New-School Brand Creation and Creativity &Ndash; Lessons from Hip

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O r i g i n a l A r t i c l e New-school brand creation and creativity – Lessons from Hip Hop and the global branded generation

Received (in revised form): 29 th September 2010

Jonathan A.J. Wilson is currently a Senior Lecturer at the University of Greenwich and is a graduate of the University of Dundee, Scotland. Wilson has 15 years of collective academic and commercial practitioner experience in Advertising, Branding, New Media, Public Relations and Print Media. Up until 2002, he was also a semi-professional live and recording musician, with notable credits on DMA Design/ Rockstar Games’ – Grand Theft Auto (GTA1, 2 and 3), and major festival performances. Previously, he held full-time positions at Emap Advertising (now Bauer Media), and Haymarket Media Group. His research areas examine management, cross-culture, sports, religion and music – and the role of branding within these.

ABSTRACT Although academic marketing literature exists on the value of hip hop as a marketing tool, there appears to be less on hip hop’ s philosophical roots and why it proves to be so effective. This study attempts to ﬁ ll this gap, investigating the apparent natural synergy with brand theory – in that they are both able to captivate and engage consumer-centric sub-cultural groups. Findings indicate that brands and hip hop weave themselves into the fabrics of society – creating social capital and providing a way for individuals to connect with the world. Through metaphor, slang, symbolism and sampling , they recycle and preserve aspects of culture; but in doing so, they also innovate. Two critical success factors in both appear to be the ratiﬁ cation of authenticity and an encouragement towards shared ownership. However in contrast, hip hop places precedence on overt and clear signalling of competitive intent. The methodology used is an Expert Delphi study – which also draws from a review of song lyrics, participant observation studies and in-depth interviews. This provides a basis for inductive reasoning and syllogisms. The aim is twofold: to present a new hip hop- inspired model for brand creation; and second to offer an innovative approach to in- depth qualitative studies, using ‘Word Cloud’ software. Journal of Brand Management advance online publication, 8 April 2011; doi:10.1057/bm.2011.7

Keywords: hip hop ; brand creation ; brand culture ; creativity ; brand management ; brand communities

Correspondence: Jonathan A. J. Wilson drawing from Hip hop-orientated lang- University of Greenwich, INTRODUCTION Maritime Campus, Old Royal Hip hop culture has reached the domain uage, music, fashion, symbolism and ethea Naval College, SE10 9LS, London, UK of mainstream consumption. It proves to ( Gibbons, 2007; Brace-Govan and de E-mail: j.a.j.wilson@greenwich .ac.uk be a fertile ground for many marketers, Burgh-Woodman, 2008; Cox Edmondson,

www.palgrave-journals.com/bm/ Wilson

2008 ). Notably, Reebok have sponsored hip hop, in the interest of providing a rappers as endorsers of their sportswear; model that outlines the key stages, in order HSBC have incorporated Hip hop terms to offer insight for brand creators and such as ‘ bling ’ in their advertising copy; managers. MacDonald’ s have paid lyricists to incorpo- rate references to ‘Big Mac ’ into their chart ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY AND songs; and artists such as Banksy have been DELPHI METHODS able to reframe their once frowned upon The method of data collection and subse- artistic criminal practices, towards being quent analysis takes a cyclical hermeneutical seen more as objects of desire. In addition approach ( Figure 1). to this, mainstream business textbooks, jour- A key challenge, having observed a phe- nals and programmes now feature Hip hop nomenon, is in developing a conceptual artists exploring their commercial appeal and argument in the absence of a suffi cient aca- entrepreneurial fl air (Sk ö ld and Rehn, demic literature, empirical data and where 2007). In tandem, observations and litera- an academic precedent has yet to be set. In ture indicate that brands are not only short- an attempt to address these voids, the author hand for a gamut of product attributes, but chose to rely heavily on expert know- also part of a collaborative negotiation ledge elicitation. Finally, syllogisms were process that serves to support the identities used as the method for investigative struc- and personalities of individuals. Collectively, ture formulation of the phenomenon branding and hip hop have been successful ( Wilson and Liu, 2009b, 2010; Wilson in weaving themselves into rich tapestries of and Hollensen, 2010). Although four cat- cultural and societal norms, and building egories classifying the role of the researcher bridges between global communities – pro- have been identifi ed ( J u n k e r s , 1 9 6 0; Roy, viding social capital. 1970; Vinten, 1994 ; Gill and Johnson, 2002), the aim was to occupy the fi rst Research approach adopted quadrant and become immersed as a com- The research approach follows three main plete participant. The journey from obser ver strands: to participant is therefore circumnavigated in accordance with Junkers (1960) position. 1. Theoretical literature desk reviews of Namely, the author as a participant and branding, hip hop and analyses of lyrics observer makes overt investigations and (Sections ‘ Brand literature review’ and makes it known that research is a core ‘ Hip hop literature review ’ ); 2. Ethnographic fi eldwork, following participant observation methods (Section ‘ Participant observation fi ndings ’ ). These provide the basis for the creation of a working diagrammatic model. This model forms the focal point upon which questions are formulated, in order to examine its validity and explore identifi ed key areas and stages using: 3. a fi nal Expert Delphi study.

Within these observations, the article focuses on the creative processes within Figure 1: Hermeneutical cycle of data analysis.

interest. The value of this approach is that The study aimed to steer discussions the researcher is not tied down and ‘ is free towards fi ve main areas: to move around as research interest beckons ’ ( J u n k e r s , 1 9 6 0). Furthermore, this qualita- 1. What does hip hop mean to the partici- tive subjective sociological method offers a pants and those whom they have bridge towards concerns when collecting observed? data, that: 2. What is unique about hip hop? 3. What can branding professionals learn what is said [by participants], is not always from hip hop? what is done [by participants]. ( Jorgensen, 4. Which hip hop inspired skills could be 1989; Analoui and Kakabadse, 1992; used to create a brand? Bogdewic, 1992 ; DeWalt et al , 1998 ; 5. Opinions concerning the diagrammatic Gill and Johnson, 2002 ; Oliver and Eales, model. 2008) Following on from this, in accordance with To this end, the Delphi instrument was methods of Intuitive Inquiry (Anderson, structured as follows: 1998, 2000 ) and Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider and Srivasta, 1987), the Round One: Exploratory Delphi researcher’ s values and assumptions are used Data gathered from literature reviews, to explore and analyse the similar experi- anecdotal evidence, personal observations ences of others – as a hermeneutic lens, and experiences, semi-structured inter- culminating in a hermeneutic cycle. There- views, and pilot participant observations fore, rather than bracketing the researcher ’ s were summarised into themes. These were values and assumptions, as established in then presented to a broad base of hip hop- phenomenological approaches to research, involved participants in the context of Intuitive Inquiry begins both an iterative wanting to stimulate discussions and elicit and interpretive cycle. This usage of a ‘ pos- qualitative opinion-based feedback. itive lens ’ extends position of Generative Theory ( Gergen, 1978 ), which asserts that Round Two: Expert Delphi many assumptions of positivism cannot be Formalisation of the Delphi Hip Hop panel applied successfully to studying human sys- of experts, derived from convenience sam- tems. Instead, the aim should be to chal- pling. Expert knowledge elicitation was lenge guiding assumptions of culture – to held to be valid, owing to the profi les of raise fundamental questions regarding con- the participants and checks during partici- temporary social life, challenging which is pant observations. often taken for granted. From this, Appre- ciative Inquiry styles interview guides, to Round Three: Expert and Control Delphi focus on gathering ‘ the best of stories ’ , Expert knowledge elicitation from an regarding phenomena of interest, due to expanded sample, following the inclusion of their above normal capacity to be genera- additional participants (non-hip hoppers) – tive. Through the encouragement of cap- derived from convenience and snow turing tacit dialogue, ideas and opinions are ball sampling. This was held to be valid categorised – on the basis that these narra- because of the profi les of the new partici- tives will lend themselves towards the pants and introductory discussions sur- development of theories and models of rounding scope of study, with the intention best practice ( Bushe and Kassam, 2005 ; of viewing their inclusion as a control Cooperrider and Whitney, 2005 ). mechanism.

Round Four: Expert Delphi The use of Word Cloud software, Wordle Disclosure of fi ndings to hip hoppers and [ Appendix C] as Geographic Information select subjects involved in the participant System based Spatial Analyses, integrated observation stage of the study, through within various methodological approaches semi-structured interviews. Following this is something that is being included in more a consensus was deemed to have been and more websites and graphics in televi- arrived at. sion news pieces (Cidell, 2010). It offers a In the interest of priming participants by quick and useful way to data mine and syn- framing the scope of the study, in order to thesise large amounts of text, in order to facilitate a measurable commonality of yield key and signifi cant themes within one descriptions ( Brakus et al , 2009), while not image. This meta-language approach to ana- restricting views, a diagram with key was lysing data, achieved through blending net- considered the most appropriate method. work analysis and semiotic analysis produces In addition, as the fi eld of research centres network measures using qualitative data, to on creativity with a high degree of visual arrive at indicators such as knowledge stimulation and metaphors, diagrammatic domains, modality, paradigms and paradigm models are well positioned to engage more shifts ( Sü erdem, 2009). In this way, there is of the participants ’ senses. Furthermore, a a natural synergy between this approach and challenge to the researcher was to tackle that of Delphi – in that diagrams play a role the research question in a deep-structured in each and they attempt to fi lter information manner, without alienating the participants, into a culminating form of consensus. The who had not been selected according to aim was to analyse the didactic relationship level of formal educational achievements. between concepts, presenting the mental With this in mind, the researcher was also map behind texts, in order to describe phe- mindful of the fact that all participants were nomena. This interpretive approach to iden- being encouraged to intellectualise some- tifying meaning is kept at paragraph level, thing, which they would ordinarily not. where each paragraph is considered a state- Instead, it is hypothesised that the mechanics ment connecting two concepts, according to of hip hop and brand creativity to the panel sentence structures that use phrases such as had not been considered previously, nor ‘refers to ’, ‘is ’ , ‘signifi es ’, ‘makes ’ , ‘suggests ’ , are they a topic of prior interest in the same ‘is in opposition to’ . Discourses as judged way as is framed in the research questions. according to proximity, frequency and terms The methodological objective was to of reference (positive and negative). elicit both associated and disassociated Upon completion of the Delphi study, expert opinions from the participants, the model was further refi ned and developed regardless of their level of inclination (Figure 3 ). Finally, an additional model was towards hip hop, addressing the issues raised developed, which refl ected upon the research by Moore and Miles (1991). Through this process and observations concerning branding the intention was to clarify key terms and as a wider cultural phenomenon, within encourage participants towards identifying global societies and business ( Figure 4 ). The critical success factors. By using experi- milestone stages of the research exercise are enced professionals, their ability to concep- further detailed below: tualise and refl ect upon creative processes, from a broad base of several schools of Literature search thought and supporting disciplines, proved to yield both insight and coherent com- • Hip Hop Creativity /Hip Hop Crea- monalities ( Ford and Sterman, 1997 ). tion and Brand Creativity/ Brand

Creation, as separate and interconnected Process, refl ective of the introverted aspect disciplines. of branding, Delphi offers a method by • Online and magazine interviews, lyrics, which a consensus of understanding can be supported by synthesis in Wordle reached in a wider context ( Woudenberg, [ Appendix C] to identify themes. 1991). Delphi ’ s epistemology focuses on soft data and soft laws, dealing with areas Participant observation that do not lend themselves to more tradi- Semi-structured interviews with artists, tional approaches ( Helmer, 1977 ; Mullen, songwriters, musicians and producers were 2003). Cavalli-Sforza and Ortolano (1984) conducted in 13 recording studios, during observe that a typical panel has about 8– 12 recording sessions in the United Kingdom. members (p. 325) and Linstone (1978) fi nds Location and participants were selected that a suitable minimum panel size should using convenience and snowball sampling, consist of seven members (p. 296). Goodman following a similar approach to that of (1987) notes that the architects of Delphi Sö derman and Folkestad (2004). The bio- ‘ tend not to advocate a random sample of data of the observer appears in Appendix panellists … instead the use of experts or B. In contrast to S ö derman and Folkestad at least informed advocates is recom- (2004) in addition to hip hop, the music mended’ (p. 730). Beretta (1996) suggests genres observed also included Electronica, that ‘ Representative sampling techniques Asian Underground, Guitar (Indie, Metal, may be inappropriate when expert opinions Rock, Alternative), Funk, Acid Jazz, Drum are required’ (p. 83). However, Linstone and Bass, Jungle, Pop. From interviews, and Turoff (1975) prescribe that validity of although musical settings were favoured, it results is preserved through the heteroge- was felt that fi ndings could be expanded to neity of participants. include the other elements of break-dancing Five participants were selected and agreed and graffi ti, based on the views expressed by to take part in the Delphi study, from start respondents and those by (Wayne in Chang to fi nish. Each had a professional interest in and Chen, 1998 ; Olsen and Gould, 2008 ). hip hop and had taken part in the participant observation part of the research. The sample was then expanded to seven, with two other Narrative, emerging themes and defi nitions participants selected, again using convenience Using a qualitative, interpretive and induc- sampling and on grounds of their interest in tive approach, supported by Merriam hip hop, and in addition individually their (1988) and Powell and Dodd (2007) , when professional exposure to design, creativity and looking within branding and creative indus- branding (Respondent 6) and involvement tries, the author identifi ed words, translated in the music industry, sports branding and into language that could be understood by sponsorship (Respondent 7). As a control, a mainstream audience and represented after the fi rst Delphi round, six further par- within a diagrammatic model and key. ticipants were introduced at the round two These were gathered during participant stage. These respondents had expressed observations and from ‘ word cloud’ having (1) no direct involvement in hip hop; searches, and subsequently cross-referenced (2) broad understanding and exposure to hip against academic literature. hop; (3) involvement in other music genres. In the case of Respondents 8, 10, 12 and 13 Expert Delphi study (4), no strong affi liation or liking for hip hop Although Chevron (1998) names his was expressed. (Biodata of participants listed method for developing brands as the Delphi in Appendix B.)

Skulmoski et al (2007) undertook a lit- spatial relationship in the mind of consumers erature review that points to two to three that is of signifi cance, according to owner- rounds being a typical number before a ship and alignment with consumers’ value consensus is reached, also supported by systems (Ries and Trout, 1982; Marsden, Wynekoop and Walz (2000) . Although a 2002). As an extension of associative net- broad-based sample of respondents was work mapping of the human memory studied during the participant observation (Galton, 1880 ; Freud, 1924 ; Deese, 1965 ; phase, and a heterogeneous sample of expert Anderson and Bower, 1973) and also panel members took part in the Delphi drawing from Zipf’ (1965) , Dawkins (1976) study, in the interests of methodological and Marsden (2002) ascribes the science rigour, a fourth round was introduced. This of culture and creativity to a process of was done in order to ensure that data and positioning memetics (genes of meaning). tacit knowledge captured were refl ective of Within this process, the author asserts that the full phenomenon observed. brand creation aims to offer a transparent paper trail of heritage antecedents, which BRAND LITERATURE REVIEW both attract and guide consumers on a path of assimilation. From this, a brand’ s essence Brand architecture housed within a cultural context and When looking for a comparative frame of sustained by stakeholders maintains its reference to house hip hop and branding, strategic value (Holt, 2002, 2004, 2005; the brand architecture approach, as outlined de Chernatony, 2001). Furthermore, the by Petromilli et al (2002), offers such a lens. author observes that the same could be Within this, the consumer is central to a argued for hip hop and its very essence, as portfolio of overlapping entities, seeking to discussed below. increase equity, associations, salience and reduce confusion. The reasoning behind this HIP HOP LITERATURE REVIEW perspective is that hip hop artists profi le themselves, as well as their creations. Fur- Defi ning Hip hop thermore, trends indicate the increase in Hip hop is considered to be more than a brand-extension strategies being adopted by mere genre of music, but rather a culture artists, once they have attracted a following. that provides individuals with ways of con- These have moved beyond simple merchan- necting to the world (Brown, 2010; Emdin, dising and memorabilia, towards full-fl edged 2010). Other terms often used in connec- high-street high-fashion brands such as Phat tion with hip hop that were gathered from Farm . With this in mind, the strategic crea- interviews and lyric searches are that it tive process necessitates both fl exibility and is a form of self-expression, art-form, social a clear orientation, based on long-term value commentary, philosophy and lifestyle – judgements. Muzellec and Lambkin (2009) requiring active participation and it its most identify this as being present in a dual extreme, competitive Battling . Darling- approach that fi rst follows an integration Wolf (2008) describes this process as strategy, achieving image alignment; second, one that creates hyphenated identities and a separation strategy that shapes different mondialisation. The cornerstones of tradi- images, for different stakeholders. tional hip hop culture rest on four creative elements: ‘ deejaying’ (sampling and Brand creativity and creation scratching records), ‘ emceeing’ (rapping), In addition to the physical market posi- ‘ breaking’ (break-dancing), and ‘ bombing’ tioning and architecture of brands, it is their (graffi ti art) ( Rose, 1994; Hornsey, 2003;

Chang, 2005; Gibbons, 2007; Alim, 2009; pursuit of high-status cultural capital within Brown, 2010; Emdin, 2010; Ghandnoosh, hip hop, is in fact the pursuit of all 2010). Through its evolutionary process, participants and consumers – regardless of further words that have been cited as ele- class, wealth, race and nationality. It is con- ments, or compound sufﬁ xes are know- versely argued therefore that Cheyne and ledge, fashion, slang and beatboxing Binder (2010) identiﬁ ed this in citing the (replicating musical sounds and drum pat- acceptance and canonisation of hip hop terns using one ’ s voice). Although it is clear across social classes within the mainstream. that some of the elements individually focus Furthermore, as hip hop is a high-involve- on the production of music, art or dancing, ment, emotive and experiential offering, the authors take an approach that treats which also affords high-accessibility, it them collectively as demonstrating homo- appears to contradict the basis of Bourdieu’s geneity, through their expression of rhythm (1984, 1986) high-culture versus mass-taste and emotions (Wayne in Chang and Chen, construct. 1998; Olsen and Gould, 2008). In support of this position, Gaunt (2006) describes the Hip hop ’ s critical success as both a interplay and reciprocity between music cultural and commercial entity and dance, which is manifest in ‘ oral-kinetic In addition, in what has been termed by etudes’ . Krotoski (2010) as The Great Levelling of the digital revolution, access to knowledge Hip hop cultural heritage, capital and social networking has the ability membership and authenticity to empower and drive cosmopolitanism. Cheyne and Binder (2010) raise two areas Johnson (2007) also charts a change in of relevance to this study. First, they assert mindset among corporations when engaging that an evaluation of the authenticity of with consumers: ‘ Today’ s media is evolving hip hop by consumers is central to its beyond monetising audiences and more acceptance, which is also cited as being a towards fostering dialogue and community critical success factor by Clay (2003) ; Kahf – and monetising these interactions directly (2007); Pennycook (2007); Manivet and or indirectly’ . Therefore, the author sug- Richelieu (2008) . This is achieved by the gests that through the lens of diffusion legitimacy of the creators, judged primarily of innovations (Rogers, 1962, 1976, 1983, by their heritage and location. Second, that 1995; Strang and Soule 1998 ), the increasing hip hop evokes cosmopolitan ominvorism, acceptance of hip hop represents a conver- which expands Bourdieu’s (1984) concept gence continuum, which is comparable to of cultural objects being critiqued accor- that observed by Dailey et al (2005) ding to aesthetics and context-towards also who present a 5 Cs model of convergence, including experiences. Bourdieu (1984) ; when studying the collaborative practices Cheyne and Binder (2010) pay particular of media newsrooms – namely: (a) cross- attention to the social elite, who they argue promotion, (b) cloning, (c) cooperation, embark on a social process of distinction (d) content sharing and (e) full convergence that distinguishes them from others, and (pp.152– 153). drives cosmopolitanism. It is perhaps for these reasons that hip As a challenge to this, however, the hop has afforded itself as a powerful tool author proposes that the concept of cos- for advertising, marketing and brand man- mopolitan ominvorism being only the agers, because it acts as a conduit for entry domain of the elite, is the very raison d’ être into the psyche of consumer-centric com- that hip hop was created. Esteem and the munities that have previously been thought

to exhibit heterogeneous traits. Wilson and that this has become a gritty and offensive Liu (2009a) cite Timberland ’ s successes anti-branding strategy, which adds to a (Lelyveld, 2001) and Tommy Hilfi ger brand’ s personality, allure and edginess. (Dye, 2000) as an observation of this phe- An extension of this phenomenon can be nomenon. In further support, Holt (2002) seen in the thirst for authentic reality tel- lists the domain of hip hop as being within evision and online user-generated content, the ‘ arts and fashion communities, ethnic which some marketers covertly attempt to subcultures, professional communities and replicate. consumption communities’ ( Holt, 2002, However, having made these points, p. 84 ). Although it might appear that these although hip hop continues to be a loyal inroads are not unique to hip hop – in that servant for the marketer, a polemical case other music genres, such as Electronica, is made that in it lies the potential to offer Punk, Grunge and Indie have become the further benefi ts through researching its soundtracks to generations and an integral potency, from the root to the shoot , as opposed means by which individuals can ascribe to simply plucking its fruit. By adopting meaning to their identities ( Zaltman and an approach that seeks to understand its Puccinelli, 2001; Hesmondhalgh, 2008) – philosophy, nature and attraction, from what hip hop has been able to do is become the perspective of a marketer, it is hoped the bedfellow of marketers by giving centre that those elements can permeate business, stage to brands. In addition, it can be argued marketing and management thinking – in that this trend has encouraged brand con- perhaps a similar way to the application of sumerism in other genres. However, a fur- Sun Tzu ’ s 6th century BC The Art of War ther differentiator is that hip hop lyrics text, from warfare to business strategy. contain numerous references to brands, often accompanied by descriptions, similes PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION and metaphors, which reciprocally enrich FINDINGS the personality of both the brand and the hip hopper ( Bryant, 2008 ). Furthermore, Sampling – The bedrock of hip hop for an MTV generation that is used to creativity and creation seeing brands blurred out in hip hop music A cornerstone to hip hop is the art of videos, along with weapons, this has sampling ( Figure 2 ). The author defi nes this become a badge of honour to the artist, as: encouraging them to increase their affi lia- A systematic and qualitative process, often tions with brands, as a means of celebrating called diggin’ in the crates ; with the purpose authenticity, edginess and rebellion. of creating a memetic entities. Following From this, brand strategies benefi t from this, the usage of memetic entities by the low media-cost exposure, which attracts creator, leads to further adaptations and attention, encourages inquisitiveness and is innovations culminating in the creation of accompanied by a narrative, akin to an a Hip Hop entity – which produces both extended esoteric infomercial. Viewers have discontinuous and continuous variations. been observed playing a guessing game Examples of which are songs, slang, dance with peers as to which brand appeared on moves and pieces of artwork. the screen, which reinforces brand notoriety, recall and hyper-brand sensitivity. An interesting point to note is that such an Traditionally, such blurring of logos would approach need not take into account eth- have been viewed as hampering promo- nographic factors, with no requirement on tional activities, but now the author argues the sampler to even understand anything

Figure 2 : ERICA process of creating a Sample to be used in Hip Hop.

about the source material. And as such, Traditionally, artists such as Cypress Hill had authenticity can be achieved still in the to ﬁ ght long court battles and pay exorbitant absence of such knowledge – which almost sample clearance fees to the artists whose proﬁ les the sampler and audiences as being music they sampled, at times without per- analogous to ‘ magpies’ , attracted to bling mission. Externally, a dim-view was taken, and eye-catching memetic artefacts. What with low value being placed on hip hop ’s is paramount is that the creator possesses a approach to sampling and ownership. For seal of approval and authenticity, through these reasons, sampling was often viewed as the emotions that they evoke and their a form of plagiarism, which at best neces- philosophical code of conduct. sitated a value-based legal remuneration In this there are strong similarities agreement known as sample clearance, but between hip hop, design and brand crea- at the worst demanded high fees as a deter- tions. Where perhaps a difference lies rent to the l’ enfant terrible of music. between branding and hip hop is in the Now, with hip hop’ s popularity and its issue of contending ownership of an proven track record of being able to deliver entity. As hip hop readily draws from other commercial gains, the tide has turned, sources, where there is competition and largely because of a cultural paradigm shift contention, rather than dogmatically that has been recognised in legal precedents defending a position, hip hop is also ready Arewa (2007). Many artists would welcome instead to compete through further innova- their work being sampled, as it is felt that tion. This then becomes a hallmark of true this extends the product life cycle and authenticity. Evidence of this can be seen exposes them to new segments of the in rappers changing their names and styles. market. Comparably, the same reversal has Sö derman and Folkestad (2004) discuss the been observed in other emerging phe- informal collage building and intertextu- nomena – such as the role of music and ality, which is present in the creative process. brands in video games (Bartlet, 2010; The tide has also turned with regard to Wilson, 2010a) and the debates surrounding external perceptions of the usage of samples. the higher consumption of paid-for music

by illegal downloaders (BBC News Online, which collectively through encouraging 2005, 2009 ). inclusion drive excellence and competitive advantage: Scope of sampling and its wider application within branding • Knowledge transfer and creation of social Within the art of sampling also exists a networks, through emotive multi-level dichotomous tension that has been sum- experiences; marised below, under six main themes: • continuous innovative mass-stakeholder creativity, across the globe; 1. Evolution from Lo-Fi to Hi-Fi – by which • defi ning and seeking mass appeal, method barriers are reduced, in order to expanding hip hop’ s cultural frame of drive participation and empowerment. reference; Hip hop ’ s roots are based in customising • welcoming reciprocal sharing of hip hop cheap items of clothing; creating music outside of the genre. without instruments, by overlaying records on top of each other; dancing These case examples also lend credence to in the street; and creating art using spray the argument that hip hop and branding cans on the wall. Technology has espe- appear to be inextricably linked in their cially supported these pursuits, with the ability to innovate, spearhead artefactual creation of sampling machines, iPhone metamorphosis and act as conduits for cul- apps such as Baby Scratch , I Am T-Pain tural meaning and experiences – across and video games such as Guitar Hero , consumer segments. Where they differ is DJ Hero and Band Hero. Furthermore, that branding’ s objectives are largely trans- hip hop-inspired fashion labels now ferred implicitly to consumers, whereas hip produce ‘ ready-made’ outfi ts. hop explicitly states its objectives and 2. From plagiarism to patronage – The code projects and forecasts its aspirational status. of ethics that accepts the use of a sample. This appears to have served hip hop well 3. Innovation versus replication – Whether and the challenge for brand professionals is reproducing something with distinct whether this approach could wholeheart- similarities fulfi ls hip hop’ s criteria for edly be imported into more brand com- meaningful participation, ethics and munications. ecology. 4. Citation versus concealment – Some artists FINAL DELPHI RESULTS AND celebrate and disclose their sample sources, SUMMARISING MODEL OF HIP whereas others safeguard these secrets, as HOP CREATIVITY both a form of social capital and attempt A model was developed that captured the to preserve their distinct style. essence of creation – in sequential, dynamic, 5. Consumption and consumerism – Whether reciprocal and interconnected elements. citations of brands enrich hip hop, or Also in keeping with the spirit of hip hop destroy and exploit its cultural fabric of and branding collaboratively an acronym communication and social commentary. was arrived at which embodied the ‘ spirit’ 6. Mainstream versus the underground – whether of the process ( Figure 3): hip hop authenticity and acceptance Key : remains, when popularity increases. 1. Creation The case chronologies listed in Appendix (a) Actor – Avatar-esque-created identity A highlight the following key themes, and personality of the creator.

(c) Battle – A signal of competitive intent, demonstrating skills, value, legitimacy. (d) Reaction – Resulting from battling, reciprocating interacting and sharing creations. 3. Destination (a) Authenticity – Achieved through the culmination of the previous elements.

Within this approach, the Abracadabra model shares a commonality with the Shannon and Weaver (1949) communication model, in that it is refl ective of an encoding-decoding- Figure 3: Abracadabra approach to creativity. feedback sequence of events. As an extension, owing to the emergence of creative reci- (b) Brand – Product concept of the cre- procity, through consumer-brand-centric ation: co-branded/ ingredient brand models, user-generated content, social with the Actor and manifest in a dis- networking and a concept of legitimacy tinct personality and identity. Actors through shared ownership, the presence of will seek to cite and profi le them- the media is diffused throughout. selves within the product offering. (c) Rhythm – Signature style: Visual / Practical application of the kinaesthetic/ audio. Embedded into Abracadabra model all creations. (d) Argot – Encoded slang that restricts Micro perspective membership and creates sub-cultures. The model presents a cyclical approach to This helps to preserve and create the process of managing a brand, from its unique cultural elements. inception right through to embedding it (e) Culture – Created hybridised sub- within a sub-culture. In doing so, prece- cultures that drive collective indi- dence is given to engineering a brand-cen- vidualism. tric community – whereby the attainment (f ) Artefact – Final creation, blending of authenticity is derived from a collective elements – which pay homage and vote of confi dence, which lies in every reference to existing entities, while aspect, artefact and individual involved. To creating innovation through adapta- this end, the model serves as a stepwise tion (think hip hop sampling, nos- mantra for brand managers. Furthermore, talgia and retro). it offers a reminder of the fact that creativity 2. Marketing: Push /pull / profi le should be a dynamic and diffused attribute, (a) Delivery – Deconstruction /diffusion which nourishes a brand ’ s existence – and innovation/ convergence: supported when most affective, encourages reciprocity. by esoteric storytelling, which fl ips meanings, brings new perspectives Macro perspective and shows multiple perspectives. The fi nal suggestion is that brand creators, How the artefact is presented. designers and architects should consider (b) Audience – Those intended for com- their role, as being a necessary part of this munication and offering. process – as linked and associated branded

individuals. Global cultures, identities and Relevant critical success factors of his interconnected communities create net- rely on: works of tacit meaning, for which brands become conduits. This model ( Figure 4) • the ancient tradition of classical rhetoric; serves to highlight how brands can shape • cutting-edge technological social net- the agenda within not only marketing prac- working and hyper communication; tices, but also the wider society. • controlled situation-specifi c culture and ethnicity – being a man for all: by Key stages: drawing from American, African, Asian, 1. Culture Black, White and Mixed-Race classifi ca- 2. Hybridisation tion reference bases; when the occasion 3. Authenticity arises. 4. Nation branding 5. Global positioning /Game Theory Finally, a key consideration connected to 6. English hybrids authenticity and the cultural approach to 7. Surrogacy branding lies in how Nations, individuals and organisations perceive themselves and The end goal of a brand is to achieve the are perceived. The bar has been raised so role of a surrogate. Drawing from Trans- that those with multiple native language actional Analysis theoretical frameworks, and dialect skills are in increasing demand professionals, consumers and organisations – affording a competitive edge. However, should look to go beyond nurturing rela- there is evidence to suggest that with Eng- tionships – towards adopting them as their lish becoming the lowest common denom- own, or being adopted. These feed into the inator, communications remains proble matic. constant evolution of progressive and con- In the quest to forge international partner- temporary culture. ships and share knowledge, individuals Perhaps, the most visible representation are also having to learn several types of of this melding lies in charting Barack ‘ English’ : American-English, English-Eng- Obama’ s ascendency. Obama has been lish, Indian-English, Malaysian-English, hailed by many quarters as the fi rst ‘ Hip Arab-English, Australian-English, to name Hop President ’ – in spirit, approach and but a few. Therefore, if business, popula- looking to the Hip Hop community for tion and educational trends continue, it is support, from fans and artists alike. worth considering whether those in North America and the United Kingdom will have to re-evaluate their role and approach in this process – as minority groups in a global context ( Wilson, 2010b ).

CONCLUSIONS Hip hop has become the bedfellow of marketers – through giving centre stage to brands. In addition, it can be argued that this trend has encouraged brand consumerism in other music genres. However, a further differentiator is that hip hop lyrics contain numerous references to brands, Figure 4: CHANGES model. often accompanied by descriptions, similes

and metaphors that reciprocally enrich the Furthermore, there was a consensus that personality of both the brand and the hip hip hop had the potential to inspire crea- hopper ( Bryant, 2008 ). tivity outside of its context – owing to its Branding plays a signifi cant role in the balance of unifying, while challenging the creative processes of hip hop and its sup- status quo, through social commentary. porting culture. To this end, hip hop has the potential to nourish the creative FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS approach adopted by brand professionals It was mentioned that branding’ s main cor- not only looking to appeal to this target porate objectives are largely transferred audience, but also as a philosophical and implicitly to consumers, whereas hip hop practical approach to creating brands in explicitly states its objectives – projecting general. Here the argument is threefold: and forecasting its aspirations. A suggested One that presents hip hop as a creative hot- area for future research is to what degree house for germinating memetic brands. brand professionals can communicate in a Second, it is the driving force of intertex- comparably explicit manner to hip hop, tual cultural reciprocity and hybridisation, whether it remains an effective approach which equip it with the ability to go Global outside of hip hop-linked brands, what and redefi ne what Global means to con- effect this has on the brand and whether sumers and brand managers. And fi nally, its brand creator/ architects should also profi le competitive backbone also affords a legiti- themselves with more prominence next to mate approach to brand creation, through their brands. Similarly, the suggested instru- the pursuit of acceptance and competitive ment for this study is an expert Delphi success, according to economic factors. Key method, but this time with brand profes- justifi cations for this are as follows: sionals.

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APPENDIX A of street clothing. The following are extracts from their ‘ My Adidas’ Case example chronologies, which song, which demonstrate their illustrate hip hop ’ s approach to deep-rooted love: innovation, through sampling … wore my sneakers but I ’ m not Case example 1: a sneak My Adidas cuts the sand of a Hip hop group run D MC foreign land with mic in hand I cold took 1 977 Rock group Aerosmith released the command single from their 1975 Toys in the my Adidas and me both askin P Attic album called ‘ Walk this way’ . we make a good team my Adidas 1 986 Run DMC covered Aerosmith’ s and me song, adding their own rap lyrics. we get around together, rhyme forever 1 986 Following the success of Run and we won ’ t be mad when worn DMC ’s single ‘ My Adidas’ , they in bad weather signed a US$ 1.6 million deal with Adidas, which helped to reposi- … Now the Adidas I possess for tion trainers as casual non-sporting one man is rare footwear. Run DMC’ s preferred myself homeboy got 50 pair model was the basketball shoe, got blue and black cause I like to called the Superstar , which they chill famously wore with no laces and and yellow and green when it’ s nicknamed the shelltoe , owing to its time to get ill characteristic toe cap design. Adidas got a pair that I wear when I’ m now also have a Run DMC line playin ball

with the heal inside make me 10 1 998 British Indian musician and feet tall and Bhangra artist Panjabi MC my Adidas only bring good news 2002 sampled Busta Rhyme’ s ‘ Turn and they are not used as selling shoes It Up(remix)/ Fire It UP ’ instru- mental, adding Punjabi language 1 986 Aerosmith/ Run DMC ‘ Walk this singing and bhangra instruments way’ was the fi rst hip hop song to (dhol drums and tumbi strings) hit the Top fi ve in The Billboard over the top – creating the song Hot 100. mundianto bach ke [Punjabi transla- tion: beware of the boys ]. This song 1 987 Aerosmith/ Run DMC ‘ Walk this enjoyed global successes outside way’ won a Soul Train Music of Punjabi language speakers; and Award for Best Rap Single. included the usage of its instru- 1 999 Number 5 in MTV’ s 100 Greatest mental by the BBC and as a ring- Music Videos Ever Made. tone. 2 004 Rolling Stone magazine ranked 2 003 An updated version was released as Aerosmith’ s original version as ‘ Beware of the Boys ’ , featuring the number 336 and the Aerosmith/ English language vocals of multi- Run DMC collaboration at 287, in platinum US artist Jay-Z. their list of the 500 greatest songs 2 003 Panjabi received an MTV Europe of all time. Music Award, as the Best Dance 2 007 Aerosmith/ Run DMC ‘Walk this Act; and a MOBO Award for Best way’ , was released as an offi cial UK Act. Comic Relief fund-raiser, covered by UK pop groups, Girls Aloud and the Sugababes. APPENDIX B 2 008 Aerosmith/ Run DMC ‘ Walk this way’ was ranked number 4 on VH1 ’ a Biographies of participants 100 Greatest Songs of hip hop. Method/ approach: Biodata was requested from all participants using a standard tem- 2 009 Aerosmith/ Run DMC ‘ Walk this plate. In some cases, additional questions way’ was named the 8th greatest were asked subsequently to gain further hard rock song of all time. information: where either it was considered that insuffi cient data had been pro- Case example 2: vided, or more was needed in order to allow for greater cross-comparisons. In 1 982 Knight Rider US TV series addition, as a result of interactions during appeared on television. the study, it became apparent that other 1 998 US hip hop recording artist, relevant facts were disclosed – and there- Busta Rhymes released ‘ Turn It fore these were also included. The bio- Up(remix)/ Fire It UP’ , achieving data served as a means to ratify the gold certifi cation. His vocals signifi cance of the qualitative personal fl ow over an instantly recognis- opinions, expert knowledge elicitation able adapted version of the theme and experiences, anecdotal evidence and music to Knight Rider. participant observations.

The data below indicate that the sample Respondent 3 . Songwriter, music-producer of hip hoppers collectively hold 75 years of and vocalist. work experience, over 600 songs produced Music genres: Hip hop, Drum ‘ n’ Bass, and over 12 million copies sold. Compa- Asian Underground, Electronica. rably, the non-hip hoppers also boast sim- Over 20 years of professional experience, ilar work experiences, and in some cases in the United Kingdom, Europe, India and more music sales. North America.

Respondent 4 . Music-producer, club DJ and Participant observer / researcher Radio DJ for the world ’ s largest and auton- Brand, Advertising and Marketing Com- omous public service broadcaster inde- munications consultant. Senior Lecturer. pendent record label owner. Live touring vocalist and bass guitarist, Music genres: Hip hop, Drum ‘ n’ Bass, throughout Europe and parts of Central Asian Underground, Electronica. Asia, at major music festivals (Rock, Asian Over 10 years of professional experience, Underground, Electronica). in the United Kingdom, Europe, India and Songwriting (hip hop genre) and per- North America. formance credits on a video game series, which have collectively grossed in excess of 70 million copies and $120 million Respondent 5 . Music-producer, songwriter, worldwide. club DJ and award-winning radio DJ/ Session bass guitarist credits on a critically television presenter for the world’ s largest acclaimed World Music studio albums. and autonomous public service broadcaster independent record label owner. Music genres: Hip hop, Drum ‘ n’ Bass, Hip hoppers – Professional interest Asian Underground, Electronica. Respondent 1 . Globally acclaimed song- Over 15 years of professional experience, writer, music-producer, vocalist, guitarist in the United Kingdom, Europe, India and and drummer for record labels, ﬁ lm, adverts North America. and video games. Music genres: Hip hop, R ‘ n’ B, Pop, Electronica, Guitar, Reggae, Dance, World Hip hoppers – Personal interest: Music. Respondent 6 . Graphic designer, illustrator, Over 16 years of professional experience. web-designer and brand consultant. Over 600 songs written and /or produced. Over 12 years of professional experience, Worldwide, multi-platinum, gold and in the United Kingdom. top 40 album /single achievements, for Personal non-professional interest in: Hip major and independent record labels: 8 mil- hop, Drum ‘ n ’ Bass, Jungle, Dance, R ’n ’ B, lion tracks sold individually and 4 million Reggae, Disco, Electronica, Guitar. as part of a collective. DJ-mixes and Plays Guitar Hero for pleasure. Respondent 2 . Songwriter, music-producer, club DJ, independent record label owner. Respondent 7 . Former music contract lawyer, Music genres: Hip hop, Drum ‘ n’ Bass, handling several major label recording Asian Underground, Electronica. artists. Over 14 years of commercial and profes- Currently a sports agent, managing sional experience, in the United Kingdom, some of the world ’s top title-holding Europe, India and North America. UFC /MMA ﬁ ghters (Ultimate Fighting

Championship and Mixed Martial Arts), Respondent 13 . Solicitor. attracting viewing ﬁ gures of over 20 mil- Personal interest in Guitar (Indie/ lion in Asia alone. Grunge) and 1960s music. Personal non-professional interest in: Portrait painter and hobbyist guitarist. Hip hop and Jazz.

Non-Hip hoppers: APPENDIX C Respondent 8 . Portrait artist, Major-label Below are select exhibits of song lyrics fed signed songwriter, Rock guitarist and into Wordle [www.wordle.net/ ]. Wordle is vocalist. a tool that generates ‘ word clouds’ from text Over 24 years of professional experience, that is inserted into a fi eld. The clouds give in Europe and the Far East. greater prominence to words that appear Music genres: Guitar and World Music. more frequently in the source text. Artists work was selected from the period of 1985 –2008, according to: Respondent 9 . Company-owner and executive music producer for TV, fi lm and chart. 1. Notoriety – Owing to: sales, awards, Music composer, music programmer, club magazine reviews and fan polls DJ, marketer, marketing lecturer. 2. Lyrical content that discusses Hip hop. Over 10 years of professional experience Songs with themes that did not address in the UK. hip hop culture in any signifi cance were Over 170 songs produced. rejected. 20 million tracks sold for international record labels. Note : Following this, argot/ slang verbs and nouns were subsequently translated and Respondent 10 . Former bass guitarist and synthesised, supported by adverbs and adjec- songwriter in a world renowned rock tives – in order to allow for grouping under group, advertising executive for the world’ s key themes. It was apparent that although largest communications services group, some slang shared a commonality amongst music recording and promotions company artists, others created their own meaning and director. usage of words, according to context. Over 8 years experience. Music genre: Guitar. Examples: Global music sales in excess of 40 000 units. • Dog : Hip hop friend (human). • Shaolin : is used initially by the Wu Tang Clan to describe Staten Island, New Respondent 11 . Digital Manager responsible York; but has subsequently been adopted for online and social networks at a UK by other artists, as a show of solidarity museum, which charts musical experiences and affi liation. in the United Kingdom. • Shit : has multiple meanings, ranging from Strong personal interest in music, in all musical tracks, to skills, and clothing. Its its forms. use as a noun, often denotes ownership of a positive possession; as opposed to its use Respondent 12 . Professor of Management as an adjective – which is used to classify and Entrepreneurship. something as being of poor quality. Personal interest in Pop and former Club DJ. See Figure C1 –C4 .

Figure C1: Artists: Dead Prez – Song: ‘ Hip Hop ’ 2000. Source : www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/2079124/Dead_Prez%3A_Hip-Hop .

Figure C2 : Artist: KRS1 – Select Lyrics of 15 songs discussing Hip Hop, over the period 1987– 2008. Source : www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/2078962/KRS-1 .

Figure C3: Artist: Guru, from Gang Starr , and Jazzmataz – Select Lyrics of 11 songs discussing Hip Hop, over the period 1985– 2003. Source : www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/2079204/Guru_-_Gang_Starr_lyrics .

Figure C4 : Artists: Wu-Tang Clan – Song, ‘ Protect your neck’ 1993. Source : www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/2079172/Wu_Tang_Clan_-_protect_your_neck.