Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Associated Wildlife

Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife

Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Associated Wildlife Introduction In western Montana, old growth habitat and riparian habitats are especially important to wildlife, which have adapted to a variety of disturbances such as wildfire, insects, disease, and windstorms. These disturbances have created a changing supply of old growth forest, snags, and downed logs over time. Populations of different species have fluctuated based on the distribution and amount of the different preferred habitats, particularly in response to large wildfires (Bull et al. 2001, Smucker et al. 2005, Noss et al. 2006, Hutto et al. 2008, North American Bird Conservation Committee 2010, Swanson et al. 2011, Bond et al. 2012, Bond 2015, and Hutto et al. 2015).

Old growth is defined in Amendment 21 of the Forest Plan as “a community of forest vegetation that has reached a late stage of plant succession.” Wildlife species associated with old growth use other habitats as well, but the habitat characteristics they prefer are often most abundant in old growth stands. Amendment 21 listed 31 old growth associated wildlife species. Of these, the Black-backed Woodpecker, Flammulated Owl, Canada lynx, and fisher are old growth associates that are regionally-designated sensitive species or federally-listed species. Numerous Neotropical migratory birds are associated with old growth habitat, snags and downed woody material, and/or riparian habitats, as are the marten and other species. Exhibit Rn-2 lists the 73 species of Neotropical migratory birds on the Flathead National Forest. The northern goshawk is also often thought of as an old growth associate, although in their status review for that species, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found no evidence that it is dependent on large, unbroken tracts of old growth or mature forest (USDI FWS 1998). See also Exhibits Rg-1, Rs-1, and Rn-2.

Snags, broken-topped live trees, downed logs, and other woody material are required by a wide variety of wildlife for nesting, denning, roosting, perching, feeding, and cover (Exhibit Rd-4). On the Flathead National Forest, at least 42 species of birds and 10 species of mammals are dependent on dead wood habitat for nesting, feeding, or shelter (Exhibit Rd-2). Snags and downed logs are also used for communication purposes such as drumming (grouse and woodpeckers). Small mammals and birds use standing and down dead material for food storage and for hunting perches. Downed logs are important for travel, both below the snow in the winter and as cover throughout the year. Larger birds and mammals require larger live and dead trees which are most abundant in old growth stands (Bull et al. 1997). Certain species of trees, such as western larch and Ponderosa pine, make long-lasting and high-quality snags that are used year after year by a wide variety of species. The number, condition, size, species, and distribution of snags strongly affect snag-dependent wildlife (Saab et al. 2004; Russell, Saab, and Dudley 2007; and Drever et al. 2008). Too few suitable snags may limit or eliminate populations of cavity- using species (Thomas et al. 1979; Raphael and White 1984; Saab and Dudley 1998; ICBEMP 2000). Longer and larger-diameter downed trees are generally more important because they can be used by a far greater range of species. In addition, they provide stable and persistent structures and better protection from weather extremes.

Riparian habitats occur along lakes, rivers, streams, springs, and seeps where the vegetation and microclimate are influenced by year-round or seasonal water and associated high water tables. Most plant and animal species in riparian habitat are more productive and diverse than on nearby

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uplands, making these areas very important to many wildlife species. On the Flathead National Forest, 36 bird, four mammal, three reptile, and two amphibian species are recognized as dependent upon riparian marsh habitat; 23 bird, seven mammal, and four amphibian species are recognized as dependent upon forested riparian areas (Forest Plan, Planning record 219.12[g], 1980). These include threatened and sensitive species (bald eagle, harlequin duck, common loon, western toad, northern leopard frog) and some Neotropical migrants.

Neotropical migratory birds are included in this section because six of the Neotropical migrants found on the FNF are old-growth associates, at least 13 are associated with snags or downed wood, and 43 are associated with riparian habitats. In the analysis area, riparian landtypes overlap with some of the existing and recently burned up old growth habitat. Some Neotropical migrants are associated with the edge habitat between young and old forest stands (Thomas et al. 1979) and others are associated with post-fire environments (Hutto 1995, Smucker et al. 2005 and Hutto 2008). In fact, severe fire is seen to benefit most bird species in some way, while other species may depend on sever fire (Hutto et al. 2015). Species detailed in this section are not Flathead National Forest sensitive species or MIS. They are considered because the Forest Service’s Landbird Conservation Strategic Plan (2000), Executive Order 13186 (2001), and the Partners in Flight Draft Bird Conservation Plan for Montana (2000) reference goals and objectives for integrating bird conservation into forest management and planning. Within the National Forests, conservation of migratory birds focuses on providing a diversity of habitat conditions at multiple spatial scales and ensuring that bird conservation is addressed when planning for land management activities.

It is important to remember that the old growth stage of forest development is temporary. Wildland fire can convert large areas of old growth habitat to areas of snag and dead wood habitat. Reducing downed wood and snags through timber salvage can remove habitat features that are essential to many species, particularly marten, fisher, and pileated woodpeckers (Witmer et al. 1998; McClelland and McClelland 1999, Bull et al. 2005). Timber salvage, insect epidemics, and wildland fire can also impact wildlife using riparian habitats, including changes in plant species, hiding cover, downed wood recruitment, water temperature, shading, humidity, erosion, water quality, and predator-prey interactions. Timber salvage itself most directly impacts wildlife that use tree cavities through removal of potential nesting and denning structures (Hitchcox 1996, Kotliar et al. 2002, Lindenmayer et al. 2004, Hutto and Gallo 2006, and Hutto et al. 2015; Exhibits Rd-3 and Rd-10). Timber salvage and wildland fire can remove forested cover and structures that provide habitat linkages that appear essential for the functioning of metapopulations (Lidicker and Koenig 1996; Witmer et al. 1998). Conversely, vegetation management and planting can accelerate regeneration, reduce the risk of insect infestation, and increase the diversity of future habitats. Analysis Area The analysis area for old growth associated wildlife species, snags and downed woody material habitat, and riparian wildlife habitat is the Trail Creek Salvage Wildlife Analysis Area (Figure 3- 1, in the Wildlife Introduction section in this chapter). At approximately 45.3 square miles (about 29,000 acres), it is large enough to include the home range of numerous wildlife species that use old growth, snag and downed woody material, and riparian habitats and to represent the effects of wildland fires, natural tree mortality, timber harvest and salvage, fuel reduction, and firewood cutting across the landscape. It is sufficiently large to evaluate the ability of the habitat to support populations of wildlife and plant species using old growth habitats, but small enough to not obscure the effects of the alternatives. All of the actions proposed in the alternatives that

3-70 Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife could directly or indirectly affect old growth associated species are contained within this area. No known or suspected population sinks for these species occur in or near the area. An assessment at multiple scales was also conducted to address population diversity concerns (Exhibit Rg-1). See also Exhibits Q-3, Q-11, Rd-9, Rg-3, Rs-6, Rs-16, Rs-18, and Rs-20 for assessments of some key species associated with these habitats.

Temporal Bounds The temporal scale of the effects analysis extends 100 years into the future, enough time for some mature stands to develop into old growth habitat as well as enough time for some of the trees to grow and die or to acquire decay and other characteristics that make them useful to numerous wildlife species. This is also more than enough time for any effects on riparian habitats to stabilize. Information Sources/Methodology Classification of habitat characteristics for habitat modeling and analysis used a combination of data sources. These include pre-fire project area field visits, post-fire walk-through surveys, pre-fire and post-fire Common Stand Exam data, existing GIS data layers and vegetation burn severity data, roads data, pre-fire and post-fire aerial photography, Northern Region Vegetation Mapping Project (R1-VMP) data, riparian landtype data, wildlife monitoring and observations, and extensive past experience with large wildland fires on the Forest (Exhibits Q-2, Q-6, Rd-3, Rd-11, Rg-9, Rn-1, Rr-3, and Rr-4). For this project, “Old- Growth Forest Types of the Western Montana Zone” were used as the criteria to identify stands that qualify as old growth habitat (Green et al. 1992, updated 2011; Exhibits Q-1, Q-2, and Q-5). This analysis covered the standing and downed dead wood wildlife habitat resource in terrestrial areas. See the Aquatics section of this chapter for consideration of large wood recruitment in aquatic systems. Also see the Vegetation section of Chapter 3 and Black-backed Woodpeckers (in the Sensitive Wildlife Species section). Population diversity concerns at the Flathead National Forest and larger scales are assessed in Exhibit Rg-1. Exhibit Q-10 details compliance with attributes of the Flathead Forest Plan related to old growth habitats. For more information, see project record Sections Q, Rd, Rn, and Rr. Affected Environment/Existing Condition

Population Status Numerous wildlife species make use of old growth, snags, downed wood, and riparian habitats in the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area. Exhibits Q-6, Rd-11, and Rr-4 display occupation by these species and provides more information about these species' habitat components, population trends, and risk factors. The mammal species listed as old growth associates in Amendment 21 of the Forest Plan (1999a) include the American marten, Canada lynx, fisher, northern flying squirrel, silver-haired bat, red-backed vole, and woodland caribou. The Canada lynx and fisher are listed as threatened or sensitive species on the FNF and are specifically discussed in other sections in Chapter 3. Most of these species are also associated with snags and/or down wood and riparian habitats. Forest carnivore monitoring efforts in and near the affected area have detected Canada lynx, wolverine, and marten. On the Flathead National Forest (FNF), 47 of the 73 species of Neotropical migratory birds have a Montana state ranking of S5 which is “Common, widespread, and abundant (although may be rare in parts of its range); not vulnerable in most of its range.” Based on FNF management direction that applies to the habitats used by the other 24 species that have some level of conservation concern, there appears to be little risk

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of population loss due to FNF actions (Exhibit Rg-1). Birds associated with old growth, dead wood, and riparian habitats have been extensively monitored on the FNF (Exhibit Rn-1). During these surveys, 140 species were observed on the FNF, representing a wide diversity of habitats across the landscape. The affected area contains ten bird point count locations that have been monitored for several years and where a large proportion of these bird species have been detected. In addition, the nesting/feeding sign of pileated woodpeckers was observed in a number of burned and unburned old growth and late successional habitats within the fire area. For more information about all the population status and monitoring of these species and habitats, see Exhibit Rg-1.

Habitats The analysis area provides a diversity of habitats, well-distributed across the project area, including riparian areas, old growth habitat, snag and downed wood habitats, and a variety of forest successional stages.

Old Growth Habitat Across the Interior Columbia River Basin (Quigley et al. 1996) and the Pacific Northwest (Strittholt et al. 2006) old forests have declined by 27 to 72 percent over the past 100 years and large residual trees and snags have decreased by 20 percent. Fire exclusion and timber harvest have altered the structure and composition of forests throughout the Basin, resulting in a 60 percent increase in susceptibility to insects, disease, and stand-replacing wildland fires (Quigley et al. 1996). These changes have contributed to declining habitat conditions for numerous species of wildlife associated with old growth forests.

Across the Flathead National Forest, severe, stand-replacing fires burned at irregular intervals, resulting in substantial variation in the amount of old growth habitat in a local area over time (Exhibit Q-9). The LRMP Monitoring report item #69 used Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data to yield a conservative estimate of 11.6 percent old growth on the FNF with a 90 percent Confidence Interval of 9.6 percent to 13.8 percent (Exhibit Rg-8). The South Fork sub- watershed had an estimate of 12.7 percent old growth in 2003. In the South Fork sub-basin, five areas classified as old growth in 1993-94 had burned by 2003 and none had tree harvest activity. Since the adoption of Forest Plan Amendment 21 in 1999, there has been no harvest of old growth, so changes that have occurred in that timeframe are predominantly due to natural processes.

Large amounts of old growth habitat have been lost in localized watersheds across the Flathead National Forest, in recent decades, despite the best fire suppression efforts. Within the Trail Creek Salvage Wildlife Analysis Area, the 2015 Trail Creek Fire converted approximately 1,124 acres of what was apparently former old growth habitat to an early successional stage and about 115 acres to a very open one- or two-storied “understory reinitiation” condition (Table 3-26, Exhibit Q-5). These areas had been identified as known or likely old growth habitat by the recent Spotted Bear River Project. These stands retain some old forest elements, including snags, and large downed wood, and scattered large live trees, but Fall 2015 field reviews confirmed that they no longer qualify as old growth habitat (Green et al. 1992, updated 2011; Exhibits Q-1 and Q-2). About a dozen small patches of old growth habitat apparently persist within the fire area, totaling less than 200 acres. These are so small that the entire patch is within 100 meters of an edge, which results in decreased habitat quality for species of birds and mammals associated with forest interior habitats due to the potential for increased predation and snag loss along the edge. Outside the fire area, known and likely old growth habitat includes

3-72 Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife five contiguous “patches” ranging in size from 50 to 860 acres, all connected with each other by intact forest. For more information, see Exhibits Q-5 and Rd-9.

Table 3-26. Existing Old Growth Habitat and Former Old Growth Habitat Regenerated by the 2015 Trail Creek Fire across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area (Exhibits Q-2 and Q-5). Pre-Fire Existing Change due Recent Wildfire Known and Likely Old Growth 2,850 acres (9.8%) 1,611 acres - 1,239 acres Habitat (5.6%) Other Mature Late-seral Forest 13,529 acres 6,793 acres - 6,851 acres; + 115 (46.7%) (23.4%) acres

Other late successional forest habitats are also shown in Table 3-26. These acres take into account all past natural processes and timber harvest, including the portions of the Spotted Bear River project that have been completed thus far. Although these forests all have potential to one day become old growth habitat, many are in the mid successional stage of development and originated from either the 1903, 1910, or 1929 fires. Some contain large-diameter overstory trees, but in insufficient quantity to qualify as old growth. Some stands of old growth that burned at lower severities during the Trail Creek Fire were reclassified as other late-seral forest. These open and patchy stands contain some of the values associated with old growth stands, but they fall short of meeting the required criteria (Exhibits Q-1 and Q-2).

Snag and Downed Wood Wildlife Habitats Across the Interior Columbia River Basin (Quigley et al. 1996) and the Pacific Northwest (Strittholt et al. 2006) large residual trees and snags have decreased by 20 percent. Hillis et al. (2003; Exhibit Rd-9) assessed the status of snag habitat and snag dependent species across Forest Service Region 1. They concluded that the distribution of mature and old forest (that provides snag nesting habitat for pileated woodpeckers and other cavity-dependent species) has not changed substantially since pre-fire suppression and pre-logging periods. Habitat estimates for the pileated woodpecker based on the Regional nest tree habitat model showed that nest habitat is abundant and well-distributed across the Forest and Region.

Table 3-27 displays estimates of current snag densities across the Flathead National Forest. The average densities of snags inside and outside wilderness and roadless areas are very similar, especially when considering the overlap in confidence interval ranges. This suggests that when considered at a forest-wide scale, snag conditions are similar to what might occur under natural disturbance regimes and are within the natural range of variability. These estimates were made prior to several hundred thousand acres of wildfires over the past 20 years. Numerous wildfires in the South Fork sub-basin and elsewhere on the Flathead Forest have created abundant, high quality snag habitat (Forest Plan Monitoring and Evaluation Report: Fiscal Years 1999-2007, monitoring item #70; Exhibit Rg-8). Current snag density across the Flathead National Forest averages 4.5 per acre over 15” DBH and 1.6 per acre over 20” DBH (Exhibit P-10).

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Table 3-27. Current Snag Densities on the Flathead NF Inside and Outside Wilderness/Roadless areas (Bollenbacher et al. 2009). Snags/acre >10” DBH Snags/acre >15” DBH Snags/acre >20” DBH Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Mean Mean Mean Bound Bound Bound Bound Bound Bound Outside 9.8 7.4 12.5 2.6 1.8 3.4 1.1 0.7 1.6 Wilderness Inside 10.0 7.8 12.4 2.8 2.2 3.5 0.9 0.6 1.1 Wilderness

Across the Flathead National Forest, snag densities continue to be very unevenly distributed across the landscape (Exhibit P-10). This is directly dependent on the pattern and frequency of fire, insects, and other disturbances including timber harvest and salvage. Research on the Flathead National Forest in 2008 (Wisdom and Bate 2008) found that statistically significant factors affecting snag density included seral stage, timber harvest, proximity to open roads, distance to the nearest town, and whether the stand was uphill or downhill from the nearest road. Mean snag density for all species was found to be 19 times higher in unharvested stands than in clearcut areas and three times higher than in stands that had undergone partial harvest. Smaller snags are far more abundant than larger snags across all analysis units of the Flathead National Forest, and in this ecosystem the very large snags are relatively sparse. Lodgepole pine forests have the lowest density of snags; warm moist forests tend to have the highest density and largest snags.

Downed wood is derived directly from snags, as well as from live trees or parts of trees that fall. Thus, the abundance, distribution, sizes and other characteristics of the downed wood component across the Forest and over time is closely tied and similar to that of the snag component described above. Current conditions for the amount of downed wood across the forest ranges from 12 tons per acre in the Cold biophysical setting to 19.2 tons/acre in the warm moist biophysical setting (Exhibit P-10). Downed wood is highly variable in amount, sizes, species and stages of decay, both across the landscape and over time. The variation could be due to irregular distribution of insect or disease outbreaks and fire events, both of which add dead material to the landscape. Similarly to the snag estimates, recent fires have likely increased the amount of down wood in parts of the forest, and as the snags fall, there would be a period when downed woody material would be especially high in post-fire areas.

Snag and downed wood habitat and its use by wildlife vary dramatically across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area (Exhibits P-10 and Rd-3). The 2015 Trail Creek Fire converted over 60 percent of the fire area and correspondingly 35 percent of the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area to moderate or high density amounts of large dead wood (Table 3-28, Exhibit Rd-3). In addition, white pine blister rust has killed many large whitebark pine in higher elevations. About 38 percent of the analysis area has low to minimal densities of large dead wood due to past timber harvest, unproductive sites, and/or low fire severity. Most of the analysis area surrounding the outside of the fire has not experienced a substantial fire event for at least 80 years, resulting in low densities of large dead wood. See the Vegetation section of this chapter for more information, particularly about dead wood conditions across the fire area itself and patterns across time and space.

3-74 Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife

Table 3-28. Current Estimated Dead Wood Conditions Across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area (Exhibits P-10 and Rd-3). Large Dead Wood Acres (%) across Trail Creek Range of 15”+ Range of 20”+ Density Wildlife Analysis Unit Snags Snags

High 7,703 (27%) 22-32/acre 5-10/acre Moderate 2,287 (8%) 9-17/acre 3-4/acre Low 10,936 (38%) 1-6/acre < 1-1/acre Low (Past Harvest) 6,499 (22%) < 1/acre < 1/acre Low (Non-forest) 1,489 (5%) < 1/acre < 1/acre

Firewood cutters can access dead trees from about four percent of the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area. Only 65 acres of forests with a current moderate or high density of large dead wood are within 200 feet of roads that are open either yearlong or seasonally to public wheeled motorized travel (Exhibit Rd-1).

For more information about snag and downed wood habitat conditions across the Trail Creek Fire, Flathead National Forest over space and time, see the Vegetation Section of this chapter. Also see the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Forest Plan’s Amendment 21 (USDA 1999b) and Exhibits Rd-9, Rg-1, and Rg-3.

Riparian Wildlife Habitats Riparian wildlife habitats in the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area appear to be functioning well, with numerous and well-distributed ponds, seeps, and streams providing a diversity of habitats (Table 3-29, Exhibit Rr-3). Most of the birds considered in this section use the dense shrubs and deciduous trees found in these habitats. The largest marshy areas are along Spotted Bear River. Almost 30 percent of the area is within 0.1 mile of riparian landtypes; 81 percent of the area is within a quarter mile of either a riparian landtype or stream (Rr-3). Physical conditions of the streams, wet meadows, ponds, seeps, and springs are further described in the Aquatics section of this chapter.

Table 3-29. Riparian Habitats across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area (Exhibit Rr-3). % of Riparian Landtypes Acres Area NL1E, LAKE (Level or nearly level poorly drained sites often with willow/sedge 286 1.0% communities) FL1C, FL2A, FL2D (Flat area along rivers with cottonwood, subalpine fir, or 449 1.5% spruce) SL2A, SL3D, SL5A (Gently sloping streams with subalpine fir communities) 179 0.6% MS3A, MS5A (Moderately steep streams in subalpine fir communities) * 21 0.1% WL5A, WS5A (Seeps and springs or seasonal near-surface groundwater in 80 0.3% subalpine fir) * Total Across Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area 1,151 4.0% * These types are often not included in the Forest-wide GIS coverage but are typically discovered during field surveys and harvest unit layout. These acreages represent minimum amounts.

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Environmental Consequences Site-specific indicators relevant for analysis of effects on old growth, snag, downed wood, and riparian habitats include:

• Effects on old growth and other late successional habitats. • Effects on availability of large snags and down woody material. • Effects of activities on areas within 0.1 mile of riparian habitats. • Effects on Neotropical migratory bird species.

Direct and Indirect Effects

Alternative 1 (No Action) No actions, such as timber salvage, temporary roads, temporary road closures, culvert removal, or planting are proposed with this alternative. This would leave existing old growth habitat plus other developing stands across the analysis area to continue with relatively natural processes.

Barring future disturbance, old growth associated species and communities would eventually return to much of the fire area, and succession would progress until a late seral or “old growth” structure again develops in approximately 100 years or more. However, there are expected to be fewer trees to replace the existing larger-diameter overstory trees as they die off in many of the stands currently classified old growth forest. Over time this would reduce the amount and quality of old growth forests in the project area.

Selection of this alternative would leave snag and downed wood habitat across the area to continue with relatively natural processes, along with fire suppression, occasional felling of hazard trees, and firewood gathering. Trees would continue to succumb to a variety of causes. However, enough western larch and Douglas-fir would likely continue to provide both the green tree component and future high-quality snags for cavities and feeding. Outside the fire area, dense canopy, downed logs, or lack of seed sources would continue to delay the development of new trees in some stands, with little or no potential for regeneration of western larch, which is preferred by numerous wildlife species for cavity nesting. In some stands both inside and outside the fire area, disease or insects would continue to kill larger overstory trees at increasing rates. This would add to snag and large downed wood habitat which could improve the late successional or old growth values for associated wildlife species. Blowdown of trees would continue along the edge of old growth stands, particularly where new abrupt edge was created by the Trail Creek Fire.

Overall, this alternative would leave riparian habitats and other areas important for Neotropical migratory birds across the analysis area to continue with relatively natural processes. Trees and snags would provide potential habitat for many species, and subsequently for secondary cavity nesters, including some Neotropical migrants. However, the proposed BMP improvements on roads and culvert replacement would not occur. The Aquatics section discusses how not doing BMP improvement and replacing the culvert would affect creeks and wetlands sediment levels

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Douglas-fir beetles, spruce beetles, wood-boring beetles, and root disease, as discussed in the Vegetation section of this chapter.

The lack of tree and shrub planting in this alternative could mean slower reforestation and reduced proportions of species like western larch and ponderosa pine, both of which are highly desirable species as snag habitat. The lack of culvert work and Best Management Practices roadwork would have no effect on old growth, snag, downed wood, or riparian wildlife habitats nor to the species associated with these habitats.

For more information, see the Vegetation, Aquatics, and Fuels sections of this chapter.

Alternatives 2 and 3 No existing or suspected old growth forest would be affected by salvage harvest in either action alternative (Exhibit Q-7). No new high-contrast edge adjacent to existing old growth contributing to blowdown with old growth would be created by salvage harvest because the Trail Creek Fire already created the edge by killing trees within the salvage units. On approximately 32 acres in Alternative 2 and 29 acres in Alternative 3, dead trees would be removed from stands that appear to currently function as late-seral stands despite losing many or most trees to the fire (Exhibit Q-7), although it is to be noted that these stands are not sufficiently forested to provide cover for Canada lynx. In 85 acres in Alternative 2 and 52 acres in Alternative 3, salvage harvest would occur in areas that functioned as old growth habitat before the 2015 Trail Creek Fire. (Exhibit Q-7). Salvage harvest in these stands would not delay future old growth recruitment.

Forested connectivity would also not be affected by timber salvage, as live trees would be retained along with sufficient standing and downed wood to meet or exceed LRMP standards (Exhibits Q-10 and Rg-7).

The site-specific snag/live tree prescriptions for the Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project (in Chapter 2 of this document and Exhibit Rd-5) were based on the habitat needs of wildlife species that use snags and downed wood; field data on the expected availability of live and dead trees; Silvicultural objectives; scientific literature; and experts in ecological processes, timber salvage systems, and safety. They are based on current conditions, the extent of past actions in the analysis area, and aspects of the proposed harvest and fuel reduction. In both action alternatives, design features for retention of live, dead, and downed trees (Chapter 2) would help ensure that an adequate amount of cavity habitat and large woody material are available over time. The patchy nature of surviving trees in many proposed units should also help maintain the diversity of dead-wood habitat for wildlife species (Machmer 2002). Efforts would be made to protect high-quality snags for wildlife, but skyline corridors and other safety concerns could necessitate some felling. A range of amounts of the largest available downed material is expected in most units, depending on the existing and potential vegetation of the sites and the proximity to private lands. Additional snags and downed logs are expected as the retained trees die over time.

Salvage harvest would convert areas of moderate or high densities of large dead wood to a low density of large dead wood (Exhibit Rd-3). Table 3-30 shows that this effect is relatively small across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area and that more than 90 percent of the “high” and “moderate” density large dead wood habitat would remain available on the landscape. The effect is even smaller when considered across the entire Trail Creek Fire Area (Exhibit P-10).

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Table 3-30. Acres and Percentages Salvaged by Large Wood Density Classes, by Alternative (Exhibit Rd-3). Acres across % Remaining across Trail Acres Salvaged Large Dead Trail Creek Creek Wildlife Analysis Area Wood Density Wildlife Analysis Area Alt. 1 Alt. 2 Alt. 1 Alt. 2 “High” 7,763 740 352 90.5% 95.5% “Moderate” 2,287 153 101 93.3% 95.6% “Low” 18,924 458 381 97.6% 98.0% Total 28,974 1,351 834 95.3% 97.1%

Hazard tree removal in both action alternatives would consist of felling 30 to 50 snags that pose a safety risk within 100 feet of approximately 15.9 miles of trail and 2.4 miles of seasonally open roads. The estimated effect would be to reduce snag density within 100 feet of those roads and trails by an average range of 0.07 to 0.11 snags per acre. This may have a minor effect locally, particularly if hazard trees occur in concentrated areas, but the effect to habitat for wildlife species associated with old growth, snag, downed wood, and riparian habitats across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area would be negligible.

At the landscape scale, risk of old growth, other late-seral forests, snags, and downed wood habitat loss from future stand-initiation wildfires as young trees regenerate and fuels accumulate across the fire area would be the same as for the no-action alternative. Timber salvage in these alternatives is expected to result in a minimally decreased risk in infestation by Douglas-fir beetles, spruce beetles, wood-boring beetles, and root disease, as discussed in the Vegetation section of this chapter. Thus, some areas of old growth habitat might no longer meet old growth definitions (Exhibit Q-1), while additional snag and downed wood habitat could be available.

Because proposed changes in public motorized access would be temporary and only involve the winter access, wildlife habitat loss to firewood cutting along open roads would continue as in the no-action alternative, although some of the large trees near open roads would have already been removed within post-fire salvage units.

Temporary road construction and new system road construction in Alternatives 2 and 3, along with the additional BMP work in Alternative 2, would only minimally affect old growth, snag, or downed wood wildlife habitats because most of these roads would occur on historic road templates that support sapling trees, most of which were burned. No old growth habitat would be affected by temporary road construction.

With all action alternatives, use of closed roads would have a relatively minor effect on species associated with these habitats because the acreage involved is small and the roads would not be opened for public use. Some snag loss may occur if they are adjacent to the roadway due to the purchaser’s right to fell snags that are considered safety hazards. Temporary roads would be reclaimed and new system roads would be put into storage after project activities are completed; both actions would generate the same result on the ground with no difference in effect on any of these wildlife species or habitats.

In several instances in Alternatives 2 and 3, mapped timber salvage units would lie adjacent or close to mapped riparian landtypes (Table 3-31, Exhibit Rr-3), although all wetlands and buffers around them would be excluded from timber salvage units during layout and equipment would be excluded from these buffers in other units. Effects on wildlife species associated with

3-78 Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife riparian habitats would be limited to short-term disturbance and displacement, and to loss of cover near riparian features but outside RHCAs.

Table 3-31. Timber Salvage in and near Mapped Riparian Habitats (Exhibits Rg-7 and Rr-3). Alt. Acres within 0.1 Mile of Riparian Units with Potential Effects on Riparian-associated Habitat Wildlife 2 232 acres 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 106, 110, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 137, and 138 3 139 acres 8, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 106, 110, 127, 128, 129, 131, 137, and 138

Temporary road construction and new system road construction in Alternatives 2 and 3 could affect water quality in riparian wildlife habitats but the degree is expected to be very small and immeasurable. In and near riparian habitats, measures would be taken to prevent effects to moist areas. Wildlife using these riparian habitats are far more likely to be affected than are the habitat themselves (Exhibit Rr-3 and Table 3-32). As with vegetation management, these effects would be limited short-term disturbance and displacement.

Table 3-32. Alternative B Temporary Road and New System Road Construction and Mapped Riparian Habitats (Exhibit Rr-3). Road Road Length within 0.1 mile of Riparian Habitats Comment Alt. 2 Alt. 3 A 229 feet 229 feet Upslope about 750 feet from an 18-acre NL1E area about 0.2 miles north of the Spotted Bear River Road. Intact forest cover between the road and the riparian area. F 2,749 feet 0 feet Up a gradual slope through a heavily burned area 700 feet from a 38-acre NL1E area along South Creek; less than 30 feet from a 3-acre NL1E area with little to no intervening cover. NL1E = Nearly level, poorly drained fine substrate, wetland in sedge/willow community.

With both action alternatives, aquatic and riparian areas that provide habitat for species such as owls and some Neotropical migratory birds would be protected by measures specified in the Montana Streamside Management Zone Law, Montana Water Quality Act, and INFISH standards.

Tree and shrub planting in this alternative could mean quicker reforestation and enhanced proportions of species like western larch and ponderosa pine, both of which are highly desirable species as snag habitat. Feeding and nesting sites for songbirds and other riparian-associated wildlife would be enhanced through shrub planting.

Activities between May and August such as road construction and reclamation in Alternative 2 and hazard tree removal in Alternatives 2 and 3, could affect individual cavity-nesting birds. If a cavity-nesting bird were using the snag at the time of operations, the nest and/or birds could be destroyed. Noise from the various proposed activities may impact juvenile dispersal, or may cause premature displacement of young or cause young to be prematurely abandoned. This

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would be expected to be limited to locations close to the source of noise and during the time the noise is being made.

Cumulative Effects Human-caused and natural changes in the past century have had an effect on old growth, snag, downed wood, and riparian wildlife habitats across much of the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area (Exhibits Q-8, Rd-12, Rn-3, and Rr-2). The effects of many actions are reduced by the approximately 7,000 acres of designated Wilderness and Inventoried Roadless Area in the analysis area. Other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable actions and activities that are not mentioned below would have minor or negligible effects on these species and habitats. For more information, see the Sensitive Wildlife Species, Threatened and Proposed Wildlife Species, Vegetation, Aquatics, and Fuels sections in this chapter.

Past vegetation management over the past six decades converted many former old growth areas into stands of younger trees and reduced the availability of snag and downed wood habitat (Exhibit Q-8). The most impactful of this has been 2,172 acres of clearcutting and seed tree units (over 7 percent of the area) that occurred between 1961 and 2013. Other intermediate timber harvests removed all or most of the larger trees that might have later become components of old growth habitat. About 90 percent of timber harvesting was done before Forest Plan Amendment 21 came into effect in January 1999. Some past harvest specifically targeted old growth stands and large, old trees. The removal of large live trees reduces the accumulation of large downed wood for the foreseeable future. After harvest, the tree densities and amounts of standing and downed dead wood were typically much less than would be left by natural processes and the large live trees were often later removed. Vegetation management has not been as impactful on riparian wildlife habitats due to measures designed to protect watersheds and fisheries.

In places across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area, past timber harvest and wildland fires created “edge effect,” where sun, wind, predators, and competitors, penetrated further into what was previously interior forest. In addition, since the Trail Creek Fire created abundant new edge, the amount of edge along old growth habitat would not vary by alternative.

Past precommercial thinning, piling and burning of fuels, and broadcast burning, had little or no long-term effects on old growth, snag, downed wood, and riparian wildlife habitats, although they too contributed to short-term displacement of individual wildlife.

Uncompleted vegetation management under the 2011 Spotted Bear River project includes prescribed burning, regeneration harvest, commercial thinning, and precommercial thinning. Table 3-33 updates Table 3-26 above for amounts of other mature late-seral forest. This is relatively small across the scale of the analysis area (a 0.6 percent reduction in mature late-seral forest). No old growth habitat would be affected under the Spotted Bear River decision, which is expected to promote more open conditions and larger overstory trees in future late-seral stands. The acres and percentages in Table 3-30 above do not change when accounting for the cumulative impacts on large snag and downed wood habitat availability from implementing the remainder of the Spotted Bear River project. This is because the timber harvest still to be implemented would occur in areas already considered to have a “Low” availability of large dead wood. None of the proposed activities would occur in areas of riparian landtypes except for one precommercial thinning unit where the portion surrounding riparian landtype WL5A would remain un-thinned. Adherence to INFISH and RHCA requirements along perennial streams,

3-80 Trail Creek Fire Salvage Project Chapter 3 – Old Growth, Snag, Downed Wood, and Riparian Wildlife intermittent streams, ponds, lakes and wetlands would also protect habitats used by riparian- associated wildlife.

Table 3-33. Existing Old Growth Habitat and Former Old Growth Habitat Regenerated by the 2015 Trail Creek Fire across the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area, Considering Cumulative Effects (Exhibits Q-2 and Q-5). Pre-Fire After Completion of Spotted Bear River Project Old Growth Habitat 2,850 acres (9.8%) 1,611 acres (5.6%) Other Mature Late-seral Forest 13,529 acres (46.7%) 6,605 acres (22.8%)

Insects and diseases continue to impact a variety of conifer species across the analysis area, making some stands no longer able to meet old growth definitions (Exhibit Q-1), but contributing to the availability of large snag and downed wood wildlife habitats. These effects have extended to forested riparian areas.

In addition to the 2015 Trail Creek Fire, past wildland fires are reflected in a lack of old growth in some areas, particularly the 1994 Dean Ridge and 2007 Corporal Fires in the eastern portion of the analysis area. Wildland fires have been actively suppressed in the analysis area since the 1930s. This has contributed to a change in the structure of some old growth habitat by increased understory growth and denser mid-canopy trees (Lesica 1996). While enhancing habitat value for species like pileated woodpeckers and American marten, this reduced foraging habitat for species preferring a more open understory such as flammulated owls and northern goshawks. . Past fire suppression activities may have also affected riparian wildlife habitats through chemical retardant or fire lines.

Actions related to suppression of the 2015 Trail Creek Fire and related emergency restoration included construction of approximately 8 miles of fire line and hand line; felling and removal of hazard trees in 67 acres along about 10 miles of the Spotted Bear River, Bent Creek, and Flat Creek Roads; and Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) efforts, such as replacing trail structures and cleaning culverts and spraying weeds adjacent to and in burned areas. Construction of fuel breaks and falling of roadside hazard trees removed snag and future downed wood habitat and a small amount of cover provided by burned trees. Fire suppression and BAER activities increased human disturbance, especially along roads.

Erosion from the 1964 flood is still reflected in many of the small streams, as well as the Spotted Bear River. Completion of Hungry Horse Reservoir in 1953 inundated over 23,500 acres of forest, meadow, and riparian areas just three miles from the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area.

Along the southern edge of the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area and up the South Creek drainage, roads open to public wheeled motorized use facilitate access for firewood cutting. This leads to a decrease in the snags and downed woody material important for many wildlife and plants using old growth habitat, as described above and in Exhibit Rd-1. Road construction and maintenance has converted or altered riparian habitats to varying levels and is expected to do so in the future. Close to 18 miles of roads have been reclaimed, bermed, or gated across the analysis area in the past 20 years. This reduced small-scale physical and habitat barriers and fragmentation of habitats. This work also decreased vehicle-caused mortality and improved the security situation for these species and habitats, although it did cause short-term displacement and other effects. Similarly, roadwork that repaired slumps, replaced culverts, and applied BMPs

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and road reconstruction improved habitat conditions for species associated with wildlife habitats while causing short-term displacement.

Over 41 miles of trails traverse the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area. All are non-motorized, although 4.5 miles receive relatively high levels of use. Construction and maintenance of these trails required the repair of drainage features and clearing live and down vegetation. Along the 24.3 miles of trails within a quarter mile of riparian habitats (Exhibit Rr-3), this may have had short-term negative impacts on riparian wildlife that are overwritten by long-term positive effects of improved water quality.

Past and ongoing tree planting, shrub planting, and noxious weed control had little or no long- term negative effects on old growth, snag, downed wood, and riparian wildlife while increasing tree growth and diversity of plant species. This includes the 1,559 acres of tree planting from 1962 through 2010, routine spraying of weeds along many roadsides and administrative areas, and weed eradication efforts with the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation.

Trapping may have contributed to the current scarcity of some species associated with these habitats, such as Canada lynx and fisher. Recreation activities include sightseeing, hiking, camping, boating, hunting, biking, fishing, resort use, and dispersed recreation. There are 29 mapped recreation sites in the project area including campgrounds, trailheads, a cabin rental, and river access sites. Two ranch resorts are permitted in the analysis area, along with six outfitters. Personal-use Christmas tree harvesting, bough and cone collection, and mushroom and huckleberry picking also occur seasonally. All of these can disturb or displace wildlife, particularly when dogs are allowed off leash or when wildlife are harvested. Flights to and from the Spotted Bear Airstrip and other locations further from the analysis area could disturb some species of wildlife as well.

Regulatory Framework and Consistency

The NFMA requires that the Forest Service “provide for diversity of plant and animal communities based on the suitability and capability of the specific land area in order to meet overall multiple-use objectives, and within the multiple use objectives of a land management plan adopted (16 USC 1604 (g)(3)(B).” All alternatives are consistent with this direction.

With all action alternatives, sufficient retention of forest structure (large diameter live trees, snags, and coarse woody debris) would be left to provide for future wildlife movement through the matrix surrounding old growth forests, especially in and adjacent to riparian areas. To maintain snags of high value to wildlife species, all action alternatives have design features addressing retention and recruitment of snags and down woody material (see Chapter 2 and snag/down wood analysis in the Vegetation section of Chapter 3). All alternatives would comply with Flathead Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) standards for snag and downed wood habitat (see the Vegetation section of Chapter 3) and silvicultural prescription components: snags and downed wood section of Design Features in Chapter 2.

Implementation of all alternatives would be consistent with the standards in the Forest Plan related to old growth management (Exhibit Q-10). There would be no timber salvage in any areas of existing old growth habitat under any alternative. Vegetation Standard Section H6 also states that “Road construction associated with vegetation management actions shall avoid or minimize impacts to old growth to the extent feasible.” All alternatives are consistent with this direction.

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Amendment 21 has objectives to “maintain ecological processes and provide for natural patch size distribution” and to “manage landscape patterns to develop larger old growth patch sizes where needed to satisfy wildlife habitat requirements.” Sufficient mid-seral/structural stage stands are to be maintained to allow for recruitment of old growth within the historical range of variability, emphasizing old growth development “in stands that are most likely to persist under native disturbance regimes, and that provide a patch size and pattern most advantageous to old growth associated wildlife species.” Across the landscape, sufficient retention of forest structure (large diameter live trees, snags, and coarse woody debris) would be left to provide for future wildlife movement through the matrix surrounding old growth forests. All action alternatives maintain a variety of patch sizes distributed across the project area, provide for recruitment of old growth, and provide for movement, making them consistent with this direction.

At larger scales than the Trail Creek Wildlife Analysis Area, a multi-scale evaluation of compliance with NFMA requirements to provide a diversity of plant and animal communities on the Flathead National Forest (Rg-1) stated that the FNF provides a considerable diversity of habitats for a variety of bird species and that when sufficient downed wood, understory trees, windfirm live trees, and snags are retained and available, adequate habitat can be maintained with timber management. All action alternatives are consistent with this strategy.

Two of the 73 species of Neotropical migratory birds are Management Indicator Species on the Flathead National Forest; the flammulated owl and the peregrine falcon (considered in other sections of Chapter 3). Six of the Neotropical migrants are old-growth associates, at least 13 are associated with snags or downed wood, and 43 are associated with riparian habitats. Forty seven of the 73 species (64 percent) have Montana ranking of S5 which is “Common, widespread, and abundant--although it may be rare in parts of its range; not vulnerable in most of its range.” Based on FNF management direction that applies to the habitats used by the 26 species that have some level of conservation concern, there appears to be little risk of population loss due to FNF actions.

All action alternatives are consistent with the Forest Service’s Landbird Conservation Strategic Plan (2000), Executive Order 13186 (2001), and the Partners in Flight Draft Bird Conservation Plans for Montana (2000) because they provide a diversity of habitat conditions at multiple spatial scales. At the FNF scale, 140 bird species were detected on monitoring transects, representing a variety of habitats (Rg-8).

Therefore, while factors outside of Forest Service control (such as deforestation in Neotropical bird wintering grounds, global climate change, subdivision/housing development, predation, as well as exotic and parasitic wildlife species) may have negative effects on bird species, the project would not cause a decline in population viability that would contribute to federal listing of species or their habitat, including those associated with old growth forests, snags, or riparian areas.

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