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Gut and Mind Gut: First Published As 10.1136/Gut.52.7.918 on 1 July 2003 918 LEADING ARTICLE Gut and mind Gut: first published as 10.1136/gut.52.7.918 on 1 July 2003. Downloaded from N M Neary, C J Small, S R Bloom ............................................................................................................................. Gut 2003;52:918–921 Obesity is a growing epidemic, causally associated with The growth hormone secretagogue receptor a number of serious medical conditions, including (GHS-R) was identified as a G protein coupled receptor located in the hypothalamus and diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, and several pituitary.3 In 1999 an endogenous ligand for this cancers. The gut hormones ghrelin and peptide YY are orphan receptor was discovered, and purified secreted from the gut in response to changes to from the stomach.4 This ligand was named “ghre- lin” from the Indo-European route ghre meaning nutritional status. While food intake is stimulated by to grow. Ghrelin has a biologically unique ghrelin, it is inhibited by peptide YY. The discovery, octanoyl fatty acid side chain, essential for its anatomy, and physiology of ghrelin and peptide YY are biological function, on the third of 28 linear amino acids. discussed, focusing on the adaptive changes in diseases PYY was initially isolated from colonic extracts such as obesity and anorexia nervosa. Ghrelin and PYY as a 36 amino acid linear peptide in 1982,5 with a are important therapeutic targets in the quest to find an tyrosine residue at both C and N terminals. It was after these two tyrosines (Y in peptide nomencla- effective antiobesity treatment. ture) that PYY was named. Like ghrelin, the .......................................................................... structure is highly preserved across species, suggesting that any significant mutation in PYY or ghrelin proved fatal to its owner. PYY shares he survival of our species depends upon the considerable homology with pancreatic polypep- drive to find food. Our ancestors were likely tide (PP) from pancreatic endocrine cells and to have been those who were best able to sur- T neuropeptide Y (NPY), a potent central orexigenic vive famine by laying down fat in times of plenty, agent.6 PYY, PP, and NPY may be considered a and conserving energy in times of food depriva- family of regulatory peptides. Five receptors have tion. Ironically, in present times these survival attributes make us particularly susceptible to the been identified within the brain for this family http://gut.bmj.com/ dangers of excess food. Obesity is a growing and named Y1–Y5 receptors. epidemic, causally associated with a number of Ghrelin is primarily secreted from X/A-like endocrine cells of the oxyntic glands of the serious medical conditions, including diabetes 7 mellitus, coronary heart disease, and several can- stomach. The majority of these cells abut the cers. Approximately 1000 people per week die blood capillaries but do not have direct contact prematurely in the UK because of obesity. with the stomach lumen and gut nutrients. Ghre- lin immunoreactivity is also found at lower In recent years great advances have been made 4 on September 25, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. in our understanding of the peripheral signals concentrations within the hypothalamus, an area that regulate appetite from the gut and adipose of the brain known to be important in the regula- tissue, and how these act within the brain. In tion of appetite. PYY is secreted from the 1994, the adipocyte hormone leptin was endocrine L cells of the small and large bowel, and discovered1 which circulates at concentrations is found at low concentrations throughout the proportional to fat mass and inhibits food small intestine, and at higher concentrations in intake.2 Leptin crosses the blood brain barrier to the terminal ileum and colon with the maximum 8 act via its receptor to inhibit orexigenic and concentration in the rectum. The major circulat- 9 stimulate anorexigenic neuropeptides in the ing form of PYY is PYY3–36. PYY3–36 has been arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus. Lep- shown to be a selective agonist at the presynaptic 10 tin is believed to play an important role in long inhibitory Y2 autoreceptor. term energy balance. Ghrelin levels are highest in the fasting state, See end of article for The gut hormones ghrelin and peptide YY rising sharply before, and falling within one hour authors’ affiliations of a meal.11 Ghrelin peaks are of similar magni- ....................... (PYY), secreted from the gut in response to changes to nutritional status, also act on the ARC tude before each meal of the day. When all time Correspondence to: to regulate appetite. While food intake is stimu- cues were removed, ghrelin levels were found to ProfessorSRBloom, lated by ghrelin, it is inhibited by PYY. In this rise when subjects requested a meal, suggesting Department of Metabolic that the actions of ghrelin on meal initiation are Medicine, Faculty of article, the discovery, anatomy, and physiology of Medicine, Imperial College ghrelin and PYY will be discussed, with focus on under neural control. In contrast with ghrelin, of Science, Technology, the adaptive changes in diseases such as obesity and Medicine, and anorexia nervosa. Ghrelin and PYY are Hammersmith Campus, ................................................. Du Cane Rd, London important therapeutic targets in the quest to find Abbreviations: ARC, arcuate nucleus; PYY, peptide YY; W12 ONN, UK; an effective antiobesity treatment. [email protected] The discovery of ghrelin was preceded by work GH, growth hormone; GHSs, growth hormone secretagogues; GHS-R, growth hormone secretagogue with synthetic compounds, the growth hormone Accepted for publication receptor; PP, pancreatic polypeptide; NPY, neuropeptide 14 April 2003 secretagogues (GHSs) which stimulate growth Y; Agrp, agouti related protein; POMC, ....................... hormone (GH) release and increase food intake. proopiomelanocortin; BMI, body mass index. www.gutjnl.com Gut and mind 919 PYY levels are suppressed in the fasting state, and increase following a meal. Plasma PYY levels rise within 30 minutes of nutrients reaching the gut,12 despite the fact that PYY is secreted at the highest concentration in the colon, again sug- gesting neural regulation. PYY levels continue to rise for sev- Gut: first published as 10.1136/gut.52.7.918 on 1 July 2003. Downloaded from eral hours after a meal by which time the nutrients may act directly on intestinal L cells. PYY levels are lowest in the morning and are elevated after breakfast, rise further after lunch and reach their daily peak a few hours after the evening meal.13 Obese people tend to eat a larger proportion of their daily food intake in the evening.14 This eating pattern could be associated with lower postprandial PYY levels and explain its association with an increased caloric intake. In addition to its important role in the control of energy homeostasis, ghrelin stimulates GH secretion in pituitary cul- ture cells and in vivo.4 Peripheral ghrelin potently stimulates feeding in rodents, with the maximum effect being seen within one hour of administration.15 A dose of ghrelin that stimulates feeding was found to achieve similar circulating Figure 1 Hypothalamic actions of the peripheral hormones leptin, levels as those observed after a 24 hour fast,16 suggesting that ghrelin, and peptide YY (PYY). ARC, arcuate nucleus; PVN, ghrelin regulates day to day food intake. Chronic peripheral paraventricular nucleus; NPY, neuropeptide Y; Agrp, agouti related ghrelin administration leads to a significant increase in protein; POMC, proopiomelanocortin. Filled arrows indicate stimulatory action and broken arrows inhibitory action. cumulative food intake and body weight gain with no attenu- ation in feeding stimulation with multiple injections.16 This weight gain is mainly due to increased fat deposition,17 and How is the nutrient status of the gut linked with the sensation may be due to decreased energy expenditure18 in addition to of hunger within the mind? Peripheral ghrelin is thought to increased food intake. However, GH and insulin like growth stimulate appetite through the ARC, an area of the hypothala- factor 1 return to pretreatment levels during chronic ghrelin mus known to be important in the regulation of feeding. After administration.16 While ghrelin plays a long term role in the microinjection into defined hypothalamic sites, ghrelin was regulation of feeding and of body weight it may not found to stimulate feeding most markedly in the ARC.16 chronically influence GH secretion. Moreover, peripheral ghrelin increases the number of cells expressing c-fos (an early gene product whose appearance is “ used as an index of neuronal activation) in the ARC. The In addition to its important role in the control of 22 energy homeostasis, ghrelin stimulates GH secretion in majority of these fos positive neurones co-stain with NPY. Ghrelin has also been shown to stimulate hypothalamic agouti pituitary culture cells and in vivo” 23 related protein (Agrp) expression. NPY and Agrp are in turn http://gut.bmj.com/ thought to stimulate feeding through receptors in the Peripheral administration of PYY was first reported to 24 19 hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (fig 1). decrease appetite in 1993. Recent work has demonstrated Administration of the inhibitory gut hormone PYY3–36 also that PYY3–36, the major circulating form of PYY, inhibits 20 stimulates c-fos expression within the ARC but, like leptin and appetite in the fasting state at physiological concentrations. in contrast with ghrelin, inhibits hypothalamic NPY expres- The finding that PYY3–36 has no effect on feeding in the Y2 sion. PYY3–36 has been shown to increase the release of receptor knockout mouse but inhibits feeding in wild-type lit- α-melanocyte concentrating hormone, a product of the on September 25, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. ter mates supports the hypothesis that PYY modulates feeding anorexigenic CNS peptide proopiomelanocortin (POMC).20 through the Y2 receptor. Chronic administration of PYY3–36 Therefore, PYY3–36 may exert its actions through stimulation leads to a decrease in food intake and a decrease in body of anorexigenic neurones such as POMC as well as inhibition weight.
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