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When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF SOCIAL & HUMAN SCIENCES School of Social Sciences The Origins and Professional Development of Chiropractic in Britain By Francis James Howitt Wilson DC, MSc, FCC, FHEA, FEAC, FBCA Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2012 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF SOCIAL & HUMAN SCIENCES SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Doctor of Philosophy THE ORIGINS AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHIROPRACTIC IN BRITAIN By Francis James Howitt Wilson In June 2001 the title ‘chiropractor’ came to be protected under British law and those who called themselves chiropractors attained a position of increased legitimacy within British society. Yet the details of chiropractic’s journey to statutory recognition have not been thoroughly explored in contemporary literature. The origins and development of chiropractic in Britain have received meagre attention from historical scholars. This thesis uses a neo- Weberian approach to explore the history of chiropractic in Britain through the lens of ‘professionalisation’. It investigates the emergence of chiropractic in Britain, and details how and why chiropractic developed in the way that it did, assessing the significance of processes and events in respect to chiropractic’s professionalisation, and examining intra- and inter-occupational tensions. The thesis is primarily a product of documentary research, but is also informed by interviews undertaken to provide oral testimonies. Although the origins of chiropractic are usually traced back to the 1890s, to Davenport, Iowa, and to the practice of Daniel David Palmer, it is argued in this thesis that it is misleading to claim that chiropractic was ‘discovered’ by Daniel Palmer, or that chiropractic in Britain was entirely an ‘import’ from the United States. Instead, chiropractic’s origins were complex and multifarious and form part of a broader history of manipulative practices. With regard to the development of chiropractic in Britain, chiropractic’s history is intertwined with that of osteopathy, and has involved medicalisation. This study demonstrates that through the course of its evolution chiropractic was subject to processes that can usefully be described in terms of professionalisation, sharing features in common with the professionalisation of other occupational groups described in historical and sociological literature. Even so, chiropractors did not attain the social presence or cultural authority of archetypal professionals such as medical doctors or lawyers. Although protection of title was achieved, many problems have remained, including divisions within the occupation. i ii CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables ………………………………………………………... v Author’s Declaration …………………………………………………………….... vii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………... ix List of Abbreviations Used in the Text …………………………………………... xi 1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Chiropractic in Britain: a snapshot of its position in 2001 1 1.2 Historical scholarship in chiropractic 4 1.3 The sociology of professions 8 1.4 Professionalisation as a lens for study of the history of chiropractic in Britain 15 1.5 Objectives 19 2. Methodology …………………………………………………………………… 21 2.1 Methodological challenges 21 2.2 Study design 26 2.3 Architecture of the thesis 32 3. The Origins of Chiropractic and its Early Development in the United States 35 3.1 The emergence of chiropractic: its antecedents and origins 35 3.2 The growth of chiropractic in the United States 47 3.3 Conclusions 55 4. The Origins of Chiropractic in Britain ………………………………………. 57 4.1 Chiropractic in Britain: its historical context and antecedents 57 4.2 The beginnings of chiropractic and osteopathy in Britain 67 4.3 Conclusions 74 5. Differentiation and Organisation …………………………………………….. 77 5.1 The problem of differentiation 77 5.2 The initial organisation of chiropractic in Britain 81 iii 5.3 The question of osteopathic legislation 88 5.4 Conclusions 92 6. Hindered Development and Reorganisation ………………………………… 95 6.1 War and its aftermath 97 6.2 Post-war challenges, responses and reform 101 6.3 The Anglo-European College of Chiropractice 113 6.4 Conclusions 116 7. Educational Developments and Political Agitation ………………………… 119 7.1 Educational developments 120 7.2 Chiropractors, their patients, and their place within British healthcare 126 7.3 Political agitation 128 7.4 Conclusions 132 8. The Path to Statutory Recognition …………………………………………. 135 8.1 Complementary and alternative medicine 136 8.2 Towards professional maturation 142 8.3 Unity in the cause of statutory recognition 151 8.4 Conclusions 158 9. The Chiropractors Act and Protection of Title ……………………………. 161 9.1 The Chiropractors Act: a regulative bargain 161 9.2 Attaining protection of title 166 9.3 Conclusions 176 10. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………. 179 10.1 An appraisal of chiropractic’s professionalisation in Britain 179 10.2 The continuing development of chiropractic in Britain 182 10.3 Final summation 186 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………. 191 References ……………………………………………………………………….. 209 iv LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Table 1. Potential sources of bias on the part of the researcher at the start of the study 22 Table 2. List of key terms used during the literature search 27 Table 3. Proposed schedule of training for future practitioners of chiropractic, medical herbalism, naturopathy and osteopathy, as submitted to the th General Council of Natural Therapeutics on 10 May 1947 108 Table 4. The curriculum of the Anglo-European College of Chiropractice 121 Table 5. The curriculum of the Oxfordshire School of Chiropractic 126 Table 6. Articles relating to ‘complementary therapies’ and ‘chiropractic’ published in the British Medical Journal between 1950 and 1999 141 Table 7. Graduates of the Anglo-European College of Chiropractic and the McTimoney Chiropractic School, 1969-1994 148 Figure 1. The main building of the Anglo-European College of Chiropractic at Boscombe 149 v vi AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I, FRANCIS JAMES HOWITT WILSON, declare that the thesis entitled ‘The Origins and Professional Development of Chiropractic in Britain’ and the work presented in the thesis are both my own, and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research. I confirm that: This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University; Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated; Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed; Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work; I have acknowledged all main sources of help; Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself; This work has not been published before submission, but I have produced a number of articles relating to the history of chiropractic in Britain and other parts of Europe during the course of my candidature. A list of these is included under my name in the reference list at the back of this thesis. Signed ...................................................................................................... Date ....................................................................................................... vii viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This has been a fascinating and absorbing project, but it has not been easy. I am grateful to all those who have supported and encouraged me along the way, whose number are too many to mention here, but without whom this work might not have been completed. Special thanks are due to my supervisors, Bernard Harris and Jennifer Bolton, and to Gordon Causer who helped to facilitate my learning during the first years of the study. I am grateful to the European Chiropractors’ Union for providing me with a research grant, and to my employer, the Anglo-European College of Chiropractic, for backing me in this project. To those I interviewed, both named and unnamed in this thesis, my heartfelt thanks. Above all, I would like to thank my wife Rachel for her unwavering commitment and faith in me. Francis Wilson, October 2011 ix x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT AECC Anglo-European College of Chiropractic1 AHC Association for the History of Chiropractic AMED Allied and Complementary Medicine Database BAAC British Association of Applied Chiropractic BAMM British Association of Manipulative Medicine BCA British Chiropractic Association2 BHFS British Health Freedom