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Married Too Young? the Behavioral Ecology of 'Child Marriage'
social sciences $€ £ ¥ Review Married Too Young? The Behavioral Ecology of ‘Child Marriage’ Susan B. Schaffnit 1,* and David W. Lawson 2 1 Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA 2 Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: For girls and women, marriage under 18 years is commonplace in many low-income nations today and was culturally widespread historically. Global health campaigns refer to marriage below this threshold as ‘child marriage’ and increasingly aim for its universal eradication, citing its apparent negative wellbeing consequences. Here, we outline and evaluate four alternative hypotheses for the persistence of early marriage, despite its associations with poor wellbeing, arising from the theoretical framework of human behavioral ecology. First, early marriage may be adaptive (e.g., it maximizes reproductive success), even if detrimental to wellbeing, when life expectancy is short. Second, parent– offspring conflict may explain early marriage, with parents profiting economically at the expense of their daughter’s best interests. Third, early marriage may be explained by intergenerational conflict, whereby girls marry young to emancipate themselves from continued labor within natal households. Finally, both daughters and parents from relatively disadvantaged backgrounds favor early marriage as a ‘best of a bad job strategy’ when it represents the best option given a lack of feasible alternatives. The explanatory power of each hypothesis is context-dependent, highlighting the complex drivers of life history transitions and reinforcing the need for context-specific policies Citation: Schaffnit, Susan B., and addressing the vulnerabilities of adolescence worldwide. -
Calculating Lives Saved Due to Minimum Drinking Age Laws John Kindelberger*
Traffic Safety Facts Research Note March 2005 DOT HS 809 860 Calculating Lives Saved Due to Minimum Drinking Age Laws John Kindelberger* Currently (2004), every State in the United States prohibits study can be found in Arnold.2 The cumulative estimated purchase or public possession of alcoholic beverages for number of lives saved through 2002, based on Arnold’s those under the age of 21. Each year, the National Center methodology, is displayed in this note’s appendix. for Statistics and Analysis (NCSA) of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) publishes an estimate1 of lives saved due to such bans, referred to more generically Calculation as “minimum legal drinking age” (MLDA) laws. This note NCSA calculates its estimate of lives saved due to MLDA describes the methodology used, and introduces a slight laws as follows: change in that methodology. The described change will be implemented for the first time in the calculation of the estimate Let F = the actual number of fatalities in target crashes of number of lives saved during the year 2003. recorded in NHTSA’s Fatality Analysis Recording System (FARS); Let P = potential fatalities: the number of fatalities that would Background have been expected in target crashes absent the MLDA 13 Between 1970 and 1975, 29 States lowered their drinking ages percent effect to 18, 19, or 20. By 1983, safety concerns had led many of P is computed from F by finding the number which, when these States to reverse course. In 1984, the Uniform Drinking reduced by 13 percent, gives F. Thus F must be (1-.13)*P, or Age Act reduced Federal transportation funding to States 87 percent of P, so not prohibiting alcohol “purchase and public possession” for those under age 21. -
Age and Sexual Consent
Per Se or Power? Age and Sexual Consent Joseph J. Fischel* ABSTRACT: Legal theorists, liberal philosophers, and feminist scholars have written extensively on questions surrounding consent and sexual consent, with particular attention paid to the sorts of conditions that validate or vitiate consent, and to whether or not consent is an adequate metric to determine ethical and legal conduct. So too, many have written on the historical construction of childhood, and how this concept has influenced contemporary legal culture and more broadly informed civil society and its social divisions. Far less has been written, however, on a potent point of contact between these two fields: age of consent laws governing sexual activity. Partially on account of this under-theorization, such statutes are often taken for granted as reflecting rather than creating distinctions between adults and youth, between consensual competency and incapacity, and between the time for innocence and the time for sex. In this Article, I argue for relatively modest reforms to contemporary age of consent statutes but propose a theoretic reconstruction of the principles that inform them. After briefly historicizing age of consent statutes in the United States (Part I), I assert that the concept of sexual autonomy ought to govern legal regulations concerning age, age difference, and sexual activity (Part II). A commitment to sexual autonomy portends a lowered age of sexual consent, decriminalization of sex between minors, heightened legal supervision focusing on age difference and relations of dependence, more robust standards of consent for sex between minors and between minors and adults, and greater attention to the ways concerns about age, age difference, and sex both reflect and displace more normatively apt questions around gender, gendered power and submission, and queer sexuality (Part III). -
Statutory Rape: a Guide to State Laws and Reporting Requirements
Statutory Rape: A Guide to State Laws and Reporting Requirements Prepared for: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Department of Health and Human Services Prepared by: Asaph Glosser Karen Gardiner Mike Fishman December 15, 2004 Available On-line: http://www.lewin.com/Lewin_Publications/Human_Services/StateLaws Report.htm 352695 Acknowledgements Work on this project was funded by the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services under a contract to The Lewin Group. This report benefited greatly from the oversight and input of Jerry Silverman, the ASPE Project Officer. In addition, we would like to acknowledge the assistance of a number of reviewers. Sarah Brown, Eva Klain, and Brenda Rhodes Miller provided us with valuable guidance and insights into legal issues and the policy implications of the laws and reporting requirements. Their comments improved both the content and the organization of the paper. At The Lewin Group, Shauna Brodsky reviewed drafts and provided helpful comments. The Authors 352695 Table of Contents I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................................................ES-1 A. Background.................................................................................................................ES-1 1. Criminal Laws...................................................................................................... ES-1 2. Reporting Requirements ..................................................................................... -
Title 21 - Liquor
TITLE 21 - LIQUOR CHAPTER 2 - ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES REGULATIONS Legislative History: Resolution No. 04-514, "Exempting the Tohono O'odham Gaming Enterprise (Formerly known as the Tohono 0 'odham Gaming Authority) from Additional Provisions ofArticle III of Ordinance 05-82, and Adopting Amended Regulations Pursuant to Article IV, Section 2(K) of Ordinance 05-82, "was approved on October 25, 2004. Related History: The regulations adopted by Resolution No. 04-514 superceded those previously adopted by Resolution No. 01-119, "Exempting the Tohono 0 'odham Gaming Authority from the provisions ofArticle Ill Sections (2) and (4) of Ordinance 05-82, and adopting regulations pursuant to Article IV, Section 2(K) of Ordinance 05-82, " which was passed by the Tohono 0 'odham Legislative Council on March 9, 2001, presented to the Nation's Chairman on March 9, 2001, and returned unsigned on March 15, 2001. ,. To,hono 0' odham Nation Alcoholic Beverages Licensing and Control Regulations October , 2004 (1st ed. 2006) 1082 Alcoholic Beverages Licensing and Control Regulations Table of Contents Definitions ................................................................... l Section 1.1. Purpose ...... ., ....................................... l Section t .2. Definitions ........................................... 1 1.2.1. "Act of violence" ............................... -1 1.2.2. "Beer" ......................................... l 1.2.3. "Broken package" ............................... l 1.2.4. "Control" ...................................... 1 1.2.5. -
Breaking the Link Between Legal Access to Alcohol and Motor Vehicle Accidents: Evidence from New South Wales∗
Forthcoming in Health Economics Breaking the Link Between Legal Access to Alcohol and Motor Vehicle Accidents: Evidence from New South Wales∗ Jason M. Lindo Peter Siminski Oleg Yerokhin Abstract A large literature has documented significant public health benefits associated with the minimum legal drinking age in the United States, particularly because of the resulting effects on motor vehicle accidents. These benefits form the primary basis for continued efforts to restrict youth access to alcohol. It is important to keep in mind, though, that policymakers have a wide variety of alcohol-control options available to them, and understanding how these policies may complement or substitute for one another can improve policy making moving forward. Towards this end, we propose that investigating the causal effects of the minimum legal drinking age in New South Wales, Australia provides a particularly informative case study, because Australian states are among the world leaders in their efforts against drunk driving. Using an age-based regression-discontinuity design applied to restricted-use data from several sources, we find no evidence that legal access to alcohol has effects on motor vehicle accidents of any type in New South Wales, despite having large effects on drinking and on hospitalizations due to alcohol abuse. JEL Classification: I18, K32 Keywords: health, alcohol, minimum legal drinking age, drunk driving ∗Lindo is an Associate Professor of Economics at Texas A&M University, a Visiting Principal Fellow at University of Wollongong, a Faculty Research Fellow at NBER, and a Research Fellow at IZA. Siminski is an Associate Professor of Economics at University of Wollongong and a Research Fellow at IZA. -
Incest Statutes
Statutory Compilation Regarding Incest Statutes March 2013 Scope This document is a comprehensive compilation of incest statutes from U.S. state, territorial, and the federal jurisdictions. It is up-to-date as of March 2013. For further assistance, consult the National District Attorneys Association’s National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse at 703.549.9222, or via the free online prosecution assistance service http://www.ndaa.org/ta_form.php. *The statutes in this compilation are current as of March 2013. Please be advised that these statutes are subject to change in forthcoming legislation and Shepardizing is recommended. 1 National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse National District Attorneys Association Table of Contents ALABAMA .................................................................................................................................................................. 8 ALA. CODE § 13A-13-3 (2013). INCEST .................................................................................................................... 8 ALA. CODE § 30-1-3 (2013). LEGITIMACY OF ISSUE OF INCESTUOUS MARRIAGES ...................................................... 8 ALASKA ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8 ALASKA STAT. § 11.41.450 (2013). INCEST .............................................................................................................. 8 ALASKA R. EVID. RULE 505 (2013) -
The Drinking Age
Vermont Legislative Research Shop Lowering the Drinking Age The minimum legal drinking age fluctuated throughout the second half of the 20th century, yielding mixed results. After prohibition was repealed in 1933, almost every state set the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) at 21 years.1 In 1970 Congress lowered the voting age to 18, which began a movement to lower the drinking age, as well. During the Vietnam era, many people were outraged that 18 year‐olds were fighting overseas yet could not have a drink. In the period between 1970 and 1975, 29 states lowered their MLDA to 18, 19 or 20. A study by Alexander Wagenaar revealed that in states that had lowered their minimum age there was a 15 to 20% increase in teen automobile accidents.2 This information influenced 16 states to raise their MLDA to 21 between 1976 and 1983. Pressure from groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) led to the signing of the Uniform Drinking Age Act by President Ronald Reagan on July 17, 1984.3 This act mandated a significant decrease in federal transportation funding for states that did not raise their MLDA to 21. Worldwide, the United States has the highest MLDA, with others ranging from birth to age 20.4 The majority of countries have a MLDA of 18. In most of these countries, however, the family teaches responsible drinking from a very young age. Since 1960, over one hundred studies have been conducted to analyze the effects of raising the MLDA. This research was examined by Alexander Wagenaar to determine the trends that appeared in the conclusions.5 Some of these studies provided evidence supporting a MLDA of 21, while most others found no conclusive results. -
Minimum Legal Drinking Age Saves Lives
Minimum Legal Drinking Age Saves Lives The Policy After Prohibition, nearly every state designated 21 as the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA). In the 1970s, 29 states lowered their drinking age to 18, 19 or 20, which led to increases in alcohol sales and consumption, as well as alcohol- related traffic injuries and fatalities, among youth.1 By 1983, 16 states raised their MLDA back to 21 to address the increased drinking and driving traffic fatalities among youth. In 1984, the federal government enacted the Uniform Drinking Age Act, which reduced federal transportation funds for those states that did not raise their MLDA to 21. By 1988, all states had set the minimum legal drinking age at 21.2 The goal of the MLDA is to curb youth drinking and reduce its related problems, especially traffic injuries and deaths.3 l Alcohol is the number one drug of choice among America’s youth.4, 5, 6 Every day in the U.S., 7,000 youth under age 16 have their first drink of alcohol.7 l More than 4,300 youth under age 21 in the U.S. die each year as a result of alcohol-related injuries, shortening their lives by an average of 60 years; 38% of those deaths involve car accidents, 32% result from homicides, and about 6% (300 deaths) are suicides.5 l The highest prevalence of alcohol dependence among U.S. drinkers is people 18-20 years old.4 l Nearly 2,500 young people 12-14 years old initiated alcohol use each day in 2010.5 l A stunning 25.9% of underage drinkers meet the clinical criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence, compared to 9.6% of adult drinkers.8 l Countries with lower MLDA have binge drinking9 rates for youth 15-16 years more than double the U.S. -
POLYGAMY and CHILD MARRIAGE in CANADA
FACT SHEET POLYGAMY and CHILD MARRIAGE in CANADA In Canada, child marriage is closely linked to polygamous marriage. In Bountiful, a community of about 1,000 in southern British Columbia, polygamy has been openly practiced for more than half a century. It is practiced by members of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (FLDS). Polygamy is a central tenet of their faith. It is common among them for men to marry many wives. There are thousands of other FLDS members and members of other sects practicing polygamy in Utah, Arizona, Texas, Idaho, and Mexico. None of these sects are associated with the larger Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which disavowed polygamy in 1890. Risk Factors Associated with Polygamy • Increased chance of emotional, behavioral, and physical problems in children • Lower educational achievement and a devaluation of education • Rivalry amongst co-wives • Increased risk of health problems due to early sexual activity and pregnancy • Young men being forced out of the communities because of competition for wives and consequently having few social supports • The perpetuation of harmful gender stereotypes There are serious allegations of child sexual abuse occurring among the FLDS. Allegations have been made that girls as young as 14 and 15 have been married in the community to much older men and that these girls have been told that refusing these unions would ensure their eternal damnation. Former FLDS members also allege that girls as young as 13 are trafficked across the BC/Idaho border to become brides. Former polygamous wives contend that typical religious polygamy elevates some men above all others, and women and children are nothing more than property. -
Child Marriage Has Negative Effects on Adolescents' Health and Is a Cause
LEGAL MINIMUM AGES AND THE REALIZATION OF ADOLESCENTS’ RIGHTS MINIMUM AGE FOR MARRIAGE • International standards set the minimum age of marriage at 18. ABSOLUTE MINIMUM AGE OF MARRIAGE WITH PARENTAL OR JUDGE CONSENT OR EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES • Child marriage has numerous long-term negative implications on children’s rights, in particular the right to education, the right to express views, the right to be protected from violence, and the right to health, among others. Girls are particularly vulnerable to the practice, with significant impact on their development and gender equality in general. • Rates of child marriage in the Latin America and the Caribbean remain significant and close to global averages. However, they have not decreased in recent years like in other regions. • Child marriage – i.e. marriage when at least one of the intending spouses is under 18 – is generally forbidden under international standards, although recent evolutions provide for the possibility for adolescents over 16 to marry under specific circumstances and on their own consent, through judicial approval. • While providing that adolescents can fully consent to marriage on their own no data available at 18, legislations in the overwhelming majority of countries provide for the possibility for children to get married with parental and/or a judge’s consent. 12 years old 14 years old • Approximately one third of the countries have different minimum ages 15 years old for marriage for boys and girls, thus effectively featuring discriminatory 16 years old This map is stylized and it is not to scale. It does not legislation. reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any 18 years old country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. -
Alcohol Consumption Among Children
II.4. RISK FACTORS ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG CHILDREN Alcohol use in adolescence continues to be very Approximately a third of European adolescents common in Europe, with beer being by far the most report negative experiences while under the influence popular alcoholic beverage, even though the of alcohol. These include accidents or injuries (9% of percentage of 15-16 year olds reporting heavy episodic boys and girls) and unprotected sex (8% of boys and drinking has come down at least slightly in recent 5% of girls). years in several countries (ESPAD, 2016). A number of policies have proven to be effective to Two adolescent drinking patterns are specifically reduce alcohol drinking among adolescents, such as linked to negative health, education and social limiting accessibility (e.g. through restrictions on outcomes – early initiation of alcohol consumption and location and hours of sales, and raising the minimum binge drinking. About half of European adolescents age to drink alcohol), increase prices, and advertising started drinking alcohol at the age of 13 or even regulations. In January 2018, Lithuania, which has one of younger, and almost 10% have been drunk at least once the highest level of alcohol consumption among by the age of 13 (ESPAD, 2016). Children who report adolescents based on another children and adolescent early initiation to alcohol and having been drunk on survey (Inchley et al., 2016), introduced a new legislation several occasions are more likely to develop alcohol on alcohol control particularly targeting young people. dependence later in life (Spear, 2015). This legislation raised the legal drinking age from 18 to By age 15-16, over 80% of adolescents report 20, restricted opening hours for sales in retail stores, and having tried alcohol at least once in their life, and half banned all advertising for beers, wines and spirits.