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Measuring Methods for Groundwater – Surface Water Interactions: a Review

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Measuring Methods for Groundwater – Surface Water Interactions: a Review Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 873–887, 2006 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/10/873/2006/ Hydrology and © Author(s) 2006. This work is licensed Earth System under a Creative Commons License. Sciences Measuring methods for groundwater – surface water interactions: a review E. Kalbus, F. Reinstorf, and M. Schirmer UFZ – Centre for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle in the Helmholtz Association, Department of Hydrogeology, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany Received: 9 May 2006 – Published in Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss.: 21 July 2006 Revised: 16 October 2006 – Accepted: 11 November 2006 – Published: 21 November 2006 Abstract. Interactions between groundwater and surface wa- thus resembling the characteristics of terrestrial aquifers. In ter play a fundamental role in the functioning of riparian streams, however, the zone may contain some proportion of ecosystems. In the context of sustainable river basin man- surface water due to the infiltration of stream water into the agement it is crucial to understand and quantify exchange pore space, conferring on it features of the surface water zone processes between groundwater and surface water. Numer- as well. Ecologists have termed this area the hyporheic zone ous well-known methods exist for parameter estimation and (Schwoerbel, 1961) and highlighted the significance of ex- process identification in aquifers and surface waters. Only change processes for the biota and metabolism of streams in recent years has the transition zone become a subject of (Hynes, 1983; Brunke and Gonser, 1997). For the protec- major research interest; thus, the need has evolved for appro- tion of water resources it is crucial to understand and quan- priate methods applicable in this zone. This article provides tify exchange processes and pathways between groundwater an overview of the methods that are currently applied and de- and surface water. Particularly in case of contamination, it scribed in the literature for estimating fluxes at the ground- is fundamental to know the mass flow rates between ground- water – surface water interface. Considerations for choos- water and surface water for the implementation of restoration ing appropriate methods are given including spatial and tem- measures. Woessner (2000) stressed the need for hydrogeol- poral scales, uncertainties, and limitations in application. It ogists to extend their focus and investigate near-channel and is concluded that a multi-scale approach combining multiple in-channel water exchange, especially in the context of ripar- measuring methods may considerably constrain estimates of ian management. fluxes between groundwater and surface water. Interactions between groundwater and surface water ba- sically proceed in two ways: groundwater flows through the streambed into the stream (gaining stream), and stream water 1 Introduction infiltrates through the sediments into the groundwater (los- ing stream). Often, a stream is gaining in some reaches and Surface water and groundwater have long been considered losing in other reaches. The direction of the exchange flow separate entities, and have been investigated individually. depends on the hydraulic head. In gaining reaches, the el- Chemical, biological and physical properties of surface water evation of the groundwater table is higher than the eleva- and groundwater are indeed different. In the transition zone a tion of the stream stage. Conversely, in losing reaches the variety of processes occur, leading to transport, degradation, elevation of the groundwater table is lower than the eleva- transformation, precipitation, or sorption of substances. Wa- tion of the stream stage. A special case of losing streams is ter exchange between groundwater and surface water may the disconnected stream, where the groundwater table is be- have a significant impact on the water quality of either of low the streambed and the stream is disconnected from the these hydrological zones. The transition zone plays a crit- groundwater system by an unsaturated zone. Seasonal vari- ical role in the mediation of interactions between ground- ations in precipitation patterns as well as single precipitation water and surface water. It is characterized by permeable events can alter groundwater tables and stream stages and sediments, saturated conditions, and low flow velocities, thereby cause changes in the direction of exchange flows. On a smaller scale, water flow into and out of the streambed may Correspondence to: E. Kalbus be induced by pressure variations on the streambed caused ([email protected]) by geomorphological features such as pool-riffle sequences, Published by Copernicus GmbH on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 874 E. Kalbus et al.: Measuring groundwater-surface water interactions: a review discontinuities in slope, or obstacles on the streambed (Thi- stream water are also presented. With respect to the study bodeaux and Boyle, 1987; Savant et al., 1987; Hutchinson purpose, the suitability of the different methods and their ap- and Webster, 1998). Also, a relocation of sediment grains plicability on different space and time scales are discussed. on the streambed may lead to a trapping of stream water in Modelling approaches, such as inverse modelling to deter- the sediment interstices and a release of interstitial water to mine hydraulic conductivities, are not covered in this study. the stream (Elliott and Brooks, 1997). The interactions, how- The special case of disconnected streams with an unsaturated ever, are complex. Sophocleous (2002) presented a compre- zone between streambed and aquifer is omitted in this review hensive outline of the principal controls and mechanisms of and, thus, methods typically applied in the unsaturated zone groundwater – surface water exchange. are not discussed. Hydrogeologists and surface water hydrologists tradition- ally have approached the interface between groundwater and surface water from their particular perspective. In the litera- 2 Direct measurements of water flux ture a variety of techniques to identify and quantify exchange flows are described which originate from the respective dis- Direct measurements of water flux across the groundwater – ciplines of water research. Our aim was to bring together surface water – interface can be realized by seepage meters. these different perspectives and approaches in order to study Bag-type seepage meters as proposed by Lee (1977) consist the stream-aquifer system as a whole. The range of avail- of a bottomless cylinder vented to a deflated plastic bag. The able techniques to determine interactions between ground- cylinder is turned into the sediment, and as water flows from water and surface water is broad. Depending on the study the groundwater to the surface water, it is collected in the purpose, methods have to be chosen which are appropriate plastic bag. From the collected volume, the cross section for the respective spatial and temporal scale. If processes area of the cylinder, and the collection period the seepage or flow paths are the study focus, other methods are needed flux can be calculated. In case of surface water seeping into than for the quantification of regional groundwater flow to the sediment, a known water volume is filled into the plastic develop management schemes. Numerical modelling, which bag prior to the installation and from the volume loss the is an indispensable tool for watershed management, relies on infiltration rate is calculated. These bag-type seepage meters the determination of parameters representing the flow condi- have been used extensively in lakes, estuaries, reservoirs, and tions for the selected model scale. Thus, the proper choice of streams (e.g., Lee and Cherry, 1978; Woessner and Sullivan, methods is critical for the usefulness of measurement results. 1984; Isiorho and Meyer, 1999; Landon et al., 2001). As Sophocleous (2002) pointed out, the determination of wa- Murdoch and Kelly (2003) discussed that, despite the sim- ter fluxes between groundwater and surface water is still a plicity of applying bag-type seepage meters, their perfor- major challenge due to heterogeneities and the problem of mance is far from simple. Particularly in streams, water flow- integrating measurements at various scales. ing over the collection bag may affect the hydraulic head in Scanlon et al. (2002) presented an overview of techniques the bag, or may distort or fold the bag and lead to decreased for quantifying groundwater recharge on different space and or increased flux measured by the seepage meter. Libelo and time scales. Some of these methods can equally be applied MacIntyre (1994) proposed to cover the collection bag with to measure groundwater discharge to streams and recharge a rigid container to isolate it from pressure gradients result- through the streambed. Landon et al. (2001) compared in- ing from the movement of the stream water. Kelly and Mur- stream methods for measuring hydraulic conductivity aim- doch (2003) presented a modification of a seepage meter fit- ing at determining the most appropriate techniques for use in ted with a piezometer along the axis of the pan (a piezo-seep sandy streambeds. meter). A manometer was used to measure the difference in The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the hydraulic head between the piezometer screen and the inside methods that are currently state-of-the-art for measuring in- of the pan. A pump was temporarily attached to the pan and teractions between groundwater and surface water. The fo- the pumping flow rate was correlated to the
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