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Biology and Conservation of the Endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta Cyaneoviridis)

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Biology and Conservation of the Endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta Cyaneoviridis) Biology and conservation of the endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis) Maya Wilson Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Biological Sciences Jeffrey R. Walters Daniel H. Catlin Sarah M. Karpanty Joel W. McGlothlin Meryl C. Mims November 22, 2019 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: endangered species, population distribution, population differentiation, cavity-nesting, nest-web, The Bahamas Copyright, Maya Wilson, 2019 Biology and conservation of the endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis) Maya Wilson Abstract In order to prevent species extinctions, conservation strategies need to incorporate the identification and mitigation of the root causes of population decline with an assessment of vulnerability to genetic and stochastic factors affecting small populations. Species or populations with small ranges, such as those on islands, are particularly vulnerable to extinction, and deficient knowledge of these species often impedes conservation efforts. The Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis) is an endangered secondary cavity-nester that only breeds on three islands in the northern Bahamas: Abaco, Grand Bahama, and Andros. I investigated questions related to population size and distribution, genetic diversity and population structure, breeding biology, and ecological interactions of the swallow, with the goal of informing the conservation and management of the species. Using several population survey methods on Abaco, I found that swallow site occupancy and density is higher in southern Abaco, especially near roads and pine snags. Future research should prioritize identifying the causes of variable and low population densities in parts of the swallow’s range. I used microsatellite markers and morphometrics to assess differences between populations on Abaco and Andros. We found a lack of genetic differentiation (G'ST = 0.03) between populations, but differences in morphology suggest that gene flow might be low enough to enable traits under selection to diverge. By locating and monitoring nests, I found that swallows rely on woodpecker-excavated cavities in pine snags and utility poles, and that swallows nesting in pine snags had higher fledging success (92%) than those nesting in utility poles (50-62%). Using a cavity nest-web approach, I assessed how swallows interact with cavity-nesting birds and resources on Abaco. Hairy Woodpeckers (Dryobates villosus) primarily excavated pine snags, while West Indian Woodpeckers (Melanerpes superciliaris) excavated utility poles in non-pine habitat. Only swallows and La Sagra’s Flycatchers (Myiarchus sagrae) used nest sites in the pine forest. Swallows in non-pine habitat face competition for cavities with American Kestrels (Falco sparverius), and non- native House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) and European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). These results highlight the importance of pine forest and the Hairy Woodpecker for the persistence of the swallow. Biology and conservation of the endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis) Maya Wilson General Audience Abstract In order to prevent species extinctions, conservation strategies need to identify and resolve the problems that cause species to decline, as well as address issues characteristic of small populations. Species or populations with small ranges, such as those on islands, are particularly vulnerable to extinction, and lack of knowledge of these species often impedes conservation efforts. The Bahama Swallow is an endangered species that only breeds on three “pine islands” in the northern Bahamas. The swallow is a secondary cavity-nester, which means that it nests in a cavity, usually either a natural tree hole or a hole created by another bird species. In this study, I investigated where swallows are found on the islands, the genetics and body sizes of populations, nesting biology, and connections with other species, with the goal of providing information for the conservation and management of the species. On Abaco, I found that there are more swallows in the southern part of the island, especially near roads and the dead standing pine trees (pine snags) used for nesting. Future research should assess why there are fewer birds in other parts of the swallow’s range. I tested whether the genetics and body sizes of populations on Abaco and Andros are different from each other. Populations were genetically similar, but may be separated enough to result in body size differences. I located swallow nests on Abaco, and found that swallows rely on cavities made by woodpeckers in pine snags and utility poles. By visiting some nests repeatedly, I found that swallows nesting in pine snags were more successful than those nesting in utility poles. I also assessed how swallows interact with the other bird species that create and use nesting cavities. Hairy Woodpeckers usually create cavities in pine snags, while West Indian Woodpeckers use utility poles outside of the pine forest. Swallows nesting in the pine forest compete with fewer bird species for cavities than swallows nesting in other habitats. These results show that managing the forest to retain pine snags and Hairy Woodpeckers is important for the conservation of the swallow. Acknowledgements I would like to sincerely thank my advisor and mentor, Dr. Jeff Walters, for taking a chance on me and this project. His support and guidance have meant a great deal to me. I would also like to thank the rest of my graduate committee: Drs. Dan Catlin, Sarah Karpanty, Joel McGlothlin, and Meryl Mims. They have all been extremely supportive, providing guidance and feedback throughout my time at Virginia Tech. Special thanks to Joel for allowing me to conduct my genetics lab work in the McGlothlin lab, and to Dr. Angela Hornsby for her instruction and advice throughout the process. I am thankful to the Harold H. Bailey fund at Virginia Tech, the Rufford Foundation, BirdsCaribbean, IDEA WILD, and the Virginia Tech Graduate Research Development Program for providing funding that made this research possible. Thank you to my friends and colleagues in the Department of Biological Sciences and the Interfaces of Global Change program for being such a supportive community. Thank you to the Bahamas National Trust for their support of the project, particularly the Abaco Bahamas National Trust office staff, Kadie Mills and David Knowles, for their logistical support. Special thanks to Marcus Davis for sharing his unique knowledge of the island and for his unwavering support of our field teams. Thanks to Nicole Acosta, Tivonia Potts, Melanie Wells, Shannan Yates, Ann-Marie Carroll, and Alix Rincón for their hard work and dedication as research field assistants. This work, and the adventures in the pine forest, would not have been the same without them. Thanks to my family, especially Mom, Owen, Leah, Davin, and Hope, for their encouragement and support. Thank you to my other family - Anna, Sonia, and Josh - for always being there. vi I could not have done this without my dear friend and work-wife, Angie. I will be forever grateful to her for being by my side through every step. I cannot adequately express my gratitude to my partner and best friend, Sam. I am so thankful for his support, moving our lives to Virginia and spending a cumulative year apart from each other to allow me to complete this work. His constant love and encouragement have meant the world to me. vii Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………ii General Audience Abstract……………………………………………………………………….iv Acknowledgements……………………………………….………………………………………vi Table of Contents………………………………………………………………..………………viii List of Figures………………………………………………………………..……………………x List of Tables………………...………………………………………………………………..…xii Attribution………………………………………………………………………..…….………xvii Chapter 1: Introduction and Background………………………………………………………….1 Literature Cited…………………...……………………………………………………….4 Chapter 2: Bahama Swallow population distribution on the Abaco Islands……………………...7 Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………7 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..………8 Methods……………………………………………………………………………..……10 Results………………………………………………..……………………………..……16 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………..……18 Literature Cited……………………………………………………………………..……23 Figures……………………………………………………….……………………...……26 Tables…………………………………………………….………………..………..……30 Chapter 3: Genetic diversity, population structure, and morphology of the endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis)……..…….…...….…….…….…….………....…….…….44 Abstract……………………………………………………..……………………………44 Introduction…………………………………………………..……………………..……44 Methods……………………………………………………………………………..……46 Results……………………………………………………..………………………..……49 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………..……52 Literature Cited……………………………………………………………………..……56 Figures………………………………………………………………………..……..……63 Tables…………………………………………………………………...…………..……69 Supplementary Materials….……………………………………..………………...…….74 viii Chapter 4: Cavity use and breeding biology of the endangered Bahama Swallow (Tachycineta cyaneoviridis): implications for conservation……………………………………………….….. 83 Abstract………………………………..…………………………………………………83 Introduction……………………………………..…………………………………..……84 Methods……………………………………………………………………………..……86 Results…………………………………………………………………..…………..……93 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………..……98 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………..104 Literature Cited…………………………………………………………………………106 Figures……………………………………………………………………………..……114
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