- TYPOG RAPHIC TEC HNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTIC ES PART VI . N O. 32

WO RD STUDY A N D E N G LIS H G RA M M A R

A PRIMER of INFORMATION ABO UT WORDS THEIR RELATIONS AND THEIR USES J " I yo, ‘

W éI LL.D. FREDERICK AMILTON ,

E DUCA TI O N A L D I RE CTO R

UN ITE D TYPOTHBTB O F AM E RI CA

PUBLIS H ED BY TH E CO M M ITT E E ON EDUCATIO N

UN ITED TYPOTI-I ETA E O F AM ERICA 1 9 1 8 Ge r ma i n . 19 18 Umzo Tvpoms'un OF AM E RI CA CHI CAG O. lu. PRE FACE

H volume n those w ic f w it in a t VI of IS , a d h h ollo P r

this s s i comilation f va us s uc s. The erie , s a p rom rio o r e s n r i na t t but it s ca occasion doe ot call fo an or gi l rea ise , doe ll for something somewhat different from existing text- books. The books prepared for school use are too academic and too little related to the spec ific needs of the apprentic e to serve the turn of those for whom this book is intended . O n the other hand the books for writers a nd printers are as a rule too advanced for the best se rvic e to the beginner. The a t of t is a t t f e av t ie to e f uhors h P r , here or , h e r d compil rom a wide range of authorities such materia l as would be suite d to the needs and the experienc e of the young apprentice . “ The Rules for the Use and Arra ngement of Words are ta ken with some modifications from How to Write ” e n tt st n R s Cl arly, Edwi A . Abbo , Bo o ; oberts Bros. Thi is a v e c nt tt but is now I v out of ery x elle li le book , belie e, print. The tables of irregular verbs are the same as those “ ” use 1n E n ra ar for n c s R ert d glish G mm Commo S hool , ob

n Th t f e o. C . a d omas Me cal , N w York , American Book C The student is rec ommended to study some good gra m mar with great care . There a re ma ny good gra mmars. ’ The one used in the schools in the apprenti c e s locality

’ will probably do as well as any. The student should learn to use the dictiona ry intelli gently and should accustom himself to using it freely and frequently. The student should also learn to use words correctly a nd fre ely. There are many good books d evoted to the study of w s of ne ord , some which ought to be easily available . O “ ’ ” of the latest and one of the best is Putna m 8 Word Book e Putna ew u publish d by ms, N York. It costs abo t a dollar and a ha lf .

CON TE N TS

INTRODUCTION : IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT

TH E WORD FAMILIES NOUNS

ADJECTIVES

ARTICLES

VERBs

PRONOUNS

ADVE RBS

PRE POSITIONS

CON j UNCTIONS

INTE RJECTIONS

GEN E RAL NOTES

RULES FOR CORRECT WRITING .

TH E SENTENCE

TH E PARAGRAPH

RULES FOR TH E US E A N D A R RANGEMENT OF WORDS

COM M ON ERRORS IN TH E US E OF WORDS

TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

REVIEW !UESTIONS

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

WORD STUDY AN D ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I mporta nce of the Subj ect

ORD study and English gra mma r are important to

the young printer for several reasons. In the first ac e is e a of the c ect use and c nati n of w s pl , d r g rd orr ombi o ord is a distinct mark of in feriority and a serious bar to business ’ a nd soc ial advanceme nt. A ma n s use of words is com monly ta ken as a measure of his kn owledge and even of his intelligence . Carelessness in this regard often ca uses a man to be held in much less estee m than he really deserves. n the sec n ce i is uite nt t at the I o d pla , t q as importa h printer should know somethin g about the words and sen tenc es whic h he puts on paper a s it is that he should know s e h on hic he u t em he om thing about t e paper w h p ts h , or t t e ink nd es e ns of w c he uts t e t e e . yp , , a pr s by m a hi h p h m h r In the t i ace n e of w s an d t i e i h rd pl , k owl dge ord he r us s s indispensable to correct proofreadin g which is itself a branch ’ of the printer s cra ft. A working kn owle dge of words a nd thei e at ns t at is of et c an a a is t f e r r l io , h , rh ori d gr mm r here or a tool and a very important tool of the printer. This little book is not intended to be eith er a rhetoric or a grammar. It is only intended to review some of the s est nci es of t sub ects int out a few impl pri pl bo h j , to po of the c mmne i es n he m nc o o st m stak , a d to Show t i porta e to the apprentice of the care ful study and constant use of s me of the an s on w t e c b nat n an d o m y book ords, h ir om i io s, the1r uses.

The Word Fa milies

All the words in the English langua ge belon g to one or an t e of nine fa i ies eac of w ic f mi h e i o h r m l , h h h a ly as a sp c al duty. If youwill always re me mber to which fa mily a word e n s and ust what t at fami e u i v b lo g j h ly do s, yo w ll be sa ed from many very common errors. These nine fa milies are 2 NOUNS

1 n uns a ect v s 3 a t c s 4 ve s S n uns , o ; 2 , dj i e ; , r i le ; , rb ; , pro o ; ve s e s t ns 8 c n uncti ns 9 inter ec 6 , ad rb ; 7 , pr po i io ; , o j o ; , j tions. This order of enumeration is not exactly the sa me as will be found in the gra mma rs. It is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appea ra nce of the nine families in the logical development of la ngua ge . Some forms n e ns we e m ve a ave ce e of i terj ctio , ho v r, ay ry prob bly h pre d d any lan gua ge properly so called .

N ouns

A noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be t u t of Jofin bo a er cold ea r crowd. T e e a re ho gh , , y, p p , , f , h r three things about a noun which indicate its relation to other w s its nume its en e and its case . T e e are two ord , b r, g d r, h r num s s1n lar mean1n one and ua mean1n ber , gu g , pl r l g more than one. The plural is genera lly formed by adding s to the singular. There are a small number of nouns which form t e ura s ffe ent mouse mice cfiild cfii/dr en oot et. h ir pl l di r ly, , ; , ; f , fi These must be learned individua lly from a dictiona ry or

spelling book. There are some nouns which undergo c n es in the fina s a when the s is a e tor ha g l yll ble dd d , cfi, ’ tore/zes ta stoves ies. s a s ust be e n ; s fl, , fly, fl The e l o m l ar ed

individually. There are some nouns which have no sin ua suc as ca ttle clotfies s e w c ave no ua suc g l r, h , , om hi h h pl r l , h a ics onest news a nd s me w ic are the s e in spays , fi y, , o h h am t sin ua nd u suc as deer trout series a e bo h g l r a pl ral , h , , . C r h as in me e must be ta ken in t e use of these nouns, so cas s

i n i i e i e . ma t ema ti i t e ea a c e s s n . fi cs fi s cs h r app r m l ad g, g , p y , i e re n n n in no ura but win and the l k a si gular ou s hav g pl l , o g

to their formth ey are often mistaken for plurals.

m un n uns t a is to sa n uns f b the Co po d o , h t y, o ormed y combination of two or three words which jointly express a n ea ene c n e e nc i w in he f m si gle id , g rally ha g th pri pal ord t or

in of the ua a n ers- ou in!rolle s but in a few cases g pl r l , b g , r ,

w r e m e m - e e f s t s c an e fo a en ser va nts. T s bo h ord h g , x pl , h orm

must be learned by observation and practice . It is very im nt weve t t e be t u ea n and cor porta , ho r, ha th y horo ghly l r ed NOUNS

l e o ot m e u mista es as brotfier - in- la ws rect y us d . D n ak s ch k , ma n- ser va nts. Perhaps the most important use of number is in the rela tion between the noun a nd the verb . The verb as well as the noun has number forms and the number of the noun used as subj ect should always a gree with that of the verb “ with whic h it is connected . Suc h expressions as pigs is ” “ ” i s how be ou? n he e a re a n the st p g , y a d t lik , mo g mo marked evidences of ignorance to be found in c ommon speech . When this pa ra graph was origina lly written a group of high school boys were playing football under the ’ writer s window. Sc raps of their ta lk forced themselves

n his n i n . m i i e essi ns as upo atte t o Al ost nvar ably such xpr o ‘ ” “ ” “ ’ ” “ ” ou was t e was he n t it aim and the y , h y , do , , like took the place of the corresponding c orrect forms of speech . ect ve n uns i h ic in icate a Coll i o , that s t e n ouns wh h d c ns e ab e nume e suc o id r l b r of units c onsidered as a whol , h as erd crowd con res re nt s e iffi c uties becaus the n , , g s, p se om d l e idea of the individuals in the c ollection interferes with the idea of the collection itself. The c ollective nouns call for the singular form of the verb exc ept where the thought applies to the individual pa rts of the collection athe t an to the c ecti n wh e for n ta nc e r r h oll o a s a ol , i s , we a s y,

The crowd looks large . b we a ut s y,

The c rowd look happy. be cause in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the persons who compose the crowd . So in s eakIn of a c m itt e we ma sa p g o m e , y y

The Committee thinks that a c erta in thing should be done . or that h T e Committee think that a c e rtain thin g should be done .

The first phra se would indicate that the committee had c onsid ered and a cted on the subj ect and the statement e e t r pr sen ed a formal decision . The second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members of the NOUNS

committee which might be in a greement but had not been expressed in forma l action . In doubtful cases it is sa fer to use the plural .

E ntire ac curacy in these cases is not a ltogether easy. As in the case with all the nice points of usa ge it requires prac tic e and c ontinual self- obse rvation . By the se means a sort of langua ge sense is developed which makes the use of the right word instinctive . It is somewhat analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to throw out a c ounterfeit bill instinctively when running over a la rge pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its badness when challenged to Show the reason for its rej ection . The young Student should not permit himself to be dis couraged by the apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct spee ch . It is habit a nd rapidly bec omes easier a fter the first efforts. he e at n of n un o to n t n un to T r l io a o t a verb, a o her o , or a preposition is called its case . There are thre e cases ca lled

he n inativ ct ve and ss ssive . W en the n un t om e, obje i , po e h o does something it is in the nominative case and is called the subject of the verb.

The man cuts.

When the noun hassomething done to it it is in the obj ec tive case and is called the obj ect of the verb .

The man cuts paper.

W n a n un n s on a s ti n it i in the he o depe d prepo i o , s also

objective case and is called the object of the preposition .

The paper is cut by ma chinery . The preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not n eeded for clearness.

The foreman gave (to) the men a holiday.

He ca me (on) Sun day.

N ear (to) the press.

He was ten minutes late (late by te n minutes) .

He is 1 8 years old (old by or to the extent of 1 8 years) .

The nominative and obj e ctive cases of nouns do not diPi er — NOUNS ADJECTIVES S

in form . They are distinguished by th eir positions in the sentenc e and th eir relations to oth er words. When one noun owns another the one owning 1s in the possessive case . ’ The man s paper is cut.

Th e possessive case is shown by the form of the noun . It is form ed by adding s preceded by an apostrophe to the n in ti e case t us om a v , h , ’ John s hat. There is a considerable diPi erence of usage regarding the formation of the possessives of nouns e nding in s in the

singular. The general rule is to proceed as in other nouns ’ by adding the apostrophe and the oth er s as Ja mes s fra t.

Devinne advises following the pronunc iation . Where the no n unce as ften n second s is t pro o d , o happe s to avoid the e ssin s un of an t e he ec e prolong d hi g o d o h r s, r omm n ds omitting it in print ’ ’ se hat for s s s hat Mo s , Mo e . ’ For conscience sake .

Plural nouns en ding in s add the apostrophe only ; ending in other letters they add the apostrophe and s like singular ’ ’ n uns e f e lzoue t/ze c/zildren to s. o , t/z on s s , s y

The possessive pronouns never take the apostroph e . We ’ sa lzer t/zeirs i ts. It s is an a ev at n for it is y s, , bbr i io . Care should be ta ken in forming the possessives of phrases n n n uns in a sit n si i c un e conta i i g o ppo io , or m lar ompo dphras s. ” ’ “ We should say I calle d at Brown the printer s or sinc e ’ ” William the Conqueror S time . Adj ecti ves

An ct ve is a w use to ua f it efine adje i ord d q li y, lim , or d a n un w r as w ic has the va ue of n un o , or a ord or ph e h h l a o . N ouns are ordinarily very genera l and in definite in mean in for e a e ma n c nve s n a ve ene e g, x mpl , o y o ly ry g ral id a . To make that idea definite we need the help of one or e esc i tive w s suc as bla ck ta ll stout ood mor d r p ord h , , , g .

I saw a man .

gives no definite idea of the p e rson seen . 6 ADJECTIVES

saw a ta t in a man . I ll , h , d rk, old presents a very d efinite picture . It will be noted that th ese descriptive words have a way of forming c ombinations t me m wev amn t e se ves. I ust be e e e e o g h m l m r b r d, ho r, that all the words thus used describe the noun . Adj ectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This is one of the many verba l short cuts in whic h the English language aboun ds The good die young means good p eople die youn g. W e should seek the good an d beautiful

eans we s ou see o eautifu t in s e s ns m h ld k go d or b l h g , or p r o ,

ua iti es e a s eve t in and eautifu. or q l , or p rh p ry h g good b l Wh en a dj ectives indicate a quality th ey have three forms calle d de gre es indicati ng the extent or amount of the quality possesse d by the noun especially as compared with othe r ects of the same so t a bi ma n a b er ma n tbe bi est obj r , g , igg , gg ma n . T ese e ees are ca e sitive ndicatin os h d gr ll d po , i g p si n of ness c a at ve n icat n ss s i n of ses o big ; omp r i , i d i g po e s o m e i ne s t n e t e man su e ative ndicatin or b g s ha som o h r ; p rl , i g possession of more bigness than a ny oth e r man . Whe n we wish to tell the amount of the quality without c omparing the possessor with any oth er obj ect or group of obj ects we use a modifying word later to be describe d called an adverb.

saw a ve bi man I ry g , in icates t at the man ssesse uc i ne ss but ma es d h po d m h b g , k no c omparison with a ny other man or group of men . a is n is ne a l n icate in two wa fi st b Comp r o ge r l y i d d ys, r , y a in to the ectives the te inati n n a s i /z dd g adj rm o s er a d est b g , bi /zer bi /zest sec n b usin the w s more nd most g , g , or, o d , y g ord a , as s lendid more s lendid mos lendid he ue ti n w ic p , p , t sp . T q s o h h ' of the two methods should be used is not always easy to d ecide . It depe nds somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of sound . A ectives of t e e s a e use he n for dj hr e or mor yll bl s t lo g m, t is the i W tha , addit onal word . e should not say bea utif uler or bea utif ulest. Adj ectives of two syllable s may ofte n be a e eit e wa for exa e it w u be e c omp r d h r y ; mpl , o ld qually ADJECTIVES 7

correct to say nobler a nd noblest or more noble a nd most noble. An exa mple of the influence of euphony may be found in the adj ective bonest. W e might say bonester without h esi ta tion but we should be less likely to say bonestest on acc ount of the awkward combination of syllables involved . Ad j ectives of one syllable usually take the short form but not in i The xc e t ns w ve var ably. e p io , ho e r, are more c ommon in poetry than in prose. Wh e n any question rises it is usually safer to use the long form of c omparison in the c ase of two- syllable a dj ectives and to use the short form i n the case of one- syllable a dj ectives. The proper use of the long formis one of those nic eties of diction whic h c ome only with care ful observation and with training of the ear and of the literary se nse . The w most s u n ve be use as it ften is in the ord ho ld e r d o , ” plac e of a lmost. Ca reless people say I ammost rea dy a a m n1n ama st nea r ea . he ea g I lmo , or ly r dy T phrase I ” “ ammst ea ea means I amin the eatest o o r dy , r lly gr p ssible ” readin e ss. Suc h use of most is c ommon in old E nglish but muc h less so in modern speech .

Two very c ommon adj ectives are irre gularly c ompared . are ood better best and ba d wor se or t it They g , , , , , w s . In sp e of the fact that these adj ectives are a mon g the most com mon in use and th eir c omparison may be suppose d to be n wn b eve d one fte n ea s the ex essi ns oode k o y rybo y , o h r pr o g r , oodest mor e better bestest ba der ba dest wo se n g , , , , , r r , a d wor sest. e e to sa t ese e ressi ns are it N edl ss y, h xp o w hout excuse exc ept that worser is sometimes found in old E nglish . Illiterate people sometimes try to make their spe ech more forc e ful by c ombining the two methods of c omparison in suc x re si ns as more rettier most le d de h e p s o p , sp n i st. Suc h compounds should never be used .

Some a dj ectives are not c ompare d . They are easily ide ntifi e d by th eir meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it must be possesse d fully or not at a ll ea r l double a ll. a ectives ave e , y y, , Some dj h a pr cise meanin g in whic h they cannot be c ompared and a loose or ua one in w ic the can be for exam e t in pop l r h h y ; pl , a h g e ith er is or is not r ound or squa re. N everth eless we use these 8 ARTICLES —VERBS

words in suc h a loose genera l way that it is not absolutely n i c orrect to say rounder and roundest or squa rer and squa rest. Suc h expressions should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible . N one but the very ignorant would say onliest but one ften seesthe e ss nsmore andmost uni , o xpre io que.

This is particularly bad English . Unique does not mean ra re unusua l it eans one of a n , ; m ki d , absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a qua lity which cannot be

possessed in degrees. An object eithe r does or does not li ve I a t.

Arti cles

An article is a little a djective which individualize s the

n un a bo a n a e tbc c w . o , y, ppl , ro d I which is used before c onsonanta l sounds and a n which is used before vowel sounds are ca lled indefinite

articles because they individualize without spec ializing. Tire is c alled the definite artic le because it both individualizes

and spec ializes. A may be used be fore o and uif the sound is rea lly con n z m s nanta as i ue/ a one a use a utilit . f lu a use o l s , , y y be d f f th i o un for a a u be ore b i e b s n t so ded, ex mple, n bo r but

a bor ror .

A verb is a word whic h asserts or dec lares. In other

w s it a es a n un n un te s t n . Jo/ m ord , m k o or pro o ll ome hi g paper tells nothing. Jobn wa stes paper tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of speec h to un e u n i derstan d and to use prop rly. As a r le , a Engl sh verb in t an fift a ts w i c w t t i us has someth g more h y p r h h , i h he r es, should be thoroughly learned from a gra mmar. This is not i t ea so difficult a matter as it m gh app r, exc ept to those

whose native speec h is not E nglish . N evertheless you on the uar a ainst suc un s I een 1 should be g d g h bl der as s , e for I sa w I r unned for I r a n 1 et for I a te 1 tbrowed s ed, , , ,

f the . In st ve s t se arts ar or I tbrew , and like mo rb he p e

regular. In some they are irregular . A list of irregular verbs will be found at the end of this volume . VERBS 9

While the plan of this book does not call for a syste m n e t f n t e w s it is atic study of verbs a y mor han o a y o h r ord , desirable to call attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes. i of ve i u e t n its A simple sentence c ons sts a rb , ts s bj c , a d ti n e su ect is the obj ect. The verb indicates the ac o , th bj h n i es the act th e noun (na me of a person or t i g) wh c h do , obj ect is the noun to which the thing is done . Verbs have n n nu for e a e : forms denoting perso a d mber, x mpl

Singul Plura l l st I lovc 1 st We love zud Youlove (thoulovest) zud Youlove

formal and archaic . 3 rd He loves 3 rd They love Singular Plural l st I was l st We were 2ud Youwere (thouwast) 2ud Youwere 3 rd He was 3 rd They were

Verbs agree with their subj ects in person and number. We all know this but we do not always remember it. Unless re ve care fu ouwi find us f usin a s n ua youa ry l, y ll yo r el g i g l r subj ect with a plural verb or the reverse . Mista kes of this sort are pa rticularly liable to happen in the case of c ollect e n un in the use of e s na n uns as su ects and iv o s, p r o l pro o bj , in c ases wh ere the subj ect and the verb are far separated in the sente nc e. Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subj ect is acting or is acte d upon are called voic es. Wh en the subj ect is acting the verb is said to be in the active voic e . When the subject is acted upon the verb is said to be in the passive voic e . Verbs in the passive voic e have no objects e t ein acte u n is tse f in the ac e because th e subj c , b g d po , i l pl of a n obj ect. Those forms of the verb whic h tell whether the time of

e ti n is ast esent futue are ca le tenses. th ac o p , pr , or r , l d They

ix viz. are s ,

esent I a m in the . Pr , print ( print g) book

t e rfect in ed the . Pas or imp , I pr t book 10 VERBS

Futue /z l the . r , I s a l print book Pe fect s nt e fect e ed the r , or pre e p r , I Mor print

book. P u e fect ast e fect a d r i ted the l p r or p p r , I b p n book

be fore youwrote . ' Futu e fect I wi n tif ou hen I s/za ll re p r , ll o y y w ‘ ba ve printed the book. When a dverbs denoting time are indicated care should be take n to see that the verb is c onsistent with the a dverb . ” “ r in ed it este a not a ed i e ter I p t y rd y, I b ve pr int t y s day , “ I /ta fve not yet printed It not I did not print it yet ; “ ba ve ri nted it a ea not nted it a ea . I p lr dy, I pri lr dy Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be used in subordinate Clauses. The rule is: Verbs in subordinate sentenc es and c lauses must be governe d by the tense of the princ ipal verb . This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words use d and its application can be checke d by care ful ” examination of these meanings. He sa id he did it. “ ” ” He sa id he would do it. He says he will do it. N ote that when the state ment in the subordinate c lause is of universal applic ation the present tense is always use d ” whatever the tense of the princ ipal verb. The lecturer said that wa rmweather always softens rollers. Those forms of the verb whic h tell wheth er the action is an actua fact a ss i it a c nditi n omm l , po ib l y, o o , or a c and are called moods.

T ere are t e m s the incIIcative su unctive n h hr e ood , , bj , a d imperative .

The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact.

It is a lso used in asking questions. The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old

E nglish . It is most c ommonly foun d in c lauses beginning with if ; though if is not to be regarded as the S ign of the subjunctive in any such sense as to is the sign of the infin itive . The subjunctive were should be used in purely hypothet “ ” ical c lauses such as If I were in your plac e.

12 VERBS

Ouglzt which is sometimes c onfounde d with must in phrases of this sort expresses mora l obligation as disti n

guished from necessity.

You u to the ues of the ffice o ght obey r l o ,

indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right

thin g to do even though no penalty is atta ched .

You ust e the u s of the ffic e m ob y r le o ,

indicates that youwill be pun ishe d if youdo not obey. Those forms of the verb which express the time of the

action are called tenses. N o particula r diffi culty attends the use of the tenses exc ept in the case of s/za ll and will and

sbould and would.

Sba ll and will are used as follows: I n simple ' statements to e ess e futu t use sba ll in the fi st e s n will xpr m re ri y, r p r o , in e e n n t o iti n i ur th s co d a d hird ; t express vol o , prom se , p e t nati n or acti n w i the s a e eans pos , de ermi o , o h ch pe k r m t ue l in the fi st s n /z ll in the e c n o control s wil r per o , s a s o d

and third . The following ta bles should be lea rned and practi ce d in a large variety of c ombin ations.

Futurit iti n tc y Vol o , e . We shall I will We will Youwill Youshall Youshall They will He sha ll They shall

A good exa mple of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of the foreigner who fell into the water and “ c e out in t and s ai will wn n s/za ll ri d error de p r I dro , obody ” help me.

In as n uesti n f r th fi t e s n wa ue l ki g q o s, o e rs p r o al ys s s/i a l , for the second a nd third use the auxiliary expected in the answer. Futurity Shall I (I sha ll) Shall we (We shall) Shall you(I shall) Sha ll you(We sha ll) Will he (He will) Will they (They will) VERBS 13

iti etc Vol on , .

Will you(I will) Will you(We will) Sha ll he (He shall) Shall he (He shall)

n ll t e case n u n t us i I a o h r s, as i s bordi a e cla es s/za ll isused n all e s nsto e ss futu t ll to e ss v ti n etc p r o xpre mere ri y, wi xpre oli o , . n i e f he n In i d rect discourse , when the subj ct o t pri cipal C aus is iff e nt f the n un c ause the usa is e l e d re rom o l , ge lik t at in i ect t nt for exa e h d r sta eme , mpl ,

The teacher says that Ja mes will win the medal . (futurity) . but when the subj ect of the principa l c lause is the sa me as t t f the n un c ause the usa e is i e t at in u n te ha o o l , g l k h s bordi a ue c la s s,

The teacher says that he shall soon resign . (futurity)

Exc eptions. ”471 is often used in the second person to express an official command .

Youwill report to the superintendent at once .

Sba ll is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic sense. Ye shall kn ow the truth a nd the truth shall make youfree. The use of sbould and would is in genera l the same as that of sha ll and will in indirect state ment.

Futurity . I Should We would Youwould Youshould He would They should

I n asking questions use sbould in the first person to expre ss e futu nd would to e ess t n e m re rity a xpr voli io , tc ; in the second and third persons use the form that is expected in the answer. Futurity Should I (I should) Should we (We should) Should You(I should) Should You (We should) Would he (He would) Would they (They would) 14 VERBS

V iti n etc ol o , .

Would I (I would) Would we (We would) Would You(Youwould) Would You (We would) Should he (He should) Should they (They should)

In subordinate clauses sbould is use d in all persons to e ess futuit would to ex ess v iti n etc . xpr r y, pr ol o , In indirect disc ourse the usage is similar to that in direct sta tement.

The teache r sa id that John would win the m eda l.

Exceptions. Sbould is often used to express moral ob ligation .

Youshould be honest under all conditions. / bI ould is sometimes used to express frequentive action .

He would walk the floor night a fter n ight.

Mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of fa ilure to grasp the meaning of the words used . s u ave e to ave seen ou I ho ld h lik d h y , is c ect ram a but a not c ect sta te e nt of fact orr g m r prob bly orr m , as it states a past d esire to have done something at a period “ sti furt e e ote t u ll h r r m , hat is to say, I sho ld have liked

(yesterday) to have se e n you (day be fore yesterday) . What Is generally meant is e ith er I should have like d to “ ” see ou t at is t en wis e to see ou y , h I ( h ) h d y , or I ” “ u i e to ave een ou t at is now wi h sho ld l k h s y , h I ( ) sh I ad see n you(then ) . E ve ry word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes a rise from lac k of regard for the exa ct value of the words to be used . Where a pa rtic ipia l construction is use d a s the obj ect of a ve he u r n un in he ect shodl e In the rb , t n o n or p o o t obj d b

possessive case and n ot in the obj ective . You should not “ ” sa I ct to watc in me but o ect to his y, obje him h g , I bj

watching me .

Care should b e ta ken not to give obj ects to passive verbs. “ The ve ry common expression The ma n was give n a — VERBS PRONOUNS 1 5

Chance is inc orrect. It should be A chance was given ” to th mn e a .

Care should also be ta ken to avoid the omission of the prepositions whic h are neede d with c erta in ve rbs for ex ’ “ mle beware the dog What happened him should p’ , b the W at n o . be beware of dog, h happe ed t him On the other hand superfluous prepositions are some ti e in uc s a on ide ce t o an e mes us d s h phra es s c s r of ; a c p f d th

like. Such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words and careful observation of th e best

written and spoken sp eech .

Pronouns

Pronouns are substitutes for nouns. They are labor

saving devic es. We c ould say everything which we nee d to t ut t emb th e ens o e iti say wi ho h , ut at e xp e f much r pet on of “ ’ longer words. A child often says John wants Henry s ” ball instea d of I want your ball . Consta nt remem n of is i f n n t bra ce th s mple act, that a pro oun is o ly a subs itute for n un is a a u all t at i n e e to se a o , re lly bo t h s e d d cure correct usage a fte r the pronouns themselves have onc e

become familiar. A c onstruction whic h appears doubtful can often be d ec id ed by substituting nouns for pronouns

a nd vic e versa . A very c ommon error is the use of the plural possessive n uns wit the w s a n ever ea clz omebod eve d pro o h ord y, y, , s y, rybo y, n o o ll of w c e w n a d n b dy , a hi h ar a l ays si gular.

We c ould acc omplish this if every one would do

their part.

is wrong. It should be We c ould accomplish this if every one would do

his part. Another c ommon mistake is the c onfusion of the nom 1nat1ve and objective cases In obj ecti ve c lauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun occur. 16 PRONOUNS—ADVERBS

All this was done for youand I . is a very c ommon but entirely inexcusable mistake . One would ha rdly think of sayin g “ All this was done for I .

I saw John a nd he leaving the shop . is almost equally common and quite equa lly bad. Do not allow yourself to be c onfuse d by a double object. In genera l great care should be taken to avoid a mbiguity in the use of pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and c ombine pronouns in suc h a way that while gra mmatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left hopelessly c onfused . uc a u us s nt nc es s u c a e u t e a S h mbig o e e ho ld be le r d p, ei h r by rearra ngement of the words or by substitution of nouns for some of the pronouns.

Adverbs

n a ve i a e to a v fea e t A d rb s help r erb, I r gr atly, tha ” s w s a . A ve s if e ve s ec pres ork b dly d rb mod y or h lp rb , adj tives and t a v s ust as a ct ves if n uns , o her d erb j dje i mod y o and pron ouns. The use of adverbs presents some diffi in a s n f the a v a use of an culties, ma ly ri i g rom d erbi l m y other parts of speec h and from the close relation between adverbs and a djectives. It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never m f n uns n uns a ct v s n v f n odi y o or pro o , dje i e e er modi y a y thing but n ouns or pronouns. Reme mbra nce of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use of adverbs or adj ectives. Ca re ful observation and care in forming c orrect habits of expression will do the rest.

Do not multiply negatives. They cancel eac h other like “ the factors in an arithmetica l problem. He never did ” wrong is correct in statement and clear in meaning. “ n ve n t n w n es not add f c it He e r did o hi g ro g do or e , reverses the m eaning. The negatives have c anc elle d each “ ” “ other and youare saying He did wrong. He never did nothing wrong to nobody leaves us with an odd and n s us ac to the fi st stat negative bri g b k r ement, very badly expressed. PREPOSITIONS— CONJUNCTIONS 1 7

Prepositions

A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang n u e e e the n un n un w c an s o . It us ally pr c d s o or pro o hi h h g , e n u n it n i te b its na e w ic is de or d pe ds po , as i d ca d y m h h rived from the Latin pre- before andpono- I plac e .

John is behind the press.

I shall work until Sunday. A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its obj ect to som e oth er word or words in the sen tence it a e e w ta te ma es the n un or, as h s b en oth r ise s d , k o or pronoun to which it is joine d equivalent to an adj ective ” or a n a dverb . The expression John is behind the press

s uiva ent to an a ective in n . at is h e q l dj describ g Joh Th , i . e ” 1S Joh n behmd- the- press. Prepos1t1ons a re governi ng words a nd the words governe d by or depending on them are always in the obj ective case.

Conj uncti ons

A conjunction is the coupling link betwee n the parts of a train of thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to c onnect.

I amcold and hungry and tire d and I a mgoing home . Care should be ta ken to avoid con fusing a nd and but and a nd and or

He se e s the right and does the wrong. should be

He sees the right but doe s the wrong.

he re nt a te not i te T ideas a co r s d, assoc a d .

I did not see Thomas an d John . should be

I did not see Thomas or John .

The fi st ase eans t at did not e t e r phr m h I se he m togeth r,

it says nothin g about see ing th em separately. — — Eit/ter ar and neitber nor are called correlative con

junctions. Th ey should always be paired in thisway. N ei tber

should never be pa ired with or nor eitber with nor . E ach — 1 8 INTERJECTIONS GENERAL NOTES

me mber of the pair should be place d in the sa me re lative

t n t at i s f the sa a t of s e c . posi io , h be ore me p r p e h

I c ould neither see himnor his father. is wrong. It should be

I could see neither him nor his father.

e l t e atives t a i si e This rule appli s to al o h r c orrel , h t s nc they are c orrelatives in form they should be correlatives in po sition also . It is correct to say

It belongs both to youand to me.

It belongs to both youand me. but not

It belongs both to youand me. I nterj ections

An interj ection is a word or sound expressing emotIOn ut oan a b1ss a ob the l1ke only such as a sho , a gr , , s , or , u/ such as a la s, b s z.

Genera l N otes

The position of words in a sentence is often ve ry im portant. Mispla cement will frequently cause a mbiguities and absurdities which punctuation will not remove. What “ ” does the p hrase I only saw him mean ? A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was ofi ered “ sa s is t u use- n w ea for sale y He horo ghly ho broke , ill t any t n is ver f n of c n . As a u fi s s u hi g, y o d hildre r le modi er ho ld be kept close to the words, clauses, or phrases which they f ut due e a s u ven to s s and to eas modi y, b r g rd ho ld be gi en e e of expression . A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often be omitte d . Care must be used in mak ing these omissions or the result will be either a mbiguous or slovenly.

Washingt on is nearer N ew York than Chicago . What exactly do es this mean ? One might get into serious “ trouble over the interpretation of the phrase He likes me ” better than you.

20 CAMPBELL’S CANONS

not use n nus rt i Do lo g, u ua l words. Use Sho and s mple

words wheneve r th ey will se rve your turn . It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of long words is a mark e ither

of d epth of thought or of extent of information. The fol lowing bit oi non sense is ta ke n from the news columns of “ a newspap er of good stan ding : The topography about Puebla ava ils itself easily to a forc e whic h c an utilize the ” h eights above the city with ca nnon. Wh at was m ea nt ” was a e in e is he itut ue a prob bly som th g lik th , T s a ion of P bl is suc h as to give a great advanta ge to a forc e whic h can ” pla nt c annon on the high ground overlooking the c ity .

D o not use inflated or exa ggerate d words. A bea uy s/zower is not a cloud burst; a ga le is not a blizza rd; a fi re i s not a conflag ra tion ; an a ccident or a defi a t is not a disa ster ; a flzta l a ccident i s not a boloca ust; a sba rp criticismis n n excoria ti or an o n ot a on flaying, d s o .

Rulesf or Correct Writing

More than a century ago the great Sc otc h rhetoric ian

Campbell fra med five ca nons or rules for c orrect writing.

They have never been improved . They should b e l earned e t u a e e n nsta nt act c e by h art, horo ghly m st r d , a d co ly pr i d by

every writer and Sp eaker. They are as follows: — an n 1 . Wh en of t o w s or a ses in e ua C o , w ord phr q lly se e o i nific tion n he good u , on is susceptible of tw s g a s a d t t e of but one e fe ence s ul v n to the att : o h r , pr r ho d be gi e l er m he atte w e . d i a i tt miss s t . g a tt nce s be er than a d ion, a l r ord n e fe re to rela tion also mea s confi ssion ; rela ti ve i s to be pr r d ,

as the latter also means the telling of a story. — Canon 2 . In doubtful cases regard should be given to the a nalogy of the la nguage ; mtg/i t better Should be preferred to ba d better and would ra tber is better than ba d ra tber . ,— Canon 3 . The simpler an d bri efer form should be pre

f t in i ua . . it the ac te erred , o her th gs be n g eq l , e g , om br ke d w s i n ex essi n s o e u meet to etber ord pr o s such a , p n ( p) , ( g ) , l o a ter exa min i ra e out brid e over cra ve fi l w ( f ) , e ( nto) , t c ( ) , g ( ) ,

(fi r ) etc . — SENTENCES PARAGRAPHS

— Ca non 4 . Between two forms of expression in equally

use efe the one w ic i s u ni us: e . . good , pr r h h more e pho o g , mos bea uti ul is tte t an bea uti ul/est a nd more r ee is to t f be r h f , f be pre ferred to f r eer . — Can on 5 . In cases not covered by the four prec eding e t at w c nf s to the e usa can ons, pref r h hi h co orm old r ge : e . g. begi n is better than commence.

The Sentence

The proper c onstruction of sentences is very importa nt to good writing. The following simple rules will be of great assista nce in sentenc e formation . They should be ca refully l earned and the pupil should be drilled in th e m . et eac sentenc ave one a nd n one n 1 . L h e h , o ly , pri cipal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentenc es.

2 . The c onnection between diff erent sentences must e e t a v r s use as c n uncti ns e b k p up by d e b d o j o , or by m ans of some other c onnecting words at the beginning of th e sentenc e .

3 . The c onnection between two long sentenc es or pa ra graphs sometime s requires a short intervening sentence

Showing the transition of thought.

The Pa ragraph

The proper c onstruction of pa ra graphs is al so of great importanc e . The following rul es will se rve as guides for paragraphing. They Should be learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application.

1 . A sentenc e which c onti nues the topic of the sentenc e whic h prec edes it rather than introduc es a new topic should never begin a paragraph .

2 . Eac h para graph should possess a Single central topic to which all the statements in the para gra ph should relate . The introduction of a single state ment not so related to the c entral topic violates the unity.

3 . A sentence or short passa ge may be deta ch ed from the pa ragraph to whic h it properly belon gs if the writer wishes parti cularly to emphasize it. 22 USE AN D ARRANGEMENT O F WORDS

4 o ease in e n ssa e w i e e t r . F r r a di g, a pa g h ch xc e ds h ee hundre d words in l engt h may be broken into two para ven n i ev graphs, e though o new top c has been d eloped .

. An essi n f the c en t ic an c 5 y digr o rom tral op , or y hange in the v ew int in ns e n the cent a t ic m i po co id ri g r l op , de ands a n ew paragraph .

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural an d logical order of development.

7 . Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely

e te e tences. n fa ut weve is the in r la d s n A commo l , ho r, corre ct use of such words as a nd or but betwe en sentenc es whic h are not closely related.

8 . n ve in the a a as i ecue b I de lop g p r graph , emph is s s r d y a care ful c onsideration of the relative values of the ideas e esse v n to eac ea ac e rt nate to its xpr d, gi i g h id sp propo io importa nc e to the whole . This secures the proper c limax.

9 . he a a a h i the c m s ti n tse f s u T p r gr p , l ke o po i o i l , ho ld

ssess c ea ness un t c erenc e and e as s. It is a po l r , i y, oh , mph i group of related sentences developing a central topic . Its length depends upo n the l ength of the composition a n d upon the number of topics to be discussed .

Rulesf or the Use a nd A rra ngement of Words

The following rules for the use and arran ge ment of words will be found helpful in sec uring clearness and forc e .

1 . Use words in their proper sense .

2 . Avoid useless circumlocution a nd fine writin g.

3 . Avoid exaggerations. e a d a n but o l 4 . Be ca reful in th use of not . n , y, , n y, not . or , tha t.

e efu i h e of i u us w s e . . 5 . B car l n t e us a mb g o ord , g ,

e c fu i the e of t e these etc . 6 . B are l n us he, it, h y, ,

7 . Report a speec h in the first person wh ere nec essa ry to avoid a mbiguity.

8 . Use the third p erson wh ere the exact words of the sp eaker are not intended to be given . USE AN D ARRANGEMENT O F WORDS 23

. W en ou use a art c e n when ile 9 h y p i ipl implyi g , wh , w c ea b the c ntext w at is i though, or tha t, sho l rly y o h impl ed . W sin the lative noun use ho i 1 0 . hen u g re pro , w or wh ch,

n i d r he it. if the meani g s a nd he or a n it, fi orfi r

1 1 . Do n ot use a nd which for which.

12 . Repeat the antec edent before the relative where the non- repetition causes a ny ambiguity.

1 3 . Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns

14 . Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used .

1 5 . Use particular persons instea d of a class.

16 . Do not c onfuse metaphor.

1 7 . D o not mix m etaphor with literal state ment.

1 8 . Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.

19. Emphatic words must sta n d in e mphatic positions; i e the st a t at the e nnin the end of e . . , for mo p r , b gi g or th senten ce. em tic w s ust as a rue be e t f 20 . Un pha ord m , l , k p rom the en d.

e t if n em tic f 2 1 . Th Subjec , uusually pha , should o ten be transferred from the beginning of the sentenc e.

22 . The object is sometimes plac ed before the verb for tnnpha ds.

23 . Where severa l words are e mphatic make it c lear whic h is the most emphatic . Emphasis can sometimes be e in a n t et an ntensif n giv n by add g epi h , or i yi g word .

24 . Words should be as nea r as possible to the words with which they are gra mmatically conn ected .

25 . Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.

26. Only ; the strict rule is that only should be placed before the word it aff ects.

27 . When not only precedes but a lso see that eac h is followed by the same part of speech . t lea t a a s and t e a v ia a un 28 . A s , lw y , o h r d erb l dj cts some times produce ambiguity.

29. N ouns should be plac ed near the nouns that they define. 24 USE AN D ARRANGEMENT O F WORDS

3 0. Pronouns should follow the nouns to whi ch they refer without the interventio n of any other noun.

3 1 . Clauses that are gra mmatically c onnected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid pare ntheses.

3 2 . In c onditio nal sentences the antece dent or if clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent c lause s.

3 3 . D ependent clauses preceded by tha t should be kept distinct from tho se that a re independent.

34. Where there are seve ral i nfinitives those that are dependent on the sa me word must be kept distinct from those that a re not. n a se nt nc e wi t e ou etc ut the 3 5 . I e h if ; wh n, th gh, . p — ” if c lause first.

3 6. Repeat the subj ect where its omission would cause obscurity or a mbiguity.

3 7 . Repeat a preposition a fter a n i nterve ning conjunc tion espec ially if a verb a nd a n object also inte rvene . Re eat n unct ns au ia ve s an n m 3 8 . p co j io , xil ry rb , d pro o inal adj ectives. e f e e n n e 39. Rep at verbs a t r th conju ctio s tha n, a s, tc . e eat the su ect me the e atic w 40 . R p bj , or so o r mph ord , a of t h s een a if the s nten e so or a summ ry wha a b s id , e c i s long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meanin g un broken .

41 . Clearn ess is increased when the begi nning of the sentenc e prepares the way for the middle a nd the middle fo he end the w e f n a n of asc nt. This r t , hol ormi g ki d e ” ascent i s call e d climax .

42 . When the thought is expected to a scend but de

e fee en nd et s c nfusi n is the esut. sc nds, bl ess, a som ime o o , r l ” The d esc ent is called bathos.

43 . A new construction Should not be introduc ed unex pectedly.

Common E rrors in the Use of Words

The following pages c ontai n a short list of the more common errors in the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost ind efinitely. It is only attempted to call COMMON ERRORS 25

attent n to suc sta s as are for va i us reas ns io h mi ke , r o o , most liable to occur.

A should be repeated for every individual . A red and ” “ ac eans one a re d a n bl k book m book, d a black book means two.

b a n i i Ab revi te, a d a bridge; a bbr ev a tion s the shortening of a piec e of writing no matte r how a cc omplish ed . An a bridgement is a c ondensation. Abilit we to s t in ul e i t y, po r do ome h g, sho d b d s inguished f w e o e ve e in rom capacity, po r t r c ei som th g.

Above s u not be use as a n a ect ve e . ho ld d dj i , g., The state ent a in a bove a a a . u stitute r e i m m de p r gr ph S b p ced ng,

r e oi n e i a a ective . fi g g , or som Sim l r dj

Accept, not a ccept of : n e ntia u Accredit, to give o e cr de ls sho ld be distinguishe d f at ne sa . rom credit, to believe wh o ys Administer is often misused . O ne a dmi nister s a dose of e c n the aws an at the ve n ent one m di i e, l , o h, or go r m ; does not a dmi nister a blow. Admi is is ft n nc ct use for mi is e e n ter to n t r o . o e i orre ly d t , g., ” The red cross nurse a dmi nister s to the wounded . Admi r e s u not us to ess e ht as in the ho ld be ed expr d lig , “ ” phrase I should a dmir e to do so.

Admit should be distinguished from conf ess. Advent s u ist n uis e f a r riva l a dve ho ld be d i g h d rom , nt meaning a n epoc h- making a r r iva l. Afi ble means easy to speak to and should not be c onfused with agreea ble.

Afi ct should be distinguished from Wet. To afi ct is to influenc e ; to ej ect is to cause or bring about.

Aggra va te should not be used for a nnoy or vex or provohe. “ ” It mea ns to make worse . ’ Ain t is a c orruption of a mnot. It is inelegant though ’ grammatical to say I a in t but absolutely inc orrect in other persons a nd numbers. Alihe Should not be accompa nied by both as in the phrase

They are both a lihe in this respect.

l l t s u n v w tten a ri ht. A l, A l righ ho ld e er be ri l g All and universa lly should never be used together. All should not 26 COMMON ERRORS

be cc ni e o . He ec e ve a ll the a ompa d by f , e . g , r i d of ” votes. Be care ful about the use of a ll i n n egative state “ ” ments. D o not say All present are not pri nters when “ ” youmean N ot all present are pri nters. The first state ent e n e e e o inte s e ent the n m m a s th r ar n pr r pr s , seco d means there are some printers present.

Alle e is a c n e for sa sta te and the i e . It g ommo rror y, , l k “ ” “ ” “ eans to ec a to affi to asse t wit the m d l re , rm, or r h ” id ea of positiveness and is not applicable to ordinary state ments not needing e mphasis.

Allow ea ns er mi t nev hink a dmi . m p , er t or t

Allude to is not the same as mention. A person or thin g alluded to is not mentioned but i ndirectly implied . Alone whic h means una ccompa nied Should be distinguished from only which means no other . Alter na tive should never be used in spea king of more than two things.

Altogether is not the sa me a s a ll together . m e e A o u n e r . . T ng Sho ld ot b use d with one a nothe , g h y ” divided the spoil a mong one a nother . It should be among the mselves. And should not be plac ed before a relative pronoun in suc h a position as to interfere with the c onstruction . It “ should not be substituted for to in such cases as Try a nd ” take more exerc ise .

And which Should not be used for which.

u f o r me . . en Another sho ld be ollowed by tha n n tf o , g M ” of another temperf rom(tha n) the Greeks. Answer is that which is given to a question ; reply to an a ssertion

Antici a te should not be used i n the sense of expect. It p ” means to foresta ll . Anxious should not be confused with desi rous. It mea ns ” fe eling anxiety.

Any is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care . ” “ Any of the m may be either singular or plura l . It is ” ” not intended for a ny machine may mean There i s “ e It is not in no machine for whic h it is intend d , or ” ten for v ac n but n for a s ecia t . ded e ery m hi e, o ly p l ype

28 COMMO N ERRORS

Ba dly should not be use d for very much. It should not ” ” be c on fused with the adj ective ba d. He looks ba dly ” ea ns a es a bad use of his e e e m he m k y s, say H looks ba d.

Ba nh on is slang. Say rely on or trust i n . Be is ft n nc ect use in the ense of e g o e i orr ly d s b g lea ve, a cc ” not I beg to say but I beg lea ve to say. ’ Beside meaning b the side of should not be c on fuse d , y‘ with besides meanin g in a ddition to.

Between applies only to two p ersons or things. Bla me as a ve s u n eve use on —rb ho ld r be d . B th n bot a d re use u o , whe h n a d be s re they c o nnect the “ ” “ i t s can t S e an un tut r gh word , He bo h p ll d p c a e not He ” both ca n Spell an d punctuate . Do not use such expres “ ” sions as They both rese mble eac h other. Be ca re ful to v c n fu n in the use of ne at v s t en D o not a oid o sio g i e ta em ts. ” say Both cannot go when youmean that one can go. Bound in the sense of determined is an American ism and “ ” is better avoided . We say he is bound to do it mea ni ng “ ” ” he i d t r mi ed to it but the e s e e n do , phrase really mea ns H ” i ti o s under bonds, or obliga on t do it. Bri s u be ca e ful istin us f tc r ng ho ld r ly d g i hed rom fi h, ca r y and ta ke. Br ing means to transfer toward the speake r. Fetch

meansto go and bring bac k. Ca rry and ta he mean to transfer f e e B rom the S eak r, . : g. , ri ng a book home from the ” p’ ” libra ry. Fetch me a glass of wate r. Ca r ry this proof ” ” to the proofreader. Ta he this book home . But is sometimes used as a prepositio n a nd when so used “ takes the objective case . The boy stood on the burning ” deck whe nc e all but himhad fled . But should not be used in c onnection with tha t unless intende d to express the t he me nin it ut s t of w a t a w ul w it e . . oppo i e h g o d be ho , g , “ ” I have no doubt but tha t he will die is incorrect because “ his death is expecte d . I have no fear but tha t he will ” “ c i a the ean n nt n is a m u ome s correct, s m i g i e ded I s re ” he will c ome .

But wha t is often inc orrectly used for but tha t. I can ” ” not believe but wha t he is guilty probably mea ns I can ” “ ” but believe that he is guilty . I ca nnot but believe means ” I must believe . COMMON ERRORS 29

Ca lcula te does not mea n thinh or suppose.

Ca lcula ted does not mean lihely . It m eans i nte nde d or ” planne d for the purpose . Ca n whic h indicates ability is to be distinguishe d from may whic h indicates permission .

not but s u ca efu istin uis e f ca n ut Ca n ho ld be r lly d g h d rom b , “ ” “ ” “ e . g. I ca n but try means All I ca n do 18 try. l ca nnot “ ” but try means I cannot help trying. ’ e m u not be use for e b e e s s em na e . . Ca n t s ho ld d u l , g , I ’ ca n t seemto see it.

Childlihe should be care fully distinguished from childish.

Childish re fers pa rtic ularly to the weakn ess of the child .

om u not c nfuse wit Go. me e n te C e sho ld be o d h Co d o s 120 ti n t wa the s a e o ti n f the s a e f o o rd pe k r ; g mo o rom pe k r, I ” e e e Wi to e youwill c om to s me , I ll go s e you.

Common Should be distinguishe d from mutua l. Common “ ' “ ” means shared In c ommon. M utua l means reciprocal and ca n re fer to but two persons or things. A common friend is a frien d two or more fri ends have i n c ommon. M utua l friendship is the friendship of two persons for each oth er.

o C ma re o !th to coma re wi th ans asue o p t , en , p , me me r by ” or po1nt out S ImIIarItIeS a nd d1ffere nc es. o 0 ” t e ns ultable ese e e Condgn m a s or d rved , not n c ssarIIy

Co done ans to f ve nu f b w act n me orgi or lli y y ord or , ” not make a mends for. Consider In the sense of rega r d a s Should not usually be ” ’’ c onsider him n f e a . . I a i m ollow d by s, e g w se a , not a s ’ a wise man. Contemptible is used of an obj ect of c ontempt and it should be distinguished from contemptuous which 18 used of what “ is irecte at suc an ect . . 1s a contem ib d d h obj , e g He pt le ” “ ” fellow. I gave hima contemptuous look.

Continua l should not be c on fused with continuous. Con ” ” f u e tinua l means req ently r peated . Continuous mea ns un1nterrupted. e s to me Convene, whic h m an c o together, should not be confuse d with convole whic h mea ns to bring or call to 30 COMMON ERRORS

gether. A legislature convenes. It cannot be convened by t u b ano her, b t it ca n e convohed. ’ Crime is often used for Off e nsesa gainst the speaker sse nse “ of right. Properly crime is a technical word mea ning of fenses a gainst law. A most innoce nt action may be a crime if it is c nt a to a statute. The t sinfu rue di o r ry mos l , c l , or s honest action is no cr ime unl ess prohibited by a statute.

D a nger ous Should not be used for da ngerously ill.

lural. ‘ that whic h i nflicts death should not be con “ f e i a l t s es e t us d w th de th y, tha whic h re embl d a

D ecided must not be c onfused with decisi ve. A decided vic tory is a cl ea r a nd unmista kable victory. A decisive victory isone whic h dec ides the outc ome of a war or of a ca mpaign .

D ecima te mea ns to ta ke away one- tenth . It is not prop erly used in a gene ral wa of th e infliction of severe losses. y ” Defi nite which means well defined Should not be con “ fused with defi nitive which means fi nal .

D emea n is related to demea nor a nd means behave . It should be carefully distinguished from deg ra de or lower . ‘ W in i ie. e die a c ta s as not with mit D qf er d e e , orf ro

D ifi r in the sense of disa gree is followed by with. I ” dtfiZ r with you. Bif er as indicating unlikeness is followed

D r e t s u be fo w b romneve b t ifi n ho ld llo ed y f r y wi h, tha n, or to.

D i rectly should not be used for a s soon a s. “ t et n w e i i te Discover , o fi nd som hi g hich pr v ously ex s d should be distinguished from invent something for the first time . Disinterested means having no fina nc ial or material in ” terest in a thing. It should be carefully distinguished from “ ” uninterested which means taking no interest in a thing. “ ” o ut ul not e c nf t Dispense, t distrib e sho d b o used wi h “ ” t o w t ut. dispense wi h, t do i ho

D isposition is not the sa me as disposa l. “ Disti nguish whic h means to perceive diff erenc es should ' “ not be c onfused with diflerentia te whic h means to make or ” c onstitute a difference . COMMO N ERRORS 3 1

Divide should be carefully distinguishe d from distribute. ’ ’ Don t is a contraction of do not. D oesn t i s the contrac ’ ’ ’ e t n t the o h es t tion for do s no . I do , y d n t, e do n . D ue Should not be use d for owing to or beca use of

E a ch is distributive a nd i s always singular. E a ch other whic h is applic able to two only should not be c onfused with one a nother which is applicable to more tha n two. ’ E oti t man wit a nc e te in n of him g s , a h high or co i d op io s f u ot nfuse w t oist w ic is the na e el , sho ld n be c o d i h eg h h m for a belie ver in a c erta i n philosophical doctrine . Either is distributive a nd therefore singular and should never be used of more tha n two. Elega nt denotes delicacy and refine ment a nd should not be used as a term of general approval .

l e u be f we b tha n t . n E s sho ld ollo d y n, o by but N o o e else tha n ( not but ) he c ould have done so muc h .

Emi ra n one who es out of a c un u g t, go o try sho ld not be n fue w t imm e who c es int u t c o s d i h igra nt, on om o a co n ry . E normit is us of w e ness c ue t no y ed ick d , r l y, or horror, t of eat s1ze f r wh1 h rmous ss s u W gr , o c eno ne ho ld be used . e speak of the enormity of an offence but of the enormousness of a crowd .

E nthuse should not be used as a verb. E ua l a s we sa e ua ll ell a q ly ll ; y q y w , or s well.

E very pla ce used a dverbially should be every where.

E xcept Should never be used in the sense of unless or but. ” E xce tiona l w ic eans unusua f m n ex p h h m l , or ing a ” h c eption Should not be confused with exceptiona ble whic ” mea ns open to obj ection. E xpect whic h involves a sense of the future should not be c fuse w t su ose and S a w s s in on d i h pp imil r ord , a the phrase “ ” I expect youkn ow all about it.

Factor 1s not to be c onfounded with ca use.

Fa lsity applies to things f a lseness to pe rsons. “ , At f a ult mea ns at a loss of what to do next. In f a ult ” means in the wrong.

Fa vor should not be used in the sense of resemble.

Fema le s u not be use for woma n . The w s ema le ho ld d ord f , 3 2 COMMON ERRORS

oma n la d s ul be us w t c areful attent n to w , and y ho d ed i h io their respective Sha des of meaning.

Few w i asiz s the fact t at the nu e is sma , h ch emph e h mb r ll should be distinguishe d from a f ewwhic h e mphasizes the fact that there Is a number though i t be small . Few shall ” “ pa rt where many meet. A f ew p ersons were saved in ” th e ark.

Fewer applies to number ; less to qua ntity . Fi r stly should not be used for fi r st although secondly a nd thirdly may be use d to c omplete the se ries.

ix ul not be use in the s ns of re a ir a rr a n e or F sho d d e e p , g ,

Former and la tter Should never be used where more tha n two things are involved . tl u f omm l Frequen y should be disti ng ished rom c on y , gen

r e et l ll . mmo is the ant t esis of e a lly, p rp ua ly, usua y Co nly i h r a re u tl of eldom enera ll of occa siona ll usua ll of rely, f q en y s , g y y, y

Funny Should not be used to mean stra nge or rema rka ble. Gentlema n Friend and La dy Friend are expressions whic h ” e v e sa man w an f ien mn should b a oid d , y or om r d or a ” “ or woman of my acquaintanc e or even gentl eman or la dy ” of my ac qua mta nce .

Good should not be used in the sense of well. I feel ” good.

Got is said to be th e most misused word in the language . The verb mea ns to secure by e ffort and should be used only “ ” i t s eanin e . . ave ot the c nt act. Ha ve w th hi m g, g I h g o r got to i ndicate mere possession is obj ectionabl e . Mere pos session is in dicated by ha ve alone . Another c ommo n mis take is the use of got to express obligation or constraint. “ ” I have got to do it.

Guess Should not be used in the sense of thinh or imagine.

Ha ndy Should never be used to express nearness. Ha nged should be used to express the execution of a hu mn e n is the ast a tic i e in all t er uses. a b i g. Hung p p r pl o h ” ’ ee it not ca t rdl see it Ha rdly . I ca n ha rdly s , I n ha y . “ ” Hea lthy which means possessed of health should be COMMON ERRORS 3 3

distinguished from hea lthf ul a nd wholesome whic h mean ” health giving.

High should not be c onfused with ta ll.

Home is not a synonym for house. A b eautiful house is a very diff ere nt thing from a beautiful home.

Honora ble as a title should always be prec eded by the. o ul ot use for wha t for tha t It eans H w sho d n be d , or . m ” i n what manner. How tha t should not be used wh en eithe r one will do ” alon e . Such a sentence as We have already note d how that TIIIOtson d efie d rubrical order is very bad. If should not be used i n the sense of wher e or tha t. “ ” 1lh mea ns the sa me not hind or sor t.

Ill is a n a dverb as well as a n a dj ective . Do not say illy.

In should not be used for i nto when motion is implied .

Youride i n a car but youget into it.

Ina ugur a te should not be use d for begin.

Individua l should not be use d for per son.

Inside of should not be use d as an expression of time . “ ” I lua ble an n of ve eat va ue s u not b e nva , me i g ry gr l ho ld “ ” u e in e c onfuse d with va l eless, m an g of no valu .

Invite should not be used for i nvita tion. “ Ki nd is not plural . Do not say These or those ki nd

of things. Kind of should never be followe d b the i ndefi “ ” y‘ nite a rtic le . What hind of man is he ? not What hind ” of a ma n is he ? Kind of or sor t of should not be used in

the sense of ra ther or somewha t. Kindly is often misuse d i n suc h expressions as Youare kindly requested to recommend a c ompositor. Undoubtedly the idea of ki ndness isattache d to the rec ommendation not to the re quest and the sente nc e should be so fra med as to

express it.

Lost is often misused for la test. The la st number of the ” pape r is not the one that appeare d this morning but the

one that fi nally closes publication .

La tter applies only to the last of two. If a longer series

i fe o . than two s re rred t , say the la st L wh c is a t a ns t ve v s u n t be f ay, i h r i i erb , ho ld o c on used

with lie. Lay is a verb whic h expresses causitive action ; lie 34 COMMON ERRORS

” expresses passivity. He lays plans. He lies down . The en e id t at f i past t s of lay is la , h o l e is lay.

Lea rn should not be used in plac e of tea ch.

h is a v r su st tut for lon w ic n ee s no Lengt y e y poor b i e g , h h d substitute.

Lia ble should not be use d for likely. Lia ble means an un pleasa nt probability. Likely means any proba bility. Lia ble is a lso use d to express obligation. He is lia ble for this debt. “ Like must never be use d in the sense of a s. Do like I “ ” do should b e D o a s I do. Liter a lly implies that a Sta te ment to which it is attached is accurately and prec isely true . It is fre quently misused .

un ot a ve Loa n is a no , n rb.

Loca te should not be use d in the sense of settle.

Lot or lots should not be use d to i ndicate a grea t dea l. Love ess s aff ecti n i n its i ica sen a nest expr e o or, b bl l se, e r ’ ” benevolence. Like expresses taste. D o not say I should ’ love to go .

Love eans w t of a ffect n and i e ele a nt ly m or hy io , , l k g , should never be used as a te rm of general a pprobation . “ Lux uria nt which m eans superabunda nt in growth or ’ production should not b e c on founded with luxurious which “ ” eans ven ve to uu . Ve tat n is luxuria t men m gi o r l x ry ge io n , are luxurious.

a d means in a ne and is no n M s t a sy onym for a ngry . ea ma t e s n u M ns y be ei h r i g lar or plura l . M eet should not be used In the sense of meeting except in ’ the case of a few specia l expressions such as a race m eet.

M ighty should not be used In the sense of very. e M ind should not b use d in the sense of obey. M inus should not be used in the sense of without or

M ost s u not be use nstea of a lmost a s in uc ho ld d i d , s h ex “ ” pressions as It rained most every day. u s u o use M st ho ld n t be d for ha d to or wa s obliged. In its e use t prop r it re fers to he present or future only. N ecessities should be care fully distinguishe d from

3 6 COMMON ERRORS

Pa r ta ke of should not be use d in the sense of ea t. It “ ” means to sha re with others. Pa rty should n ever be used for per son exc ept in l egal documents. Per should be use d in connection with other words of t n f u n wi n i er iem a mb t t E s s. P d er L i or o th gl h word , p nnum th e re er a e ea r r a , and e lik a c orrect. P d y or p r y a e n i correct. It should be a day, or a yea r .

dicula e man i Perpen r , which mer ly e s at r ght angles to

n nt n u not be use for er ti a l. somethi g else me io ed , sho ld d v c un t c n fuse wit the ad ect ve Plenty, a no should no be o d h j i

Politics is singular. Post does not mean inf orm. Pr edica te should not be used in the se nse of predict or in the sense of ba se orf ound “ Prema ture means before the proper time. It should not be used in a general way as equivalent tof a lse.

r not use e mo if in sen e nor P etty should be d In th d y s , as ” n n mfor r n ases as ett a sy o y ve y i such phr pr y good , “ ” ett ne the i e. pr y ar, and l k

Preventa ti ve no suc w sa ti e. , h ord, y preven v

Promise should not be used In the se nse of a ssure. ” ro se n t ff not be c nfuse wit P po , meani g o o er should o d h ” purpose mean in g to intend . Proposition should not be c onfounded with pr oposa l A proposition is a statem ent of a statement or a plan . A proposa l is the presenta tion or statement of an offer.

Providing should not be used for provided. !ua lity should never be used as an adj ective or with an ” “ a djective sense. !uality cloth es is m eaningless: Clothes ” of quality equa lly so. All clothes have quality and the ex pression has mean ing only when the quality is define d as bad i low nd o f t good , , h gh , , a s or h . “ ” uit t w h o . ! , o go a ay from is not t e sa me as st p “ ” “ ” !uite eans ent e w l and S u n ve m ir ly, hol y, ho ld e r be used In the modifying sense asif meaning ra ther or somewha t. “ !uite a few is nonsense. COMMON ERRORS 7

Ra ise is a muc h abused word. It is never a noun . As a ve e nd i ncrea rb it should be distinguish d from rea r a se, as in “ ” “ such phrases as He was r a ised in Texas. The landlord r a ised my rent.

Ra rely ever should not be used for ra rely or ha rdly ever .

Rea l should not be used in the sense of very .

Ref erence should be used with with rather tha n in. Say with reference to not i n referenc e to. The sa me rule ap , “ plies to the words rega rd an d r espect. D o not say in rega r ds ” “ to sa it r , y w h rega d to. Remembe i ot the e ec lec w i c ean t r s n sam as r ol t, h h m s o ” remember by an effort.

Rendition should not be used for renderi ng .

Resea rcher has no standing as a word . Re ide in the ense of iv n esi n e i s s l e, a d r de c n the sense of house or dwelling are affectations and should never be use d . “ ” Reti re Should not be used in the sense of go to bed. “ Right Should not be used in the sense of duty . Youha d “ a r ht o w n me s u t was u ig t ar , ho ld be I yo r duty to warn ” me ou t t ve ne me. , or y ough o ha war d Right should not

use in the sense of ver . uch ssi ns as ri h be d y S expre o g t now, r i ht wa r t n g w] ; right a y, ight here are no now i good use.

Sa me should not be used as a pronoun. This is a com mon usage in business c orrespondenc e but it is not good English a nd ca n be easily avoided without sacrific ing either

evit sense . Sa me a s in the s ns of ust a s i the me br y or e e j , n sa ma nner should be avoided .

Score should not be used for a chieve or a ccomplish. Set should not be c onfused with sit. To set means to ” cause to sit.

ewa e t n f e S g , meaning the c on e ts o a sew r, should not be confuse d with sewerage which means the system . Show should not be used in the sense of play or perfi rm a nce. Show up should not be used for expose.

Since should not be used for ago.

Size u s u n be us for estima te e . p ho ld ot ed or w igh Some should not be used for somewha t as I feel some ” better.

Sort of Should not be used for r a ther . 3 8 COMMON ERRO RS

Splendid means shining or brillia nt and should not be used as a term of genera l commendation. “ Sta ndfi r means be responsible for. Its rec ent use as n ermit s u mea ing sta nd, endure, or p , ho ld be avoided . “ r e e Sta r t should not be used fo b gin, . g. He sta rted ” ( began ) to speak.

Sta te should not be used for say.

Stop Should not be used for stay.

Such should not be used for so. Say I have never seen ’ “ so beautiful a book before not I have never seen such a ” beautiful book before.

Sure Should not be used as a n a dverb . Say sur ely.

a ke r uus in connect n w th t e . . T is supe fl o io i o h r verbs, e g , ” Suppose we ta ke a nd use that type. Ta ke should not be confused with bring . Ta ke stock in should not be used for rely or trust in.

Tha t should not be used in the sense of so. I did not ” know it was tha t big.

T i u not v the w r e . . It is h nk sho ld ha e ord fi added , g , more important than youthinkfi r . This should not be used as an adverb This muc h is ” “ c lea r should be Thus muc h is clear. Through should not be used for fi nished. To is superfluous and wrong in such expression s a s ” Where did yougo to?

Too alone should not modify a past participle . He was ” too ( much ) excited to reply.

Tra nspire does not mean happen. It means to c ome to light or become known.

Trea t should be followed by of rather than on. This vol ume not o a . treats of gra mmar, n gra mm r Try should be followe d by to rather than a nd. I will try “ ” d ” to go , not I will try a n go . Ugly should never be use d In the sense of ba d tempered “ ” or vicious. It means repulsive to the eye.

U i u n r a re od unusua l. It eans n q e does ot mean , d, or m alone of its kind . Upwa rd of should not be used in the sense of more tha n .

Vena l should not be confuse d with venial. COMMON ERRORS 39

Ver ba l should not be c on fuse d with ora l. A verba l mes sa ge means only a message in words; an or a l message is a messa ge by word of mouth .

Very Should be used sparingly. It is a word of great em phasis an d like all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently.

Visitor is a human caller. Visita nt a supernatural ca ller: “ Wa nt s u not ue in the sens of wish . . ho ld be s d e , e g , I ” “ wa nt it really mea ns I feel the wa nt of it or I lack it.

W t i h an ee s u be ca e fu istin uis . a n , w s , d n d ho ld r lly d g hed Way should not be used in the sense of a way in such ex “ pressions a s Way down East.

Wa s S u not use for wa e. . It is ute a y ho ld be d y, g , q i ” ways ( way ) off.

Wha t is ften sus for tha t e . . He has no u t o mi ed , g , do b ” but wha t ( that ) he will succ eed . “ Whence means from what place or cause and should not be precede d by f rom. This applies equally to hence “ ” which mea ns from this place . Which s u not use wit a c aue nt e ent ho ld be d h l s as its a ec d , ” . . He t hic wa i g , replied ho ly, w h s a m sta ke should be e‘ ” He replied body ; this was a mista ke . Which bein g a n euter pronoun should not be use d to represent a masculine or feminin e noun . Use who. Betwe en the two neuter pro nouns which a nd tha t let euphony decide . Who s u not suse for w m e e ho ho . . ho ld be mi d or w s , g , ” “ Who w ouw s to see ? Was n t n t a n ( hom ) did y i h hi g o , h ” who ( whose ) no greate r na me is rec orded . Impersonal obj ects should be referred to by which rather than who. “ Wi t out s u not be us for unles e w h ho ld ed s, . g. I ill n ot go ” wi thout ( unless) yougo with me . Witness should not be used for see. Wor st kind or wor st kind of way should not be used for

Woma nly means belon ging to woman as woman . Woma ntsh means (f emrna te. 40 IRREGULAR VERBS

Ta bles of I rregula r Verbs

Table 1 conta ins the principal parts of all irregula r verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are unlike . Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occ ur with those in Table 1 . The past tense must not be used with ha ve ot e i h (ha s, ha d) . Do n use such expr ss ons as a ve drove an d ha s went. Equally disagreeable is the use of the perfect for t e ast t nse as she se e participle h p e ; , en , they don .

Present Tense Perf. Pa rt. a rise arose arisen be or am was been ” e rth e o n ne b ar, bring fi bor b r , bor a e ne bear, c rry bor bor aten eat beat beat be , b begin bega n begun n bid bid ba de, bid bidde , n bit bite bit bitte , blow blew blown break broke broken en c chide chid chidd , hid choose chose chosen c eft c ve c eft c eave l , lo l , l d , c leave cloven came come did done drew drawn n un en drank druk, dr k drove driven ate ( eat ) eaten ( eat ) fell fallen flew flown forbore forborne

Bor n i s used only i n the pa ssive voice.

The words i n parentheses in thi s and the following tables rep re ent forms hich ou h a t one time mmon are now seldomused. s w , th g co , IRREGULAR VERBS

— TABLE I ( Continued)

Present Tense Past Tense Perf . Part.

f tt n f t orgo e , orgo forsaken frozen given gone grown

hidden, hid known lain ridden “mg risen run saw seen shook shaken s an s un s un s un hr k, hr k hr k, hr ken n s n sung, sa g ug n unk sun sa k, s k slew slain s n i slid lidde , sl d smote smitten spoke ( spake ) spoken an n s u spr g, spri g pr ng stole stolen Strode stridden c st u st ic en struk r ck, r k strove striven swore ( swa re ) sworn swu sw swam , m um taken torn thrown n t trodde , rod worn woven written 42 IRREGULAR VERBS

TABLE II

This table conta ins the principa l pa rts of all irregular verbs whose past tense a nd perfect parti ciples are a like .

Pa st Tense and Pa st Tense and Present Tense Present Tense Perf . Part . Perf . Pa rt.

abode meant beheld met besought paid boun d put ble d rea d bred rent brought said built sought burst sold bought sent cast set caught sh ed c lun g shod cost Shot crept shut CUIZ sat dealt sl ept fed slung felt slunk fought spent found spun ( spa n fled spit ( spat) flung split got gotten ) sprea d groun d stood had Stuck heard stung hit strun g held swept hurt swung kept ta ught laid told

44 IRREGULAR VERBS

TABLE III ( Continued)

Present Tense Pa st Tense Perf. Part.

en shut u enne nt nn p p p d , pe pe ed , pent pleade d ( plea d or pleaded ( plea d or pled ) ple d ) ve ved en pro d pro , prov eave e ft eav e r d , r r ed, r ft v v ri ed ri ed , riven sawe saw d ed , sawn seet e sod seet s h d ( ) hed , odden s a e s h p d haped, shapen shave s ve e d ha d , shav n s ea e s a e s h r d he r d, horn s l e s e t s el e s e me l d, m l m l d, m lt s we we o d so d, sown el e s e e e sp l d, p lt spell d , sp lt s e i spilled , pilt spill d, sp lt s e s t s e S t poil d , poil poil d , poil ve St ve s ve t e sta d , o ta d, s ov s e sta s e ta i tay d , id tay d , s d wel swe e Sw e s led ll d, oll n e e wa w e wak d, wok ked, ok wax ed waxed waxen ) e e w e e w dd d edd d, w d e w e w tte e wh tted , h t he d, wh t e w u t e w u work d, ro gh work d, ro ght

B

Verbs i n whic h the irre gula r form preferred .

Present Tense Pa st Tense Perf. Part. awa aw e awa e awa w ke ok , k d ked, a oke e a e a e a e e e b l y b l id, b l y d b laid, belay d bet bet ett bet e , b ed , bett d w ew c we cro cr , ro d crowed d st a dare ur , d red dared di du i e du e g g, d gg d g, digg d we we t wel we t we d ll d l , d led d l , d lled IRREGULAR VERBS 45

TABLE III Continued)

Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part.

i t i e g rd gir , g rd d girt, girded ave av v n gr gr ed gra e , graved ” an un a n e un n h g h g, h g d h g, ha ged ne l ne t ne e ne t n k e k l , k el d k l , k eeled n t n t kn tt n t n tt k i k i , i ed k i , k i ed uit ut utt ut utte q q i , q i ed q i , q i d ra a t a e a t a p r p , r pp d r p , r pped e e rid rid, ridd d rid , ridd d shine shone ( shine d ) shone ( shined ) s ow s we S wn s w h ho d ho , ho ed s e s s d e e hr d hred, hre ded shr d, shredd d v S ve s v S i n s ve Shri e hri d , hro e hr ve , hri d t s tt s slit sli , li ed lit, slitted ee s s e s e s sp d ped , peed d p d , peeded e tr w st wn tr we d Str w s e ed re , s e t w s wn t w strow s ro ed tro , s ro ed e at w at at w e sw at swe , s e ed swe , s eat d iv t ve th iv t ve t ven thr e hro , r ed hri d , hri w et wet ( wetted ) wet ( wetted) win d wound ( win ded ) wound (winded)

eferri n o execution b sus ension a i s referable R g t y p , h nged p to

The verbs of the following list also are irregular ; but as of th e inci a a s t e are a e they lack one or more pr p l p rt , h y c ll d defective verbs.

Present

methought 46 IRREGULAR VERBS

All the pa rtic iples are wantin g in defective verbs.

e e e e The v rb ought, wh n us d to expr ss past duty or obli tion is f i the e f ga , ollowed by what s called p r ect infi nitive a use peculia r to itself because ought has no past form.

Example: I ought to ha ve gone yesterday.

Other verbs expressing past time are used in the past tense followe d by the root in finitive.

Exa mple I intende d togo yesterday. BOOKS RECO MMENDED 47

SUPPLE M E N TA RY RE A D I N G

Compositi on and Rhetoric . By Loc kwood and E merson . Ginn 8: Co. Boston.

The A rt of W riting and Spea ki ng the E ngli sh Language. By

Sher i n Cod . The Old G ree Press hi ca o. w y k , C g ’ The Wr iter s D esk Book . By Willia mD ana Orcutt. Frederi c k

to es ma N ew or . S k Co p ny, Y k

A Manua l for Writers. By John Ma tthews M anly and John A rthur Po ell. The Universit of Chi ca o Press Chi ca o. w y g , g

An y good G ra mmar.

’ ’ Putna ms Word Book . By Loui s A . Flemming. G . P. Putna ms S ns hi ca o o , C g . (For reference.) 48 REVIEW !UESTIONS

!UESTIONS

I n addition to the questi ons here gi ven there should be constant and thorough drill in the use of gra mmati cal forms and the choice of words. F requent short themes should be required. I n these themes attention should be i ven to ra mmati cal constrution h i g g c , c o ce of w ords s ellin ca itali za tion unctuati on sentenc ons c n , p g, p , p , e c truti o , and pa ragraphing.

Why is the subject important ? How an fa es of w s are e e an w m y mili ord th r , d hat are they ? What is a noun ? What are the three things about a noun which indi cates its relation to oth er words? w nu e s re t e nd w at t e Ho many mb r a h re , a h do h y mean ? How do ordinary nouns form their plurals? How do c ompound nouns form their plurals? What is one very important use of number ? What can yousay of the use of the verb with col lective nouns? What is case ? w n ases re t e e and w at e eac in Ho ma y c a h r , h do s h dicate ? What c an you say about the relation of a noun to a preposition e an d wh ? A re prepositions ever omitt d, y How are the nominative and obj ective cases dis tinguished? How is the possessive case formed in the plural ? Do possessive pronouns take an apostrophe ? ’ .What is it s?

w un n uns a iti es etc . t eate Ho are compo d o , ppos v , , r d in the possessive ? What is an adjecti ve ?

REVIEW !UESTIONS

How are sha ll and will used in direct discourse (a ) in s e n e n imple statem nts, (b) i qustio s, (c ) in other cases? How are sha ll and will used in indirect disc ourse ? What are the exceptions in the use of sha ll and will? What is the general use of should and would How are o nd ou ue in s n t auses sh uld a w ld s d ubordi a e cl , in indirect discourse ? What exceptions are there in the use of should and would ? Why do we make mistakes i n the use of c ompoun d tenses? What is the case of the obj ect in participial con struction ? What should be avoided i n the use of prepositions? Do passive verbs ever have objects? What is a pronoun ? What c ommon error occurs in the use of plural pos sessive pronouns? What c ommon error occurs in the use of cases in subordinate clauses? W at an e is t e in t e use of n uns h d g r h re h pro o , and how can it be avoided ? What is an a dverb ? What is the importa nt distinction in the use of ad verbs and a djectives? What rule is to be observed in the use of negatives? What is a preposition ? Where is it placed in the se ntence ? What is a c onjunction ? What is said of a nd and but ? How s u w e a eit e ei nd o ho ld p ir h r , n ther , or , a n r ? What is the rule about plac ing correlatives? What is an interjection ? Does it make much diff erence where words are put in a sentence ? Why ? What is the general rule for plac ing words? Whe n may words be omitted ? What is the danger in such omission ? REVIEW !UESTIONS 5 1

Mention some objectionable abbreviations of this sort. ’ What is the writer s task ? What thr ee abuses are to be avoided ? ’ What are Campbell s five canons? What are the rules for the formation of sentences? What are the rules for the formation of paragraphs? 52 GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY — AMBIGUITY The possibility of more than one meaning. — APPOSITION When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or emphatic by the use of another noun or

n un the two are sa to in a s ti n e . . pro o id be ppo i o , g John, the old pressman . — AUXILIARY VERB A verb used to help to expressthe mean in of an t v b s w n its v c e g o her erb y ho i g oi , mood or tense . — CLAUSE A group of words c onsisting of a subj ect andpred icate with their mod1fiers and forming a part of a sen

tence : a sentence Within a se ntence . — COLLECTIVE NOUN A noun indicating a c ollection of units w considered as a hole, e . g. crowd. — COMPOUND WORDS Words made up of two or more

words use d together to express one idea.

CON TEX'Ih The entire writing from which a text or pas

sage is ta ken . — CORRELATIVE A term applied to pairs of conjunctions or

oth er wordsor phra ses wh1ch 1mply or Involve each other. — DICTION The choice and use of words. — GRA MMA R The scienc e that treats of the princ iples that govern the correct use of language In ei ther spoken or written form ; the sc1ence of the sentence and Its elements. — HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCES Sentences conta ining unre

lated ideas or dealing w1th a vari ety of separate thIngs. — ti n a na s e o n s HYPOTHESI s A supposi o , or im gi ry ta t f thi g assume d as a ha s for reasonmg. — HYPOTH ETI CA L CLAUSE A c lause conta ini ng a supposition. GLOSSARY 53

— METAPHOR A figure of speech in which one thing is e n of it i -w likened to another by Sp aki g as if t ere that other,

or calling it that other. — NOUN CLAUSE A clause used as a noun . — OBJECT ( or A VERB ) The thing acted on . — PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION A partic iple and its modifiers

used as the subj ect or obj ect of a verb. — n n ns n u PHRASE A expressio , co isti g sually of but a few w en tin a sin e I ea f in a se te a t ords, d o g gl d , or orm g para p r

of a sentenc e . — PREDICATE ( or A SENTEN CE ) That whic h is said of th e

subject. See subj ect. — PRINCIPAL VERB The verb in the main statement of a

sentence. — PRONOMINAL A DJECTI VE A n a dj ective used as a pronoun . — ’ RH ETORI c The art of perfecting man s power of com mun 1cating to others his mental acts or states by means

of language : art of disc ourse . — SUBJECT or A SENTENCE ) The thing spoken about in the

sentence . See predicate . — SUBJECT ( OF A VER B) The thing acting. — SUBORDINATE CLAUSE A c lause explaining or otherwise

modIfyIng the mamstatement of the sentenc e. TYPOGRAPHIC TE CHN ICAL SE RIE S FOR APPREN TI CE S

HE following list of publi ca tions comprisin the TYPOGRAPHI C T , g TE HN I L SE RIE S FOB A RE NTI C CA PP CE S , has been prepared the su ervisio under p n of the Committee on Educa tion of the Uni ted T othetae of meri ca for use in trade cl yp A asses, in course of instructi on printing , and by indi vidua ls.

E ach publi ca ti on has been compiled by a competent author or thors and c grou of au , arefully edited the ur ose bein to ro p , — p p g p vide the rinters of the Uni ted Sta tes emlo ers ourne mn p p y , j y e , i — and apprent ces with a comprehensive series of ha ndy and inex ensi ve comendi ums of reli able u -to-da te informa tio p p , p n upon the various branches and s ecialti es of the rinti n p p g craft, all arranged in orderly fashi on for progressive study .

The ubli c ti f th of uniform e p a ons o e series are siz , 5 x 8 inches. Their eneral make-u i n t o ra h illustra tions g p, yp g p y, , etc . has been as far as r tic bl k t in harmon throuhou , p ac a e, ep y g t . A brief synopsis of the parti cular contents and other chi ef features of each ‘ volume will be foun d under each title in the following li st .

E ach to ic is trea ted in concise manner the aim i p a , be ng to embody in ea ch publi ca tion as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an under standi ng oi the subj ect. Care has been taken to make all sta te ments clear with h u of i accurate and , t e p rpose bringi ng essen t al informa tion withi n the understanding of beginners in the diff erent fields f ver racti c bl simle n well-defin o study . Where p a e, p a d ed drawings and illustra tions have been used to assist i n giving additional clea rness to the text .

In order that the pa mphlets may be of the greatest possible - c r self -i ns ruti help for use i n trade school lasses and fo t c on, each title i s a ccompanied by a list of Review !uestions coveri ng

essenti al items of the subject matter . A short Glossary of tech ni cal terms b elongi ng to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Offi cial Text-books of the United Typothetae of

Ameri ca .

in es to M E O DU Address all orders and quiri CO N E CATI ON , ’‘ G LL N O S UN ITE D TYPOI HE TAE or AME RICA , CHICA O, I I I , U. S . A. i TYPOGRAPHIC TECHN ICAL SERIES f or APPREN TICES

PART I—T es Tools M a chi nes a nd M a yp , , , Cteri ls

1 . e : a Primer of lnformation . , ela ti ng to the mechani cal fea tues of pri nti g types; thei r sizes.font r . n es rie e r n f t ei r ma n act sc em etc . wi t a sc t o o u ure. 44 . h , , h b f. d ip i h f pp illustra ted ; 7 4 review questions; glossa ry. ’ 2 . Compositors Tools and Materials By A. A. Stewart A primer of i nf ormati on about composmg sti cks“ alleys.leads.bra ss rules cutti n a nd mi teri n ma c i nes etc. 47 . 1] ustrated 5 0 revi e n g g h , pp ; ; w questions; glossa ry.

3 . T e Ca ses Comosing RoomFurniture B A. A . Stewart yp . , p y A r mer of i n orma ti on a out t e cases or ta n s ca inets case p i f b yp , w k s d , b , ra c s a le r c s stan i n a e s etc. 43 . I ustrate 3 3 revi e k , g l y a k , d g g ll y , pp ; ll d ; w questions; glossa ry .

4 . Imposing Tables and Lock - u A lienees By A. A. Stewart Describing the tools a nd materi s i n looki n g up forms for the press. i ncludi ng some modern utili ti es for speci a l pur poses. 5 9 pp.; illustr a ted ; 7 0 revi ew questions; glossary.

B A . A . SteWart A primer Of i nforma tion about method;a nd machi nes for O ’ ta ki ng pri nters proofs. 40 pp.; illustra ted ; 4 1 review questi ons; glossary.

6 . Platen Pri nting Presses By Daniel Baker A pri mer of i nf orma tion regardi ng the hi story a nd mecha ni ca l construc i n of a ten rinti n resses romthe ori i na a n ress to he modern t o pl p g p , f g l h d p t j ob press.to whi ch i s added a cha pter on a utoma ti c presses of sma ll si ze. 5 1 pp.; illustrated ; 49 revi ew quest ions; glossa ry.

linder Prin Presses Herbert L. Baker ci ng a study of t e mecha ni sma nd the pri ncipal types of c linder printi ng machi nes. 64 pp. 47 revi ew questi ons; ossary .

8 . M echanical Feeders and Folders By Willi amE . The hi story a nd Operati on of modern feedi ng a nd foldi ng ma c hints on t heir ca re and adjustments. Illustra ted ; revi ew questi ons glossary .

9 . Power for Machinery in Pri nting Houses By Carl F . Scott A trea ti se on the methods of a pplyi ng power to ai nting reeses and alli ed ' ma chi nery wi thparticular reference to electric g ve. pp.; illustra ted ; 69 revi ew questi ons; glossa ry. Paper Cutting Machines By Niel Gra Jr . A r mer n rma ti on a out a er a d ca r mmers b a n - ever of fo b d tri , p i i p p n . l cutter s o er cutters and ot er a uoma t c ma c i nes for cuttin a er , w , . h t i h g p p , 7 0 pp ustrated ; 1 15 revi ew questions; glossary. ’ Printers Rollers By A . A . Stewart flmer of i nf rma tion ab dut the comosi ti on manuacture a nd ca re of o p , f . iAlfing r ollers. 46 pp.; i llustrated ; 6 1 revi ew questi ons; glossa ry . Pri nti ng lnks By Phi li p Ruxton Thei r composition.pro rti es a nd ma nufacture (reprinted by pe rmissi on romC i rcua r o. 5 3 ni ted S tates urea uof ta n a s to et er i t f l N , B S d rd ) ; g h w h some helpful suggesti ons a bout the everyda y use of pri nting i nks by Phi li p Bur ton. 8 0 pp.; 100 revi ew questi ons; glossary. TYPOGRAPHI C TECHN ICAL SERIES f or APPREN TICE S

— PART I (continued) Pa per a nd Printi ng Pla tes

How Paper i s M ade By Willi amBond Wheelwright ‘ A primer of informti on ab out the materia ls a d processes of ma nufactur a o n i ng pa per for printing and wri ting. 68 pp.; i llustra ted ; 62 revi ew ques ti ons; glossary.

Reli ef E ngravi ngs By Joseph P. Donovan Bri ef hi story a nd non- techni ca l descripti on of modern methods of engra v i n oo cut zi nc a te a tone n of Co for re i oduction t in s g ; w d , pl , h lf ; ki d py p ; h g 0 remember when ordering engr avi ngs. Illust ra ted ; revi ew questi ons; £1ossa ry . Electrotyping and Stero By B . Hatch and A A A pri mer of i nf orma tion a bout the processes of electrotyping a nd stereo typing . 94 pp.; i llustra ted ; 129 review questi ons ; glossa ri es. — PART I I Ha nd a nd M achi ne Composi ti on

By A. A. Stewart about j ustif spa ci to typesetting . I ustra 0 revi ew questi ons; glossary.

0 0 0 0 By A. A. Stewar t The met o s i c t e a re ma e mar e a nd correcte i t h d by wh h h y d , k d , d , w h observa tions on proofrea di ng . Illustrated ; revi ew questi ons; glossary . First Steps in Job Composition By Cami lle DeVé ze S esti ons for the a renti ce comositor in settin s ugg pp p g his first j ob , especi a lly about the i m rta nt li ttle things whi ch go to make good displa y i n typogr aphy. pp.; exa mples; 5 5 revi ew questions; glossary . General Job Composition How the ob comos tor an es usiness s ati oner ro rams and j p i h dl b t y , p g miscellaneous work. Illustra ted ; revi ew questions; glossa ry.

B We Bot well 0 0 0 0 J0 h " s o ern et o s of gook C omosi ti on M d M h d p , - this series of text books by J. W. Bothwell of The Devinne Press N ew Yor . Part : C omos ti on of a es. Part , k I p i p g II Imposi ti on of pages. 2 29 pp.; illustra ted ; 5 25 ren ew questi ons; glossary . Tabular Composition By Robert Seaver st of the e ementar orms of ta e comositi on i t e a m es of A ud l y f bl p , w h x pl y ' more di fi cult compositi on . 3 6 pp.; exa mmes; 45 review questi ons. m 22 . A li ed Arith etic 0 By E . E . Sheldon ementa r arit metic a i e to ro emof the ri nti n tra e ca cua y h ppl d p bl p g d , l l ti on of mater a s a er e ts a nd si zes it sta n ar ta es a nd rues i l , p p w igh , w h d d bl l for comuta t n ea c su ect a m i fi e i e m es erci ses p io , h bj pl d w th xa pl a nd ex . 15 9 pp.

23 . T m and Composing W. Fi nlay Edi tor pi I—T Li n t e s gct on he o L. A . Ii rn tein — yp By o Secti on II The Monotype By Joseph Ha ys ti on —The ntert e Henr W ssons Sec III— I yp By y . Co Secti on IV 0 ther Typecasti ng and Typesetti n g Machi nes By Fra nk H . Smith ri e i r of t esettin mac i nes t f eir A b f h sto y yp g h , wi h descripti ons o th mechani ca l principles a nd opera tions. Illust rated ; revi ew questions; glossary.

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHN ICAL SERIES for APPRENTICE S

3 4. Capitals By F . W. Hamilton A pri er wi th some racti ca l o m0 p typ raphi c hi nts as to th e pp.; 92 ren ew questions; gl

35 . Difi d on Of Words 0 o o o By F ues for the ivi si on of or s a t the en s of i nes i t remar s on R l d w d d l , w . h k e in a i ti on and ronun ci a ti on 42 e s ns Sp ll g , syll b ca p . pp.; 7 0 revi w que ti o .

36 . Compound Words By F . W. Hamilton s f th rinci es f como n e m nents f c m A tudy o e p pl o p undi g , th co po o o s and the use of the en . 3 4 . 2 r e esti pound , hyph pp ; 6 evi w qu ons.

Abbreviations and Signs F . W. Hamilton A ri mer of n ormati on a out a revi a ti ons andsi ns it cla ssi fie p i f b bb g , w h d lists of t hose i n most common use. 5 8 pp.; 3 2 revi ew questi ons.

38 . The Uses of Italic 0 By F . W Hamilton A primer of informa ti on about th e history and uses of ita li c letters. 3 1 pp.; 3 7 revi ew questi ons.

39 . Proofreading 0 O 0 By Arnold Levitas ' Th e techni ca ases of the freader s or readi n ma r n l ph w k ; g , ki g , v e . met o s f b a nmroo s t re isi n tc ; h d o g p f a nd copy. Illustra ed by exa mp es. 5 9 pp.; 69 revi ew questi ons; glossary.

’ 40 . Preparation of Printers Copy By F . W. Hamilton esti ns for a ut ors e i tors and all ho are e e in r ari n S ugg o h , d , w ngag d p ep g copy for the composmg room. 3 6 pp.; 67 revi ew questi ons.

anusl of S tyle A re erence comi a ti on of a rove es f p l pp d rul , re a t to uni formi t in unctua ti on ca i l ing p , p n mera s and i n eatures of com s ti on u l , k d f po i

’ 42 . Th e Printer s Dicti onary By A. A . Stewart A ha ndbook of defini tions and miscellaneous informa tion about v a ri ous r s s f ri ntin a a eti ca arran e . ec terms ex p oces e o p g , lph b lly g d T hni ca l plained. Illustrated. — A I P Desi n Col and L t n P RT V g , or , e teri g

43 . A pli ed De for Printers y Harry L. G p a n oo o the ri nci les of arr a n ement i t ri e comment onage h db k p g , w h b f periods of design whi ch ga ve most influenced pri nti ng . Treats of b a r mon a a nce ro orti on a nd r t m' moti on s mmetr a nd vari et y , b l .p p , hy h ; y y y ; ment est eti c a nd s mo i c . 3 7 i lustrati ns 46 rev e uesti ons orna , h y b l l o ; i w q ; glossa ry ; bibli ogra phy.

- 44. Elements of Ty ographic Design y Her L. Gage A li ca tions of tpe princi ples of decora tive desi Bui lgymma teri a l 0 t o ra h er t es i nk ecora ti ns a nd ustra tions. Ha n lin y p g p i pap , yp , , d o l d g of s es. isesi n of com ete oo trea ti n ea c a r . Desi n of ha p g pl b k , g h p t g commerci al forms a nd si ngle units. Illustra ti ons; revi ew questi ons. glossa ry ; bibli ography . TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES f or APPRE NTICES

P RT VI I contin ued —Desi n Color a nd Le A ( ) g , , tteri ng

diments of Color in Prin in B H r Ru t g 0 y a ry L. Gage Use of co or : for ecora ti on of a c a nd i te for roa oster eff l d bl k wh , b d p ect , i n comi na ti ons of two t ree or more ri n ti n s i t rocess en ra b , h , g w h p g

Sci entifi c nature of co or h si cal a n c emi ca . erms i n i c c lor l , y h l T wh h o ma b e i scusse : hue vSue i ntensi t . Di a r ms i n co or sca es y d d , , y g a l , l and combi nations. C olor theory of process engra vi ng . E xperiments with co or . ustra ti ons i n u co or and on vari ous a ers. Revi e ues l Ill . f ll l , p p w q ti ons; glossa ry ; bibli ography. ‘‘ 46 . Lettering in l i ography . B Harry L. Gage ' y Printer s use 0 netteri ng : ada ta b ili ty and decora ti ve efi ect . Develop ment of histori c wri ting a nd etteri ng a nd i ts i nfluence on type design . Classifi ca ti on of general forms i n letteri n i pli ca ti on of design to letteri D ra wi n for reproduction . F y Alfustra ted ; revi ew ques ti ons; ossa ry ; b ib ography .

gr phi c Desi gn i n Adver i By Harry L. Gage a ’ t e pri nter s fun cti on i n adverti smg . recepts upon whi ch advertisi ng ' i s a se Pri nter s a na si s of hi s co . E m asis e i i i t a tten ti on b d . ly py ph , l g b l y , , color . Method of studyi ng advertisi ng typography . Illust ra ti ons; r evi ew questi ons; glossa ry ; bibli ogra phy .

48 . M aking Dummi es an d Layouts By Harry L . Gage A la yout : the a rchi tectura l pla n . A dummy : the imita ti on of a proposed fi nal efi ect . Use of dummy i n sales work . Use of la yout . Fun ction of la yout man . Bi ndi ng schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustra ti ons; revi ew questions; glossa ry ; bibli ogra phy. — PART VIII Hi story of Pri nti ng

Book s Before Typography By F . W. Hamilton A primer of i nf orma tion about the i nvention of the alpha bet a nd the history of bookmaking up to the i nventi on of mova ble types. 62 pp.; illustra ted ; 64 revi ew questi ons. B 50 . Th e Inventi on of Typography y F . W. Hamilton A brief sketc h of th e i nvention of printi ng a nd how i t ca me a bout . 64 pp.; 6 2 revi ew questions. — Hi story of Printing Part I By F . W. Hami lton mer of i n orma ti on a out the e i nni n s of ri nti n the eve A ri g g g , o p f b b ’ p d l p men t of the oo the eve o ment of rinters ma teri a s a nd the or b k , d l p p l , w k of the great pi oneers. 63 pp.; 5 5 revi ew questi ons. — Hi story of Printing Part H By F . W. Hamilton O A bri ef sketc h of th e economi c con di ti ons of th e pri nting i ndustry from ment re a t ons censors i ter 1450 to 1 7 89 i nc u ing govern gu , , i n na l d l i . h p l condi tions a ndindustri a l rela tions. 94 pp.; 12 8 review questi ons.

53 . Printing in England By F . W. Hamilton A short history of pri nting in E nglan d fromCa xton to the present time. 89 pp .; 65 I eV leW questi ons. ’ 54 . Prin in America By F . W. Hamilton A ri e s etc of th e eve o ment of th e ne s a er a d some notes on b k h d l p w p p , n publi shers wh o ha ve especia lly contri buted to pri nting . 9 8 pp.; 84 revi ew questions.

55 . Type an d Presses in Ameri ca By F . W. Hamilton A bri ef hi stori c a l sketch of th e dev elopment of type ca sti ng a nd press buildi ng i n the Uni ted S ta tes. 5 2 pp.; 6 1 revi ew questions.

VI TYPOGRAPHIC TE CHNICAL SERIES f or APPRE NTICE S — PART I X Cost Fi ndi ng a nd A ccounti ng

56 . Elements of Cost in Printing By Henry P. Porter The S ta ndard C ost -Fi ndi ng Forms and their uses. Wha t th ey sh ould show . How to utili se the informa ti on they gi ve. Revi ew questi ons. Glossary .

Use of a Cost System By Henry P. Porter Th e S ta ndard C ost -Findin g Forms a nd their uses. Wha t they should show . How to uti li se the informa ti on they gi ve. Revi ew questi ons. Glossary .

5 8 . Th e Printer as a M erchant Henry P Porter The selecti on and purchase of ma teri a ls a nd “ Byes for print T relati on of the cost of r aw ma teri a l a nd th e selfing pri ce of the ed product . Revi ew questi ons. Glossary.

Fundamental Principles of E stimating By Henry P. Porter The esti ma tor and hi s work ; forms to use ; gen era l rules for Revi ew questi ons. Glossa ry.

60 . E stimating and Selling By Henry P. Porter ' An insi t i n ‘ e met ods use i n ma i n esti ma tes a nd th eir re a ti on gh to th h d k g , l to selling . Revi ew questi ons. Glossary.

6 1 . Accoun for Printers By Henry P. Porter A bri ef ou e of a n accounti ng systemfor printers; necessary books and accessory records. Review questi ons. Glossary.

PART X—Mi scella neous

Heal‘tl' S anitati o and Safety B’Henry P. Porter Hygiei i e in th e prinlihg trade ; a study of condi ti onsbld and new ; practi ca l suggesti ons for improvement ; protective and rules for sa fety .

63 . Topical Index F . W. Hamilton A book of reference cove th e tOpi cs trea tEyin the Typogra phi c e hni Seri es al ha beti arran e . T c ca l , p g d

64. Courses of Study By F . W. Hamilton e oo r ers tli nes a nd s esti ons r r omand A guid b k fo teach , with ou ugg fo class o shop work. AC KN OWLE D GM E N T

THIS series of Typographi c Text-books is the result of the splendid co-opera tion of a la rge number of firms and in dividua ls engaged in the printing business and its alli ed industri es in the Uni ted States of Ameri ca .

The Committee on Educa tion of the Uni ted Typothetae of meri ca under whose a us i ces the books hav n r ar A , p e bee p ep ed and kn l i i publi shed, a c ow edges ts ndebtedness for the generous assist ance r endered b the man a uthors ters oth id tifi y y , prin , and ers en ed with this work .

While due acknowledgment is made on the ti tle and copyright es of those contributin to each book th mmi ttee pag g , e Co never theless felt that a group list of co-operating fir ms would be of

Th e followin list is not c mlete as i includes o g o p , t nly those who have co-o erated i n the roduction of a ortion of the volum p p p es, constituting the fir st printin g. As soon as the entir e list of books comprisi ng the Typographic Techni cal Seri es has been completed whi ch the C mmi ttee h ( o opes will be a t an early da te) , the full list will be printed in ea ch volume.

The Commi ttee also desir es to acknowledge its indebtedn ess to the many subscribers to thi s Seri es who have pati ently a waited its publi cation . OMM ITTE E ON DU TI C E CA ON ,

UN ITE D TYPOTHE TAE OF AM E RI CA .

HE N Y P . P TE Cha i rman R OR R, ,

E . L WRE N E FE LL A C ,

. M LOS S BRE N N E R A . G , CLYD E S WAL J. O D, TOBY RUBOVI TS .

FRE E I CK W. HAM ILT N E d D R O , ucati on C ON TRI BUTORS For Compositi on and Electrotypes BLAN HA C M N IS AAC H. C RD O PAN Y, ew York, N. Y. . BU BAN K Co. Philadel hia P S . H R , p , a . HI N J. S . CUS G Co., Norwood, Mass. N ew r THE DE VIN N E PRE S S , Yo k N . Y.

. N N E LLE Y S N S Co. Chi c R. R DO O , ago, Ill.

E . E L I Co. os n M G O. H L S , B to , ass. E VAN S -WIN TE -HE BB etroit Mich R , D , . F AN KLIN P I NTIN C M R R G O PAN Y, Philadelphi a , Pa . F M n . H. GII S ON CO PAN Y, Bosto , Mass.

STE HE N E E N E . P GR Co , Philadelphi a Pa

W. F . HALL P I N TI N C . hi c Ill. R G o , C ago,

. B. LI I C J PP N OTr Co.,

MCCALLA CO . IN C ., THE ATrE P S ON PRE S S , THE PLI M T N P O PRE SS ,

P LE B S . i c OO RO , Ch o, Ill. E WA el hi P D RD STE RN o., Philad a a . THE G n k V . STONE PRI NTI N G MF . o., Roa o e, a

C . . T A P in N . D R HA GE N , L coln , eb THE UN IVE S ITY P E S S Cambrid e Mass. R R , g , For Composi tion B ST N TYP THE TAE CH L or P I N TIN Boston Mam. O O O S OO R G, , I I l P . W LL AM F . FE LL Co., Philade phi a , a

THE KALKHOFF COMPAN Y N ew York, N . Y. X F - P I O ORD R N T, Boston , ass. T R RUR hi Ill O Y OVI TS , C ca go, . For Electrotypes B M N LO GRE BROTHE RS Co., Chi o, Ill. I FLOWE R STE EL E LE CTROTYP N G 0 . N ew York, N . Y. C TE N n . J. PE RS SO Co., Bosto , ass. E il l P . ROYAL E LE CTROTYP Co. Ph ade hia , a ton H . C . WHI TCOMB Co., Bos , ass.

I . n AME R CAN TYPE FOUN DE RS Co Bosto , Mass.

. B CoTrRE LL S N S Co. Westerl R. I . C . O y ,

I o. Fr in M . GOLDI N G M A N UF AC TUR N G C , ankl , ass HA A N IVE S I TY Cambrid e Mass. RV RD U R , ,

N TE . Chi IN LAN D PRI R Co , cago, Y Philadel hia P LAN STON MON OTYPE MACHI NE COMPAN , , a. P P N ew ork . ME RGE N THALE R LI N OTY E COM AN Y, Y , Y

E O . . ILL . orw Mass. G H MORR Co , N ood, W I N ork . . OS ALD PUBL S HI N G Co., ew Y , N Y THE P I N TI N ART Cambrid e Mass. R G , g , s m Mass. B. . A to c D RI S I N G PAPE R COMP N Y, Houa , V i Ill. THE AN DE RCOOK PRE SS , Ch cago, For Book Paper AME I CAN W ITIN PAPE Co. Hol oke M R R G R , y , . C . Mechamcvflle . . WE ST VIRGI N I A PULP PAPE R o , , N Y

IX