DOCSLIB.ORG

The Inevitable Reimagining of Medical Education VIEWPOINT

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Inevitable Reimagining of Medical Education VIEWPOINT Opinion The Inevitable Reimagining of Medical Education VIEWPOINT Ezekiel J. Emanuel, Medical education is currently undergoing a gradual but sessions, each covering 1 or 2 major points with an asso- 3 MD, PhD significantchange.Partoftheongoingtransformationisre- ciated set of readings, is best. When preclinical courses Perelman School of ducing the time of education by shortening the preclinical are recorded with the primary goal of being used online, Medicine, Department education period from 24 months to 12 to 15 months and, theshortsegmentswithcasesorexamplesandassociated of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, therefore, potentially reducing the total time of medical readings could become the norm. University of school.1 Another change is more training in the predomi- But if preclinical courses transition to being available Pennsylvania, nant site of care, the outpatient setting. Additionally, the exclusively online, another dynamic seems to arise. Why Philadelphia. confirmation and assessment of completed training will should medical students learning anatomy or microbiol- shiftfromtimeinschooltoprovencompetencies.Incorpo- ogy or pharmacology be limited to learning from the pro- ratingallthesechangesisslow—inordinatelyslowformany fessors who happen to teach at their particular medical Author Audio people. But these changes seem inevitable. school? Why can’t they—why shouldn’t they—learn from Interview Yet these changes are only the start. They do not the world’s 2 or 3 best instructors in any particular field? consider one of today’s most important trends. At many Indeed, medical students already learn pathology from schools, the majority of medical students no longer at- sources such as Pathoma4 and lectures on YouTube. Con- tend preclinical classes in person but rather watch lec- sequently,worldwidetherecouldbeahandfulofoutstand- tures online.2 Ultimately, it is quite possible that all pre- ingcoursesineachcontentareadevelopedforallpreclini- clinical preparation will be online, completed anywhere cal classes. Medical schools will purchase online courses in the world by a multitude of learners from just a hand- as the content for their classes, or else students will find ful of the world’s best professors. Students’ compe- thebestonlinecoursesandlearnfromthem.Thisapproach tence will be confirmed by a standardized test or set of would allow students to learn from the best teachers in tests. Then clinical training could be reconfigured, the world—certainly an important goal of education. merged with residency training at the medical schools’ affiliated hospitals and, increasingly, outpatient clinical Objections to Relying on Online Learning sites. Students will be promoted based on demon- One objection to moving preclinical classroom instruc- strated clinical competencies, not time in service. tion online is that there is more to preclinical medical edu- cation than basic science lectures. However, basic sci- The End of Preclinical Classroom Instruction ence courses still comprise 80% or more of preclinical At many medical schools, the proportion of the medical medical education. Much of the additional material— schoolclassthatattendsin-personpreclinicallectureshas small group discussions, cadaver dissection, and classes gradually declined. At some schools, unless attendance is on ethics, professionalism, cultural competency, the mandatory, one-third or fewer students actually attend health system, and the introduction to clinical medicine— class in person when they have the option of watching also could be well addressed online. For instance, the the recorded presentations online. By playing the lecture University of Pennsylvania has available an online at double speed, most students “get” the content of a class, “The American Health Care System,” with 45 pre- 60-minute class in 30 minutes. They can rewind and re- sentations and 5 discussion sessions and an “Ethics of viewmultipletimesanyportionofthelecturetheydidnot Research with Human Subjects” course with 25 brief, fullygraspthefirsttimethrough.Thislearningcanbedone approximately 10-minute, presentations that cover the at their convenience in their preferred environment. fundamentals of clinical research ethics.5 These are part This approach saves students time, provides greater of an online master’s program that offers 18 courses. flexibility, and allows more attention to the topics they Furthermore, much of the other material, such as cul- find difficult. They can group similar lectures together, turalcompetenceandcommunicationskills,isreallyabout rewatch them, take breaks while watching, and view the incorporating clinical content into the preclinical years. lectures with small groups of other students. Some of this, such as clinical ethics and professionalism, Given the declining attendance at preclinical classes, is unlikely to be optimized for students with little experi- Corresponding any rationale for holding live classroom lectures seems to enceofclinicalencounters.Itmightbettertoincludethese Author: Ezekiel J. bedisappearing.Whyshouldprofessorsgivethesamelec- topics in an expanded vision of clinical training. Emanuel, MD, PhD, Perelman School ture on the cranial nerves or pharmacokinetics that they Online education programs can also offer opportu- of Medicine, gave last year and the year before for a limited number of nities for interactive sessions such as synchronous ques- Department of Medical students?Itisawasteofeveryone’stime.Giventhistrend, tion-and-answer sessions with faculty as well as stu- Ethics and Health Policy, University thepresentationsforallpreclinicalclassesshouldbeavail- dent discussion groups. With more seamless, reliable of Pennsylvania, able exclusively online by 2025 if not sooner. technology and, more importantly, advances in aug- 423 Guardian Dr, Once online education becomes the norm, the struc- mented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), it will soon Blockley Hall, Ste 1412, ture of these preclinical classes will change, too. Sixty- be possible to “feel” as if everyone in a virtual group is Philadelphia, PA 19104 (MEHPchair@upenn. minute presentations are not optimal for online learning. in the same room participating in a single discussion. In edu). Instead, a series of short—about 6 to 15 minutes—video addition, histology lectures and slides are already largely jama.com (Reprinted) JAMA Published online February 27, 2020 E1 © 2020 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ Rutgers University Libraries by Brian Strom on 03/02/2020 Opinion Viewpoint online, and digital simulations for anatomy dissection are already tacts. Nevertheless, medical care will remain largely an in-person, available and will improve with VR. face-to-face interaction between patients and physicians or other Furthermore,whencorrectlystructuredwithcollectiveprojectsor clinicians. Consequently,the clinical portion of medical education will discussiongroups,onlinecoursescanallowandfostertheformationof remain focused on hospitals, physician offices, patients’ homes, and deep,sharedlearningconnectionsamongstudents.Forinstance,atthe other settings. The most pivotal aspect of teaching in these setting startofone20-monthonlineMasterofHealthCareInnovationprogram, occurs in the apprenticeship model, in which an experienced phy- a 4-day in-person meeting fosters deep esprit de corps among the sician and student share clinical situations and the imparting of studentsandhelpsfacilitateregularinteractionandmutualsupportas knowledge and learning are inextricably woven into the actual car- the students all proceed through subsequent online courses.5 ing for the patient. Medical schools are uniquely capable of orga- Another objection is that learning exclusively online is challeng- nizing these experiences of clinical rotations with skilled mentors. ing. Approximately 90% of students who start a massive open on- The irreducible core role for medical schools will be organizing and line course never finish.6 In part this is because online courses overseeing clinical education. currently offer lower rewards for finishing and are not critical for Focusing medical schools’ mission exclusively on students’ clini- graduation. However, when students have something at stake, cal education will create an important opportunity to reimagine and such as course credit, retention for online programs is around 70%.7 reconfigure medical education. Students could work on their own Arizona State University had a first-year retention rate of 87%, with for preclinical training and then apply to one institution for both the a 6-year graduation rate of 68%.8 Online training requires real moti- 2 years of clinical education and the 3 or more years of internship vationandpersistencetolearnasanindividual.9 Butratherthanafault, andresidencyatoneofthemedicalinstitution’saffiliatedclinicalsites. this is a feature. Being able to finish months of online education in The clinical portion of medical training—from medical school through molecular biology, anatomy, and other complex topics is a good to the end of residency—would then be at a single institution. test of some of the very qualities that are desirable in physicians— Consequently, medical schools could increasingly be respon- persistence, determination, and commitment to lifelong learning. sible for 5 or more years of training, from what now is the tradi- If medical students are learning exclusively online during their tional third year of medical school through the end of residency.This
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Medical and Public Health Education Public Health Practice and Academic Medicine: Promising Partnerships Regional Medicine Public Health Education Centers—Two Cycles
    Medical and Public Health Education Public Health Practice and Academic Medicine: Promising Partnerships Regional Medicine Public Health Education Centers—Two Cycles Rika Maeshiro rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr The partnering of the academic medicine and public services in academic settings). Although not identi- health communities to improve the health of popula- cal to the Core Functions or Essential Services of public tions seems natural; however, collaboration between health, “education, research, and service” to improve the two groups has not been standard practice. This health appear to be shared objectives in the portfo- series of articles will highlight examples of what are lios of public health practice and academic medicine. hopefully a growing number of successful partnerships This month’s column will review recent collaborations between academic medicine and public health practice aimed at improving medical student education in pop- that are intended to improve health status. Readers are ulation health, focusing particularly on the establish- encouraged to contribute their experiences in public ment of Regional Medicine–Public Health Education health practice–academic medicine partnerships from Centers (RMPHECs). the perspectives of public health practitioners and/or Incorporating prevention- and population-based medical educators. health into the medical curriculum has been a challenge The Association of American Medical Colleges to US medical education for decades. Advocates for im- (AAMC) is a nonprofit association dedicated to improv- proving public health content in medical education be- ing the nation’s health by enhancing the effectiveness lieve that a better-informed physician workforce will of academic medicine. When the AAMC was founded respond more effectively to the needs of their patients, in 1876 to help reform medical education, the asso- their communities, and their public health colleagues, ciation represented only medical schools.
    [Show full text]
  • Medical School
    Medical School Texas A&M Professional School Advising can advise you realistically on whether you are a competitive applicant for admission to medical school, however only you can decide if medical school is truly what you want to do. One way to explore your interest is to gain exposure by volunteering and shadowing in the different healthcare professions we advise for. You can also observe or shadow a physician and talk to professionals in the different fields of healthcare. Another way is to read information about professional schools and medicine as a career and to join one of the campus pre-health organizations. What type of major looks best? Many applicants believe that medical schools want science majors or that certain programs prefer liberal arts majors. In actuality medical schools have no preference in what major you choose as long as you do well and complete the pre-requisite requirements. Texas A&M does not have a pre-medical academic track which is why we suggest that you choose a major that leads to what you would select as an alternative career. The reason for this line of logic is that you generally do better in a major you are truly passionate and interested in and in return is another great way to determine whether medicine is the right choice. Plus an alternative career provides good insurance if you should happen to change direction or postpone entry. Texas A&M University offers extensive and exciting majors to choose from in eleven diverse colleges. If your chosen major does not include the prerequisite courses in its curriculum, you must complete the required courses mentioned below either as science credit hours or elective credit hours.
    [Show full text]
  • Achievement in Medical Education Program (AMEP) Office for Medical Educator Development (OMED)
    Achievement in Medical Education Program (AMEP) Office for Medical Educator Development (OMED) July 2015 Background Academic medical centers embrace the mission to develop future physicians, health-science research scientists, and other health-care professionals who are competent in clinical, research, and educational skills. These centers also have the unique opportunity to provide professional development opportunities towards excellence for faculty, residents, fellows, doctoral students, and post-doctoral scholars with a strong interest in the educational processes that assure these competencies. Through the Achievement in Medical Education Program (AMEP), UNMSOM educators receive professional development and achieve recognition that demonstrates, encourages, and values excellence in teaching across all elements of basic science and clinical education within the School of Medicine. Participants actively engage in learning, applying knowledge, developing skills, reflecting on the process, and developing an action plan for ongoing personal and professional growth as educators. The program includes both Foundational and Advanced pathways: The Foundational pathway contributes toward achievement of basic educator skill (further demonstrated in teaching opportunities). This pathway is expected for SOM faculty (tenure-track basic science and clinician faculty including clinician educators and lecturers, but not research- track faculty) as a requirement to demonstrate competence for their first promotion (note that some faculty need to demonstrate
    [Show full text]
  • Course-Catalog.Pdf
    2020-2021 SCHOOL OF MEDICINE COURSE CATALOG 1 Introduction The School of Medicine Student Course Catalog is a reference for medical and academic health students and others regarding the administrative policies, rules and regulations of Emory University and the Emory University School of Medicine. In addition, the Student Handbook contains policies and procedures for areas such as admissions, academic and professional standards, progress and promotion, financial aid, student organizations, disability insurance, academic and personal counseling, and student health. It is the responsibility of each student enrolled in the Emory University School of Medicine programs to understand and abide by the regulations and policies within the course catalog, student handbook, and within Emory University. Accreditation Statement Emory University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges to award associate, baccalaureate, master, education specialist, doctorate and professional degrees. Contact the Commission on Colleges at 1866 Southern Lane, Decatur, Georgia 30033-4097 or call 404-679-4500 for questions about the accreditation of Emory. Nondiscrimination Statement Emory University is an inquiry-driven, ethically engaged, and diverse community dedicated to the ideals of free academic discourse in teaching, scholarship, and community service. Emory University abides by the values of academic freedom and is built on the assumption that contention among different views is positive and necessary for the expansion of knowledge, both for the University itself and as a training ground for society at large. Emory is committed to the widest possible scope for the free circulation of ideas. The University is committed to maintaining an environment that is free of unlawful harassment and discrimination.
    [Show full text]
  • Curriculum Inventory (CI) Glossary Last Updated 11/30/2020 1 © 2020 Association of American Medical Colleges
    Curriculum Inventory (CI) Glossary This glossary lists and defines terms commonly used for the AAMC CI program. This CI Glossary is intended for use by schools for curriculum occurring between July 1, 2020 -June 30, 2021, for upload to the AAMC in August 2021. Contents Concepts Related to CI Content...................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Academic level and academic year................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Academic level............................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Current academic year ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Previous academic year ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Events.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Events ............................................................................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Prerequisites for 9 Medical Schools in Texas
    Requirements update: Oct. 2011 PREREQUISITES FOR 9 MEDICAL SCHOOLS IN TEXAS Course Names BCM TAMUHSC TTUHSC UNT (osteopathic UTHSC UTHSCSA UTMB UTSW TTUHSC medicine) Houston College Station Lubbock Houston San Antonio Galveston Dallas El Paso Forth Worth 1 General Biology 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. Advanced or 6 hrs. 6 hrs.2 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs.3 6 hrs.4 8 hrs. 6 hrs.5 other Biology General 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. Chemistry Organic 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. Chemistry 6 Recommended Recommended Now required and Recommended Recommended Now required and Recommended Recommended Recommended Biochemistry may be used toward may be used toward (cannot be introductory course) fulfilling Bio. Sciences fulfilling Bio. Sciences Physics Not 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 8 hrs. required *Calculus or Neither 3 hrs. of 3 hrs. of 3 hrs. of Neither 3 hrs. of 3 hrs. 3 hrs. 3 hrs. Statistics required statistics statistics statistics required statistics (calculus cannot (Calculus cannot Calculus cannot (Calculus cannot replace stats.) replace stats.) replace stats.) replace stats.) English 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs.7 6 hrs. 6 hrs. General Applicants must have completed a minimum of 90 semester hours at an accredited university. Courses for non-science majors are not accepted.
    [Show full text]
  • Teaching Philosophy Statement Example - Medical School
    www.arrs.org/uploadedFiles/ARRS/.../TeachingPhilosophies.doc Teaching Philosophy Statement Example - Medical School My role as an educator in graduate medical education has much in common with my hobby of raising orchids. I dabbled in both until greater “collections” befell me-- in one case, several dozen orchid plants bequeathed by an acquaintance, in the other, the opportunity to direct the residency program in Rehabilitation Medicine. Raising orchids means having the right media, creating the right growing conditions for individual plants, and vigilance against weeds and slugs. I keep records and set goals and evaluate my collection. There are many parallels in teaching and evaluating residents and in the administration of a residency training program. Resident physicians have many demands on their time. I believe they will devote more energy to the learning process if they can see the benefits of devoting time to what I have to teach. In every encounter with a resident, I try to model inquisitiveness, politeness, team management, analytical thinking, and current knowledge. I set the stage for a collegial learning setting, and demonstrate the underlying structure I use to make decisions. As I probe learner knowledge, I allow a healthy level of anxiety into the situation by asking questions and letting my resident struggle a bit for the answer--they have to make a commitment. Then I want to know what process was used to arrive at the answer. Did they use the literature, clinical experience, or ritual? Are they connecting their fund of knowledge with the clinical database? My goals in teaching are not limited to the knowledge domain.
    [Show full text]
  • Philosophy of Medical Education
    Original Article Philosophy of medical education HOSSAIN RONAGHY University of California San Diego, USA Introduction: Education is defined as an art with scientific principle. It is Corresponding author: described as a form of learning by which knowledge, skills and attitudes of an Hossain Ronaghy, age group are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, Address: The Department training, research and practice. of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD) Method: This is a historical review about the philosophy of medical education Email: [email protected] and its changes during the time. Results: It is unfortunate that many developing countries follow the US system rather than those with public financing pattern. Indeed, these systems are “disease care” and not “healthcare” and are mainly motivated by profit. Conclusion: The educational planners in medical schools must design a Please cite this paper as: Ronaghy H. Philosophy of curricula for students and residents to acquire a crucial set of professional values Medical Education. J. Adv and qualities, by which the willingness to put the needs of the patient and society Med&Prof. 2013;1(2):43-45. first. Keywords: Education, Medical education, Philosophy Introduction after the old physician died (2). ducation is defined as an art with scientific Medicine used to be an art for thousands of years. Eprinciple. It is described as a form of learning The effective and successful practitioners were by which knowledge, skills and attitudes of an age those who were most familiar with the psychology group are transferred from one generation to the next of their patients.
    [Show full text]
  • Functions and Structure of a Medical School: Standards
    FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE OF A MEDICAL SCHOOL Standards for Accreditation of Medical Education Programs Leading to the M.D. Degree March 2014 Standards and Elements Effective July 1, 2015 Functions and Structure of a Medical School March 2014 Functions and Structure of a Medical School Standards for Accreditation of Medical Education Programs Leading to the M.D. Degree © Copyright March 2014, Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME®). All material subject to this copyright may be photocopied for the noncommercial purpose of scientific or educational advancement, with citation. LCME® is a registered trademark of the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Medical Association LCME® Page ii Functions and Structure of a Medical School March 2014 Table of Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv Standard 1: Mission, Planning, Organization, and Integrity……………………………………………………….1 Standard 2: Leadership and Administration………………………………………………………………………..3 Standard 3: Academic and Learning Environments………………………………………………………………..4 Standard 4: Faculty Preparation, Productivity, Participation, and Policies………………………………………...6 Standard 5: Educational Resources and Infrastructure……………………………………………………………..7 Standard 6: Competencies, Curricular Objectives, and Curricular Design ………………………………………. 9 Standard 7: Curricular Content……………………………………………………………………………………11 Standard 8: Curricular Management, Evaluation, and Enhancement……………………………………………..14 Standard 9: Teaching, Supervision, Assessment, and Student and Patient Safety………………………………..16
    [Show full text]
  • Health Science
    Public Services Endorsement: Health Science Endorsement General Description: Each school district must make available courses that allow a student to complete the curriculum requirements for at least one endorsement. A Health Science-Related Courses school district that offers only one endorsement curriculum must offer the multidisciplinary studies endorsement curriculum. Heath Science Career Cluster Principles of Health Science A school district defines advanced courses and determines a coherent Medical Terminology sequence of courses for an endorsement area, provided that prerequisites Heath Science are followed. Practicum in Health Science A course completed as part of the set of four courses needed to satisfy an *Anatomy and Physiology endorsement requirement may also satisfy a requirement under the *Medical Microbiology foundation high school program, including an elective requirement. *Pathophysiology (science credit) World Health Research Course Offerings Human Services Career Cluster Each school district must offer and maintain evidence that students have Lifetime Nutrition and Wellness the opportunity to take coherent sequences of courses selected from at Counseling and Mental Health least three of the sixteen CTE career clusters. A student may earn an endorsement by successfully completing: STEM Career Cluster Biotechnology • course requirements for the foundation high school 22 credits *Advanced Biotechnology program *Scientific Research and Design • an additional credit in mathematics 1 credit • 1 credit an additional credit in science Innovative Courses • two additional electives 2 credits Medical Biotechnology II • curriculum requirements for the endorsement Dosage Calculations TOTAL 26 credits Mathematics for Medical Professionals Public Services Endorsement Curriculum Requirements: A student must complete one of the following: *satisfies science credit requirement for graduation (1) a coherent sequence of courses for four or more credits in CTE.
    [Show full text]
  • Medical School Admissions Requirements
    MEDICAL SCHOOL ADMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS ALABAMA School Required Recommended Notes UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA Biol**, Gen. Chem.** (see notes), Engl***, Biochem. Applicants awarded AP credit for chemistry are SCHOOL OF MEDICINE Math*, Organic Chem., Physics* expected to complete a chemistry course sequence that includes biochemistry. Applicants awarded college credit for AP calculus courses may receive 3 hours credit toward meeting the minimum requirement. Applicants awarded AP credit for Biol are expected to complete 8 hours or more of advanced biology coursework. A 4---semester chem sequence of Gen. Chem., Organic Chem., and Biochem. is also acceptable for satisfying the Chem. prerequisite requirement. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH Biol.*, Gen. Chem.*, Engl*, Math*, Biochem, Calculus, Comp. Sci, ALABAMA COLLEGE OF Humanities*, Organic Chem*, Physics* Genetics MEDICINE ARIZONA School Required Recommended Notes UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA Biol**, Gen. Chem.**, Engl, Organic Chem.** Soc/Behavioral Sci., Biostats, Students may take 2 semesters of Organic Chem. or COLLEGE OF MEDICINE (See Notes), Physics** Second Lang. 1 semester of Organic and 1 semester of Biochem. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA Behavioral/Soc. Sci.*, Biochem, Biol, (See One Gen. Chem. and one Biochem course required. COLLEGE OF MEDICINE – notes,) Gen. Chem.*, Engl*, One course Biol requirement includes one course in Physiology, PHOENIX from Stats* Biostats, or Math*, and 2 additional advanced Biol. courses. Humanities* Math must be above Algebra level to satisfy the Math/Stats requirement For the number of hours required for prerequisite courses, and for the most up---to---date information, please refer to the individual school websites. * A.P. credit satisfies the requirement. 1 ** When A.P. credit is awarded, upper---level coursework in the same subject area is required.
    [Show full text]
  • Medical School Personal Statement
    Sample Before Editing Medical School Personal Statement My friend’s father always warned him not to run a lot since he had asthma. While playing games he always stopped to use an inhaler, which eventually enabled him to run for a while. As a child I was fascinated by how small particles in that inhaler could treat his big lungs. He recovered from that terrifying infirmity, but imprinted in my mind was the feeling of relief he felt from the inhaled drug, which his life depended on. What began as a childhood fascination became an ambition for the rest of my life. As I was enrolled at the University of Houston in 2009 pursuing my undergraduate degree in Health Science, I wanted to further my knowledge beyond the classroom setting. For this reason, I decided to work as a pharmacy technician to obtain a sense of what my professional life might be like. I observed the day-to-day performance of the pharmacists, their interaction with the community, and how well they were reciprocated. The experience and knowledge I gained motivated me to continue working as a pharmacy tech even after I graduated. My times spent working, as a pharmacy technician was as educational as it was emotionally worthwhile. The experience gained during my four years working at CVS, Walgreens and at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Hospital, allowed me to understand that pharmacists are able to make a difference on their community simply by counseling patients who are experiencing drug- drug, drug-disease, and drug-food interactions. It became apparent that pharmacists served as the last line of defense in protecting patients against any drug-related problems.
    [Show full text]