPTER 6. The Shetland Exposure Scale - Summary 147 PART III MEASUREMENT OF WAVE ACTION ' 150 CHAPTER 7. Measurement of Wave Action - Introduction 150 CHAPTER 8. Wave Pressure Measuring Equipment 155 8.1 Selection Criteria 155 8.2 The Equipment Described 156 8.3 Initial Field Trials 164 CHAPTER 9. Data Collection at Mavis Grind, Shetland 170 9.1 Calibration of the Wave Pressure Measuring Equipment. 170 9.2 Recording at MG6 - MG9 172 9.3 Recording at MG2A - MG3A 184 CHAPTER 10. The Wave Pressure Records Described 189 10.1 The Magnitude of Wave Pressures Recorded 189 10.2 Variation in Wave Pressure at One Site 196 10.3 Shock Pressures 207 10.4 Instrument Testing 209 CHAPTER 11. Processing the Wave Pressure Records 216 11.1 Digitising and Data Reduction 216 11.2 Wave Pressure Related to Wind Speed and Wave Height- 231 11.3 A Comparison of Wave Pressures Between Sites 240 vi) PAGE 11.4 Extrapolation of the Wave Pressure Records 249 CHAPTER 12. Measurement of Wave Action - Discussion and Conclusions 271 PART IV SPECIES CHARACTERISTICS IN RELATION TO WAVE ACTION 275 CHAPTER 13. Morphology 275 13.1 Introduction 275 13.2 ]\lucella lapiHus 278 13.3 Lcminaria d-igi-tata 281 13.4 Fuous ves-Cculosus 286 CHAPTER 14. Height of Zones 291 295 PART V SUMMARY The Usefulness of the Biological Exposure Scale 295 The Exposure Scale Related to Wave Action 297 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 302 REFERENCES 304 APPENDICES 315 MICROFICHE See Back Cover Cvii) FIGURES PAGE 2.1.1 The Cross-staff 20 2.1.2 Example of Site Location Sheet 22 2.1.3 Example of Biological Recording Sheet 23 2.1.4 Location of Sites in Shetland 24 2.2.1 The Distribution of "free-living" Fucoids in Relation to Salinity 33 2.3.1 Reciprocal Averaging - Species Coordinates 35 2.3.2 Reciprocal Averaging - Site Coordinates 35 2.3.3 Modified Maximum Fetch vs. Axis 1 of Reciprocal Averaging 38 2.3.4 Axis 1 of Reciprocal Averaging vs. Norwegian Exposure Grade 39 2.3.5 Diagram of Exposure Scale Programs 43 2.3.6 Abundance Curves of Fuous Vesioulosus and Ascophyllum nodosum— ^4 2.3.7 Abundance Curves of A'laP'ia esculenta and Mytilus ^dulis 45 2.4.1 Location of Sites and Exposure Grades around Mavis Grind 49 2.4.2 Location of Sites and Exposure Grades at Whale Firth, Yell and Gletness 51 3.2.1 Kite Diagrams for Selected Species at MG9 Assessed at Different Vertical Intervals 62 3.3.1' Effect of Cycling Computer Smoothing Process on Abundance Curves of Selected Species 65 3.4.1 Coefficient of Similarity vs. Exposure Grade for 0P55 using May 78 Data 71 4.1.1 Roughness Ratio Frequency Histogram - 80 4.1.2 Example of a Physical Data Sheet 81 4.2.1 Depth Offshore Variables vs. Exposure Grade 84 4.2.2 Angle of Sea Horizon and 90° Fetch vs. Exposure Grade 85 4.2.3 Maximum Fetch and Modified Maximum Fetch (Logarithms) vs. Exposure Grade 88 Cviii) PAGE A.2.A Modified Fetch 5 arid Modified Fetch 6 vs. Exposure Grade 89 A.2.5 Angle of Transect in Relation to Max Fetch and Aspect vs. Exposure Grade 91 A.2.6 Texture and Degree of Fissuring vs. Exposure Grade 92 A.2.7 Angle of Slope and Roughness Ratio vs. Exposure Grade —- 93 A.2.8 Percentage of Stones on Transect and Salinity vs. Exposure Grade 9A A.2.9 Correlation Coefficients between Environmental Variables and Exposure Grade 95 A.3.1 Distribution of the Environmental Variables on the First Eigen Vector of the Principle Components Analysis 98 A.3.2 Vector 1 vs. Vector 2 for Sites in Principle Components Analysis- 99 A.3.3 Plots of Reciprocal Averaging Ordinations 101 A.A.I Observed vs. Expected Exposure Grade 105 A.A.2 Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. Angle of Transect in Relation to Max Fetch and Aspect 107 A.A.3 Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. Angle of Slope and Roughness Ratio 108 A.A.A Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. Texture and Degree of Fissuring 109 A.A.5 Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. Percentage of Stones and Silt on Transect ' HO A.A.6 Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. No. Stones Top and Middle of Transect HI A.A.7 Observed - Expected Exposure Grade vs. No. Stones on Bottom of Transect and Salinity 112 A.5.1 Maximum Abundance Score for Fuous vesiculosus vs. Percentage of Stones on the Transect 118 5.5.1 Location of Proposed Transect Sites and Water Sample Sites at Mavis Grind (ix) TAGE 5.1.2 Nitrogen and B.O.D. Concentrations around Mavis Grind-Feb 78 126 5.1.3 Change in Exposure Grade with Time for Mavis Grind (MG) Sites— 129 5.1.4 Wind. Speeds and Maximum Temperatures at Lerwick in 1978 134 5.1.5 Monthly Mean Temperatures and Wind Speeds for Lerwick 1978 - 1980 138 5.1.6 Coefficient of Similarity vs. Exposure Grade for MG2 using Data Collected in 1978 140 5.1.7 Changes in Species Maximum Abundances at MG2 1978 - 1980 141 8.2.1 The Soil Pressure Cell 159 8.2.2 Flow Diagram of Wave Pressure Measuring Equipment 163 8.3.1 Details of a Climbing Bolt 166 8.3.2 Location of Testing Sites at Dale Fort, Dyfed 167 9.0.1 Location of Wave Pressure Recording Sites and Equipment at Mavis Grind 171 9.2.1 Details of Hut 173 9.2.2 Location of Wave Pressure Measuring Equipment at MG6-9 176 9.2.3 The Wave Staff 179 9.3.1 Location of Wave Pressure Measuring Equipment at MG2A and MG3A 186 10.1.1 Trace of Section of Trace 18 190 10.1.2 Trace of Section of Trace 78 192 10.1.3 Trace of Section of Trace 67 - MG3A 194 10.2.1 Details of Rawbolt and Cable Clip 198 10.2.2 Positions of Transducers and Cable Clips on MG9 199 10.2.3 Typical Wave Forms from Four Transducers Mounted on MG9 - Trace 78 201 10.2.4 Location of 0P70 and Positions of Transducers and Cable Clips— 203 10.2.5 Typical Wave Forms from Three Transducers Mounted on 0P70 - Trace 91 206 10.4.1 Transducer Testing Rig 10.4.2 Sketch of Long Section of Wind Tunnel 10.4.3 Wind Speed Recorded by Cup Anemometer vs.
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