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Notes Introduction 1. Pioneering works on African political thought include J. Ayo Langley, Pan- Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa: A Case Study in Ideology and Social Classes (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973); William H. Friedland and Carl G. Ros- berg Jr., eds., African Socialism (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964); Claude Wauthier, The Literature and Thought of Modern Africa (Washingron, DC: Three Continents Press, 1979 [1964]); Robert W. July, The Origins of Mod- ern African Thought (London: Faber and Faber, 1968); Henry S. Wilson, ed., Origins of West African Nationalism (London: Macmillan/St. Martin’s Press, 1969); Yves Bénot, Idéologies des Indépendances Africaines, 2nd ed. (Paris: Fran- çois Maspéro, 1972); Gideon C. M. Mutiso and S. W. Rohio, eds., Readings in African Political Thought (London: Heinemann, 1975); and Carl G. Rosberg Jr. and Thomas M. Callaghy, Socialism in Sub-Saharan Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1979). A more recent— though fairly superfi cial— compendium is that of Peter Boele van Hensbroek, Political Discourses in African Thought, 1860 to the Present (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1999); see also Crawford Young, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982) and P. L. E. Idahosa, The Populist Dimension to African Political Thought: Critical Essays in Reconstruction and Retrieval (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004). 2. Boele van Hensbroek, Political Discourses in African Thought, 1860 to the Present, 1. 3. Henry L. Bretton, The Rise and Fall of Kwame Nkrumah (London: Pall Mall, 1966), 158. 4. See for instance Daniel Chu and Elliot Skinner, A Glorious Age in Africa: The Story of Three Great African Empires (Garden City, NY: Zenith Books/Double- day, 1965); Margaret Shinnie, Ancient African Kingdoms (London: Edward Arnold, 1965); Roland Oliver, ed., The Middle Age of African History (London: Oxford University Press, 1967); and Basil Davidson, African Civilization Revis- ited: From Antiquity to Modern Times (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1991). 5. Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York: New York Uni- versity Press, 1957), 23; Basil Davidson, Which Way Africa? The Search for a New Society (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1967), 53– 57. 6. On this topic, see Marina and David Ottaway, Afrocommunism, 2nd ed. (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1986); Edmond J. Keller and Donald Roth- child, eds., Afro-Marxist Regimes: Ideology and Public Policy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987); Crawford Young, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), chapter 3, 22–96. See also the “Marxist 160 Notes Regimes Series” edited by Bogdan Szajkowsi at Pinter Publishers (London and New York), which includes case studies (“Politics, Economics & Society”) of Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea- Bissau, Madagascar, Mozambique, Sāo Tomé and Principe, and Zimbabwe. 7. See in particular F. Abiola Irele, The Négritude Moment: Explorations in Franco- phone African & Caribbean Literature & Thought (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2010); F. Abiola Irele, Négritude et condition africaine (Paris: Editions Karthala, 2008); Stanislas S. Adotevi, Négritude et Négrologues (Paris: Le Castor Astral, 1998); Irving Leonard Markovitz, Léopold Sédar Senghor & the Politics of Négritude (New York: Atheneum, 1969); Léopold Sédar Senghor, Literté 1: Négritude et Humanisme (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1964); Marcien Towa, Léo- pold Sédar Senghor: Négritude ou Servitude? (Yaoundé: Éditions CLE, 1976); Janet G. Vaillant, Black, French, and African: A Life of Léopold Sédar Senghor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); and Claude Wauthier, L’Afrique des Africains: Inventaire de la Négritude (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1964); translated into English as The Literature and Thought of Modern Africa, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1979). 8. See in particular Léopold S. Senghor, Liberté II: Nation et Voie Africaine du Socialisme (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1971); Charles F. Andrain, “Guinea & Sen- egal: Contrasting Types of African Socialism,” In African Socialism, ed. William H. Friedland and Carl G. Rosberg Jr. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964), 160– 74; Yves Bénot, Idéologies des Indépendances africaines, 2nd ed. (Paris: François Maspéro, 1972), 191–306; and Louis V. Thomas, Le Socialisme et l’Afrique, 2 vols. (Paris: Le Livre Africain, 1966). 9. Note that the populist-socialist regime of John Jerry Rawlings in Ghana lasted only from 1979 to 1983; from 1983 to 1992, Rawlings abandoned populism and introduced liberal political and economic policies under intense pressure from Western powers and international financial institutions (International Mon- etary Fund and World Bank); on this subject, see in particular Kweku G. Folson, “Ideology, Revolution and Development: The Years of J.J. Rawlings in Ghana,” in Okwudiba Nnoli, ed., Government and Politics in Africa: A Reader (Harare: AAPS Books, 2000), 124– 50; and Emmanuel Hansen, Ghana Under Rawlings: Early Years (Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited/AAPS, 1991). 10. When president Léopold Senghor initiated multiparty democracy in Senegal in 1977, Cheikh Anta Diop created a leftist opposition party, the Rassemble- ment National Démocratique (RND: National Democratic Rally). As a result of the legislative elections of 1983 under president Abdou Diouf, Cheikh Anta Diop became the one and only RND deputy in the national assembly; he died shortly thereafter, in February 1986. See Pathé Diagne, Cheikh Anta Diop et l’Afrique dans l’histoire du monde (Paris: L’Harmattan/Sankoré, 2002), 45– 46. Taking advantage of the liberalization of the regime in Burkina Faso, Joseph Ki-Zerbo founded a progressive, Pan-African party, the Parti pour la démocratie et le progrès (PDP: Party for Democracy and Progress), in 1992, of which he became chairman. In the May 1997 legislative elections, the PDP won 10 percent of the votes and 6 (out of 111) seats in the national assembly, thereby becoming the country’s main opposition party. However, Joseph Ki-Zerbo resigned from his chairmanship of the PDP in 1998 and joined a short-lived antigovernment civil society coalition. He died in December 2006. See Joseph Ki-Zerbo with René Holenstein, A quand l’Afrique? (Geneva: Ėditions de l’Aube/Ėditions d’en bas, 2003), 189– 96. Notes 161 Chapter 1 1. K. A. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 9. 2. J. Yoyotte, “Pharaonic Egypt: Society, Economy and Culture,” in General His- tory of Africa; II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, ed. G. Mokhtar (Paris: Unesco/ Heinemann, 1981), 130. 3. In the context of indigenous African political systems and institutions, the term leader refers to all the persons in charge of a political unit, be it lineage or village (chief), kingdom (king), or empire (emperor). 4. K. A. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy, 7, 9, 26. 5. For an overview of indigenous African political systems and institutions, see Cheikh Anta Diop, L’Afrique Noire Pré-Coloniale (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1960), translated into English as Precolonial Black Africa (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1987); George B. N. Ayittey, Indigenous African Institutions (Ard- sley-on-Hudson, NY: Transnational Publishers, 1991); Ayittey, Africa Betrayed (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), chapter 3, 37–77; Pathé Diagne, Pouvoir politique traditionnel en Afrique occidentale (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1968); and Mueni wa Muiu and Guy Martin, A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika (New York: Pagrave Macmillan, 2009), chapter 2, 22– 47. The classical exposé of the (dubious) distinction between “state” and “stateless” soci- eties is found in M. Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard, eds., African Political Systems (London: Oxford University Press, 1940). 6. Djibril Tamsir Niane, Soundjata ou l’Ėpopée Mandingue, 3rd ed. (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1960), translated into English as Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (Harlow, UK: Longman, 1965); Fa-Digi Sisoko, The Epic of Son-Jara: A West African Tradition, trans. John William Johnson (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1992); CELHTO, La Charte de Kurukan Fuga: Aux sources d’une pensée politique en Afrique (Paris: L’Harmattan/SAEC, 2008), article 8, 45 (“The Kéĭta clan is designated as the ruling clan of the Empire”). 7. Elliott P. Skinner, The Mossi of The Upper Volta: The Political Development of a Sudanese People (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964), 127, 138. 8. As stipulated in article 1 of the Mande Charter (La Charte de Kurukan Fuga, 41). 9. Basil Davidson, The Lost Cities of Africa, rev. ed. (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1970), 87. 10. J. K. Fynn, Asante and its Neighbours, 1700–1807 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1971), 33, 55. 11. Colin M. Turnbull, The Lonely African (New York: Clarion Book/Simon & Schuster, 1962), 94. 12. K. A. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 24. 13. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy, 24– 25. 14. K. A. Busia, The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of Ashanti (London: Oxford University Press/International African Institute, 1951), 21– 22. 15. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy, 23. 16. Ayittey, Indigenous African Institutions, 71– 149; Ayittey, Africa Betrayed, 37– 48. 17. Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy, 25– 26. 162 Notes 18. Gaston Maspéro, Au Temps de Ramsès et d’Assourbanipal: Ėgypte et
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