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Home , Connected speech, Fronting (sound change), Language, Language (journal), Language development, Phonology

Development

0 - 3 Months 3 - 6 Months 6 – 9 Months 9 – 12 Months • Birth cry – undifferentiated • begins • Uses , n, t, d, b, p, y in babbling multiple • Vocalizes during play • Reflexive making produces glottal Double – VCV, aga syllables • Vocalizes to mirror Puts lips together – says “m” catch and (ah, eh, uh) • Babbles tunefully – singing tones • Jabbers loudly – wide of and Nasal is heard • Some variety in non-crying sounds • Uses wide variety of sound combinations intonations • Vocalizes pleasure and displeasure • Differentiated cry (true vocal including non-English sounds • Uses most sounds (C&V) in vocal play – begins) • Stops vocalizing when adult enters • Inflected vocal play – beginning of phonetic • Coos and gurgles • Self-initiated vocal play heard • May acquire first true –0-18 months • Produces single syllables • Coos, chuckles, gurgles and laughs • Imitates intonation and sounds in • Variegated babbling begins – combines his/her own repertoire • Begins blowing bubbles • Babbles to self, others, and objects different syllables in vocal play • Babbling show pitch and change • Reduplicative babbling begins – bababa • Vocally expresses eagerness 1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 2 ½ Years 2½- 3 Years • Uses -like intonations (jargon) • increasing in frequency – jargon • Approximately 70% intelligible • Still some substitutions and distortion of • Some echolalia almost gone by 2 years • May omit final , reduce consonant • Uses most vowels and consonants and some • Asks questions by intonation at end blends; substitute one consonant for another • Continuing to improve intelligibility – now initial consonants of . approximately 80% intelligible • Basically unintelligible with exception of a • Improvement in intelligibility – now • Consonants mastered: p, m, n, w, few words approximately 65% intelligible by 2 years • Omits final consonants and some initial • Appearance of words produced with CVC consonants structure (hot) • Words produced with VC structure (bo/boat) emerge) • Accurately imitates some words 3- 3 ½ Years 3 ½ - 4 Years 4- 4 ½ Years 4½- 5 Years • Uses final consonants most of time • Becoming very intelligible in connected • Should be few omissions and substitutions of • Most consonant sounds used consistently • Phonological processes disappearing by age speech consonants and accurately, though may not be mastered 3: consonant , diminutization, • Continued refinement of articulatory skills • Very intelligible in in all contexts doubling , final consonant deletion, taking place • More present in difficult blends prevocalic voicing, , unstressed • Consonants mastered: b, d, k, g, f, y deletion, velar • Phonological processes continuing after age 3: , deplatalization, , final devoicing, gliding, stopping, vocalization 5- 6 Years 6 – 7 Years • • From: Speech and Development Consonants mastered: t, ing, r, l Consonants mastered: voiceless th, sh, ch, j nd (by 8 years, voiced th, v, s, zh are Chart (2 Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, mastered) and Jim Gorman, Pro-Ed.

From: Speech and Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman, Pro-Ed. Development Chart

0 - 3 Months 3 - 6 Months 6 – 9 Months 9 – 12 Months • Startle response to loud sound • Anticipates feeding upon sight of bottle • Attempts to imitate gross • Begins to relate and – first • Visually tracks while on back • Watches or closely attends to movement • Comprehends parental gestures true word • Moves eyes toward source of sound patterns • Looks at some common objects when • Will give block, toy or object on request • Attends to – turns head toward voice • Smiles on sight of face are spoken • Understands and follows simple commands regarding body action • Fixes gaze on spoon or bottle • Recognizes spoon or bottle • Comprehends “no” – inhibits on command • Responds with searching movements to • Orients to light • Laughs when playing with objects • Interest in pictures maintained for full minute while they are simple questions • Briefly holds and inspects two objects (1-4 • Looks in correct place for toys out of sight months) • Searches for partially hidden object (4-8 months) • Turns heads immediately to own name • Mouths some objects • Bangs objects together • Understands the of “hot” • Performs many actions on objects – shakes, • In presence of more than one object, shows tears, slides, mouths, rubs awareness of more than one • Sight of object or person produces gross • Indicates displeasure when object is (emerging nomination) removed • Imitates ringing of bell Attending Phase (0 – 9 Months) • Can name or look for out of sight – Prerequisite of Semantic Development first true word • Gestures and/or vocalizes to indicate wants and needs (emerging state, recurrence, nomination) • Recognizes inverted object – emerging awareness of top/bottom, front/back 1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 2 ½ Years 2½- 3 Years • Follows simple one-step commands • Comprehends approximately 300 words • Comprehends approximately 500 words • Comprehends approximately 900 words • Points to recognized objects (emerging • Listens as pictures are name • Listens to 5 to 10 minute story • Points to pictures of 10 objects described by nomination) • Listens to simple stories – especially likes • Carries out series of two related commands their use • Point to wanted objects (emerging state) ones heard before • Identifies action in pictures • Listens to 20 minute story • Begins to claim certain objects (emerging • Points to five body parts on self or doll • Has of “one” and “all” • Knows own sex and possession) • Responds approximately to yes/no • Knows in/on/under • Points to one to three body parts on command questions (head shake) • Knows big/little • Identifies two or more objects or pictures • Object permanence fully acquired • Matches from a group • Discriminates food from other objects • Completes three piece form board, matches • Perceives other’s (unwraps candy before eating) shapes • Imitates only events that are present to the • Is cautious of common dangers, such as senses, not those from past stairways, animals • Has complicated, sequenced routines for daily activities (bedtime, meals); objects to change (beginning of time/sequence awareness From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).

1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 2 ½ Years 2½- 3 Years • Uses 3 to 20 words • Uses approximately 50 recognizable words • Uses 200 intelligible words • Uses 500 intelligible words • Vocalizes with gestures • Uses names of most familiar objects • Names six objects by use • Answers six to seven agent/action questions • Says “all gone” (emerging negation) • Produces animal sound or uses its name • Repeats two numbers correctly (what runs?) • Answers question “what’s this?” • Verbalizes toilet needs (closer to 2 years) • Answers “where” questions • Answers simple “who, why, where, how many “ questions (3 years) • Asks for “more” (emerging recurrence) may verbalize need before, during, or after • Answers “what….doing” questions act • Answers one of three questions (what do • Answers “what do you hear with?” • Identifies and names five or more pictures you do when you’re hungry, sleepy or by 2 years cold?) • Says own name on request – refers to self • Can ask simple questions (what’s that?) with full name • Yes/No questions emerging (is sleeping?) • Verbalizes “no” • Repeats sentence of sex to seven syllables • Verbalizes immediate experiences accurately • Combines two words into , ma use three to four word responses (2 years) • Begins to use some and 3- 3 ½ Years 3 ½ - 4 Years 4- 4 ½ Years 4½- 5 Years • Comprehends 1,200 words • Comprehends 1,500 – 2,000 words • Understands concept of the number three • Comprehends 2500 to 2800 words • Knows “in front of” and “behind” when • Knows front and back of clothes (give me just three) • Answers two complex comprehension object with logical front and back if used • Responds to commands involving three • Knows between, above, below, top, bottom questions • Identifies hard/soft, rough/smooth actions • Names one (54 months) • Executes three commissions in sequence • Identifies circle and square • Recognizes one color • Can recognize two to three primary colors • Points to red, yellow, green, and blue on • Responds to commands involving two (54 months) request (60 months) actions • Knows heavy/light, loud/soft, like/unalike, • Responds to commands involving two discriminates /long/short objects • Classifies according to form, color or use • Able to match sets (42 months) • Uses 800 words • Uses 1000 to 1500 words • Answers 14 agent + action questions • Uses 1500 to 2000 words • Responds appropriately to simple “how” • Answers 13 agent + action questions • Responds appropriately – not necessarily • Repeats two nonsense syllables question • Can do simple verbal (Daddy is correctly, to “how far” questions • Answers simple “when” questions (when • Can answer two or three questions (what do a man, Mommy is a …..) • Defines four words in terms of use do you sleep?) you do when you’re hungry/sleepy/cold?) • Answers (responds appropriately) to “how • four objects • Answers 15 agent + action questions • Beginning of question-asking stage – asks much” and “how long” ( of time) • Rote counts to 10 • Responds appropriately to “how often, mainly “what” and “who” questions questions – not necessarily correctly • Repeats four digits in one of three trials how long” questions • Names 8 to 10 pictures • Tells two events in order of sequence • Uses “what do…does…did” questions • Asks meaning of words • States action • Long, detailed conversations • Tells long story accurately • Supplies last word of line (the apple is on • Repeats 12 to 13 syllable sentence – one of • Counts 10 objects the…) three trials • Can name first/middle/last • Counts three objects, to each • Can answer three of three questions (what • Identifies missing objects from group of do you do when you’re hungry/sleepy/ three cold?) • Repeats days of week in sequence From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).

5- 6 Years 6 – 7 Years • Comprehends 13,000 words (by age 6) • Comprehends 20,000 to 26,000 words • Can answer “what happens if…” • Understands roughly the difference in time • Understands “opposite of” (the opposite of intervals hot is…) • Understands seasons of the year, what you • Differentiates am from pm do in each • Understands yesterday/tomorrow, more/less, • Prints numbers and own full name with no model • Some/many, several/few, most/least, before/after, now/later, across, a pair • Puts numerals 1-10 in proper sequential order • Has number of 10 (give me blocks) • Forms letters left to right – reversals and • Can point to a penny, nickel, quarter, dime inversions common • Points to half and whole • Prints and numerals from • Knows right from left (by age 6) previously printed model • Can shift classification – classifies according • Writes one syllable words related to sight to shape, then color, shift in mental • Grasps the basic ideas of additions and subtraction • Counts 12 objects correctly • States preceding and following numbers • Recite (rote counts) numbers up to 30 and days of week • Repeats four digits correctly • Is aware of mistakes in other people’s speech • Names basic colors • Apt to use and mild profanity • Name five letters of alphabet (by age 6) • Can tell address, both street and number • Can state similarities and differences of objects • Second of question state (why) • Describe location or movement: through, • Recites the alphabet sequentially – names away, from, toward, over capital letters; names lower case by 7; matches upper to lower case • Names position of objects: first, second, third • Sight reads 10 printed words • Names days of week in order • Names numerals 1-10 • Tells time related to a specific daily schedule From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed). Play Development Chart

0 - 3 Months 3 - 6 Months 6 – 9 Months 9 – 12 Months • Long spells of staring vacantly at large • Raises head and chest when prone • Grasps dangling objects • Squeezes doll to make it squeak masses (windows, walls) • Puts objects in mouth • Explores toy with fingers and mouth • Regards and pokes clapper of bell • Hands predominately closed. No reaching to • Watches hands • Hitching present (beginning cause/effect) grasp objects • Plays actively when propped in play area • Will bounce when supported in standing • Deliberately drops toys and watches them • If hand is touched, either clenches or opens 10-15 minutes position fall • Reacts to paper or cloth on face • Looks intently at and shakes rattle • Sits without support • Plays ball with another person • Raises head when prone • On visual cue, free hand comes towards • Uses pincer grasp to pick up small object • Still brings objects to mouth – uses more • Will grasp object when placed in hand but doesn’t grasp rattle. • Drinks form cup • Puts objects in and takes them out of large • Reaches for object but misses (3 months) • Pays to cube on table • Eyes and hands function in close interaction container (beginning awareness of in/out) • May detect a tiny pellet • Imitates arm movements • Places one block after another on table • Generally inspects surroundings • Bangs spoon on table (prerequisite to counting) • Smiles, fingers mirror image • Pull self to standing position • Responds to • Increases activity at sight of toy • Craws – on belly • Holds crayon – imitates scribble • Words for toy out of reach • Takes a few steps with help • Exploitative in string play • Can bring one object momentarily above • Head control established in midline another (emerging awareness of spatial • Bangs with object held in hand concept – precedes block stacking) • Transfers object form one hand to another • Stack rings on pegs • Rolls over – both ways • Throw objects intentionally 1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 2 ½ Years 2½- 3 Years • Solitary or onlooker play – self play • Parallel play – plays near others but not • Parallel play predominates • Dramatization and begin to • Continual walking activities with them • Arranges doll furniture into meaningful enter play (make believe and pretend) • Begins running- still and awkward • Talks to self as he/she plays groups and uses doll figures to act out simple • Beginning interest in cooperative play – themes from own plays with others in small groups • Scribbles spontaneous with crayons • Little social give and take – little interest in what others say or do but hugs, pushes, • Aligns three or more cubes to make train; • Interest in combining play things • Can remove mittens, socks, hat, unzips zipper pulls, snatches, grabs, defends rights by pushes train • Is willing to wait his/her turn • Puts objects in and out of container pulling hair and kicking • Builds tower of six to seven blocks • Will put toys away with some supervision • Can figure out ways of overcoming some • Does not ask for help • Imitates drawing of vertical line obstacles (opening doors, reaching high • Watches cartoons on TV • Procrastinates places) • Sequences related action in play such as • Names own drawing • Strings beads preparing food for doll, feeding it, wiping its • Imitates many things (sweeping, combing • Builds tower of nine blocks • Transports blocks in a wagon rather than mouth hair – self use) • Puts together four-part nesting toy just building • Pulls toys, carries or hugs dolls, teddy bear • Stacks five or more rings on a peg in order • Relates action to object or another person – • Very rapid shifts in attention – especially of size washes, feeds, combs doll in addition to expressed by gross motor skills self • Draws horizontal line in imitation • Likes to play with flexible materials such • Imitates drawing a circle as clay, pat, pinches, and fingers • Less rapid shifts in attention From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).

3- 3 ½ Years 3 ½ - 4 Years 4- 4 ½ Years 4½- 5 Years • Builds bridge from model • Increase in dramatization of play • Make cube gate from model • Likes cutting out and pasting • Cooperative play begins • Complicated ideas but unable to carry out • Identifies parts missing in two pictures • Likes working on projects – may carry • Organizes doll furniture accurately and in detail; no carryover from day to day • Shows off dramatically over from day to day begins to use in genuinely imaginative ways • Prefers to play in group of two to three • Copies square • Definite interest in finishing what he/she children; chooses companion of own sex starts • Draws two or more strokes for a cross-on • Much self-praise imitation • Suggests turns, but often bossy in directing • Plays in groups of two to five – friendships • Uses dolls and puppets to act out scripts • Beginning to share others becoming stronger • Good imaginative play • Reenacts experienced events such as birthday • Often silly in play and may do things • Spurred on by rivalry in activity – party, baking cookies wrong purposely competition • Uses one object to represent another (stick = • Puts toys aware • Interested in going on excursions phone or fence) • Likes to dress up • Draws unmistakable with body, • Draws a human with two parts. Adds three arms, legs, feet, nose and eyes parts to incomplete human • Adds seven parts to incomplete human • Builds structures/buildings with blocks • Copies a triangle • Assumes the role of another person in play • Watches life situation programs on TV – (becomes a teacher, animal, parent) gains from verbal contents (60 months) 5- 6 Years 6 – 7 Years • Copies drawing of rectangle with diagonals • Obsessive play interests – mania for games, in middle funny books • Copies drawing of diamond • Can s0pend hours at one activity • Draws human with heck, fingers, clothes, and • Plays alone better than at 6 years two dimensional legs • Groups play similar to 6 year old’s with less • Adds nine parts to incomplete human ability to pretend and more to provide • May start collections necessary paraphernalia • Able to play games by rules • Demands more realism • Builds elaborate things with blocks • Doesn’t branch out on many novel adventures • Plans many sequences of pretend event – uses props and language to develop a theme • Better at planning actions (going on a trip into outer space) • Beginning of inventing and designing • Strong return to cutting out and coloring • Fond of table games • Predominant dramatization of experiences and stories • Likes stunts: gymnastics, tumbling From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed). - Development Chart

0 – 3 Months 3 – 6 Months 6 – 9 Months 9 – 12 Months Note: Due to the highly variable of syntactic and morphological development and due to the lack of sufficient in the area, the age levels listed are approximations of when certain forms and constructions may appear 1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 2 ½ Years 2½- 3 Years • 50% of all are • Follows directions using one or two • Articles “a” and “the” appear in sentences • Auxiliary “is/am + ing” (girl is running) • Mean length of responses is one or spatial concepts – in/on • Present progressive “ing” on verbal • Regular verbs appear (walk/walked) two words • Negation used in form of “no” (no bed) • Regular plural forms emerging (cat-cats) • Uses “s” for possession (Daddy’s car) • Possessive emerging (Daddy car) • Uses in/on correctly • Uses pronouns – I, me, you, mine (he, she, and • Refers to self with pronoun and name • Irregular past tense emerging it emerging) (me Tommy) • Uses come contractions in memorized form • Negative “not emerging (don’t, can’t, it’s, that’s) • Uses contracted form of “is” (he’s running) • Appropriate use of at least two pronouns • Adverbs of location emerging (here, there) • Asks basic questions (Daddy gone?) • Begins to use do, can and will (emerging future • Understands concept of first and second tense) person pronouns (I, you) • Uses imperatives (commands: go get it, don’t) • 33% of are nouns • 25% of utterance are nouns, 25% verbs • Understands “est” marker (biggest) • Combines two words into phrase • Combines three to four words in subject + • Comprehends third person pronouns (he, she) (approximately 2 years) in _+ verb + object format • 20% nouns, 25% verbs or noun + adjective format • Mean length of response if 3.1 words • Mean length of response is 3.4 words • Mean length of response is 1.8 words • Infinitive complement (I want to play) emerging 3- 3 ½ Years 3 ½ - 4 Years 4- 4 ½ Years 4½- 5 Years • Beginning to use “is” at beginning of • Possessive marker “s” consistent • “If” and “so” appear in sentences • Possessive pronouns – “his, her” emerge questions • Regular third person singular (-s) consistent • Irregular plurals used fairly consistently • Uses “will” to form • Third person singular present tense(s) • Simple past tense (t, d) consistent (child/children) • Fewer errors in between emerging (he runs) (walk/walked) • “Our, they, and their” used consistently adjective/noun • Contracted forms of modals (won’t, • Present progressive “is + ing” consistent • Uses “could” and “would” in sentences • Reflexive pronouns becoming more consistent can’t) • Contractions used consistently • Errors of noun/verb and adjective/noun • Comparative (er) emerging (bigger) • Irregular plural forms emerging • Uses negative “not” consistently agreement are frequent (child/children) • Pronouns: he, she, I you, me, mine • Uses “are” with plural nouns (boys are consistent running) • “Are, they, their” used inconsistently • Uses “and” as • Reflexive pronoun “myself” emerging • Regular plural forms are consistent • More adverbs of time/manner are being • Uses is, are, am in a sentence used • Conjunction “because” emerging • Uses “got” (I got it) • “What was, what were,” questions emerging • “Was…were” (yes/no questions) emerging (was he there?) From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).

3- 3 ½ Years 3 ½ - 4 Years 4- 4 ½ Years 4½- 5 Years • Mean length of responses is 4.3 words • Mean length of response is 4.4 words • Mean length of response is 4.6 words • Mean length of response is 5.7 words • Combines four to five words in sentences • Combines four to five words in sentences • Combines four to seven words in sentences • Combines five to eight words in sentences • Uses compound sentence with “and” • Complex sentences used frequently • emerging in some children • Imperatives and emphatics used (the was kicked by the boy) consistently • now in stable relationship 5- 6 Years 6 – 7 Years • All pronouns used consistently • Fairly consistent use of most • Superlative (est) used (biggest) morphological markers • Adverbial word endings emerging • “If” and “so” developed by most children (slowly, faster) • Reflexive pronouns developed by most children • Irregular comparatives used more correctly (good, better, best) • Perfect tense “have” and “had” emerging • Nominalization occurring: noun forms are developed from verb forms • Continued improvement on irregular plurals • Iteration emerging (you have to clean clothes to make them clean) • Participial complements emerging • Mean length of response is 6.6 words • Mean length of response is 7.3 words From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim • Syntax nearly normal • Passive voice fully developed in most Gorman (Pro-Ed). children • Continued refinement of syntax Development Chart

0 – 3 Months 3 – 6 Months 6 – 9 Months 9 – 12 Months • Briefly looks at people • Fixes gaze on face • Initiates vocalizing to another person • Shouts or coughs to attract attention • Follows moving person with eyes • Responds to name by looking for voice • Enjoys being played with (4-8 months) • Shakes head “no” and pushes undesired • Quiets in response to sound (responds more source (4-8 months) • Different vocalizations for different states: objects away readily to speech than non-speech sounds • Regularly localizes sound source/speaker anger, contentment, hunger (4-8 months) • Waves “bye” • Smiles/coos in responses to another • Occasionally vocalizes in response to • Recognizes familiar people • Affectionate to familiar people smile/voice (1-4 months) speech • Cries when parent leaves room (9 months) • Begins directing others’ behavior physically • Excites when caregiver approaches (1-4 • Imitates familiar sound and actions (pat, pulls, tugs on adult) months) • Extends arms to be picked up • Aware of strangers and unfamiliar situations • Moves away from a stranger (1-4 months) • Participates in “pat-a-cake”, “peek-a-boo”, • Cries differently when tired, hungry, in pain “so-big” (1-4 months) • Begins to vary behavior according to • Quiets when picked up emotional reactions of others – repeats actions that are laughed at • Reaches to request an object • Imitates novel sounds/actions 1 – 1½ Years 1 ½ - 2 Years 2- 3 Years • Brings object to show an adult • Uses single words or short phrases to • Engages in short dialogues • Request objects by pointing and vocalizing or express the intentions listed at 1-1 ½ year • Verbally introduces and changes topic of discussion level possibly using a word approximation • Expresses • Names objects in front of others • Solicits another’s attention vocally, • Begins using language in imaginative ways physically, possibly with a word (Mommy) • Says “what’s that?” to elicit attention • Begins providing descriptive details to facilitate comprehension • Gesturally requests action/assistance (may • Begins using single words and two word • Uses attention getting words such as “hey” give back wind-up toy to request activation) phrases to command (move), indicate • Clarifies and request clarification • Says “bye” and possibly a few other possession (mine), express problems (owee) conversational ritual words such as “hi”, • Much verbal turn-taking • Prenarrative development begins with heaps and sequences: “thank you”, and “please” heaps – collections of unrelated ideas sequences – story elements linked by perceptual bonds • Protests by saying “no” shaking head, moving away, frowning, or pushing object away • Comments on object/action by directing listeners’ attention to it with a point and vocalization or word approximation • Answers simple wh questions with vocal response (may be unintelligible) • Acknowledges speech of another by giving eye contact, vocally responding, or repeating a word said • Teases, scolds, warns using gesture plus a vocalization or word approximation From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).

3- 4 Years 4 - 5 Years 5 –6 Years 6 – 7 Years • Engages in longer dialogues • Uses indirect requests • Narrative development characterized by • True narratives – well developed plot and • Assumes the role of another person in play • Correctly uses deictic terms such as this, focused chains – stories have central character with sequenced events character with logical sequence of events, • Uses more fillers to acknowledge partner’s that, here, there but ending is unclear message (un-huh, yeah, OK) • Uses twice as many effective utterances as 3 • Gives threats and insults • Begins switching (using simpler year old to discuss emotions and feelings language) when talking to very young • Narrative development characterized by • Issues promises children unfocused chains – stories have sequence of • May give praise • Uses more elliptical responses events but no central character or theme • Requests permission • Begins using language for fantasies, jokes, teasing • Makes conversational repairs when listener has not understood • Correct others • Primitive narratives emerge: events follow from central core/use of inference in stories From: Speech and Language Development Chart (2nd Ed.) by Addy Gard, Leslea Gilman, and Jim Gorman (Pro-Ed).