FAO FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPERPAPER 26

forestry and ruralrural developmentdevelopment

fao forestryforestry departmentdepartment

FOOD AND AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITEDUNITED NATIONSNATIONS Rome, 1981 The designations employed and the presentationpresentation of material inin this publication dodo not imply thethe expression of of anyany opinion whatsoever onon the part of thethe FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof the United Nations concerningconcerning thethe legal status of any country, territory, ccityity or areaarea or of itsits authorities,authorities, or concerningconcerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of itsits frontiersfrontiers oror boundaries.boundaries.

M-64 ISBN 92-5-101083-8

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© FAOFAD 19811981 - i -

FOREWORD

In the recent past it has become abundantly clear that for most developing countries sustained growth and development can be achieved only throughthrough involvinginvolving the mass of the population who livelive inin thethe rural areas. DevelopmentDevelopment must mean thethe mobilization ofof thethe energies of rural people and of thethe resources ofof thethe rural areas. Development strategiesstrategies must therefore be directed to enabling rural people toto escape from theirtheir present poverty.

This increasing focus on rural development has heightened understanding among governments and planners as well as foresters - of the importanceimportance of the contributions of forests and forest outputs toto thethe ruralrural sector,sector, andand toto itsits development.development. However, thisthis has also drawn attention to the need for changes in the way forests are controlled and managed. Strategies must be developed within thethe forest sectorsector whichwhich addadd aa socialsocial objectiveobjective toto thethe traditionaltraditional production andand protectionprotection objectives.objectives. The satisfaction of thethe needsneeds ofof locallocal peoplepeople shouldshould have equal status with thatthat of thethe production ofof timbertimber forfor industryindustry andand thethe conservationconservation of environmental stability.stability. The prpracticeactice of forestry has to be organized in such a way as to involve rural people as fullyfully asas possible.possible. The aim must be fully integratedintegrated management ofof the forest resource.

The forestry profession has reacted energetically toto thisthis challenge. Over thethe pastpast few years much has beenbeen learntlearnt aboutabout whatwhat hashas toto bebe done.done. The present paper is intended toto provide a reviewreview of thethe present situation and statestate of knowledge. It describes thethe linkageslinkages between thethe forest sub-sectorsub-sector andand thethe ruralrural sectorsector asas aa whole,whole, thethe problemsproblems andand constraintsconstraints to be overcome, the fresh approaches being explored which indicateindicate how thethe potential of forestry can be realized, and thethe needsneeds for action.

The paper was preparedprepared for, andand firstfirst appearedappeared in,in, FAO'sFAD's annualannual reportreport "The"The StateState ofof Food and Agriculture, 1979".1979". It is therefore primarily addressed to the wide audience of persons concerned with development who drawdraw uponupon thatthat publication.publication. It is being reproducedreproduced now in FAO'sFAD's Forestry Paper seriesseries inin orderorder toto make itit more widely andand easilyeasily availableavailable toto a forestry audienceaudience asas well.well. The paper has been prepared by staff of FAO'sFAa's Forestry Department together with P. Stewart ofof thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth ForestryForestry Institute,Institute, Oxford.Oxford.

M.A. FloresFlores RodasRodas Assistant Director-GeneralDirector-General and Head of thethe Forestry DepartmentDepartment - iii -

TABLE OF CONTENTSCONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTIINTRODUCTION ON 1

Historical Context 2 The Role of Forests 3 Forestry and Agriculture 3 Energy from thethe ForestForest 6 Forest Materials 8 Forest Employment andand IncomeIncome 9

ELEMENTS OF AA NEWNEW BALANCEBALANCE 13

Trees outside thethe ForestForest 13 Agricultural Production insideinside thethe ForestForest 17 Village Forestry 19 Forestry for jointjoint SatisfactionSatisfaction ofof LocalLocal andand IndustrialIndustrial NeedsNeeds 20 Contribution of Wood-Processing\-lood-Processing IndustriesIndustries 22 Appropriate Technology for Utilization 24

FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION 26

Political Commitment 26 Motivation, Mobilization and Education 27 Information BaseBase 28 Research and the Communication of new Knowledge 29 Legal Framework 30 Administration andand Management 31 Financial ImplicationsImplications 33

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 34

LIST OF TABLES

1. Fuelwood and roundwoodround~yood consumption and energy from fuelwood,f uelwood, 7 developing countries, 19741974

2. Production, consumption and gross exports of industrialindustrial roundwood 9 and forest products, developing market economies, 1968-78

3. Estimated labour requirements for primary processing of forest productsproduct s 10

4. Estimated rural employment inin thethe supplysupply ofof wood fuelsfuels toto selectedselected urban 11 markets inin Africa 1

FORESTRY ANDAND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Until recently, ruralrural development development waswas generallygenerally consideredconsidered fromfrom thethe point point ofof viewview of food andand agriculturalagricultural production.production. ForestryForestry tendedtended toto bebe regardedregarded as aa separateseparate andand isolatedisolated sector ofof interestinterest only only ifif it i twere we re possible possible to to promote promote wood wood productionproduction for exportexport oror domesticdomestic industry or necessarynecessary toto regulateregulate waterwater supplysupply oror controlcontrol erosion.erosion. AttentionAttention was was focused focused on the control ofof densedense forests forests oror onon thethe creationcreation of of large large plantations. plantations. Forest resourcesresources were treated asas unutilizedunutilized capitalcapital toto bebe mobilizedmobilized mostly forfor investment inin otherother sectorssectors of the economy. TheThe harvestingharvesting andand salesale ofof commercialcommercial timbertimber grewgrew rapidlyrapidly butbut thethe netnet flow ofof capitalcapital intointo producingproducing countries countries waswas much much less less impressive. impressive. MostMost timbertimber waswas exported, andand continuescontinues toto bebe exported,exported, asas roundwood roundwood rawraw materialmaterial soso that that no no potentialpotential added value was retainedretained in the country. MechanizedMechanized harvestingharvesting methodsmethods requiredrequired conside-conside­ rable amountsamounts of imported equipment andand other other inputs,inputs, and inin somesome casescases a largelarge partpart ofof the profits accrued to foreign ownersowners oror partnerspartners 11.1/. TheThe local local people people frequentlyfrequently lost access toto thethe landland takentaken over forfor forestforest estatesestates or or plantations plantations but but which which hadhad formerlyformerly enabled them to meet their ownown needs. AsAs they they could could not not adopt adopt the the new new technologytechnology because of its complexitycomplexity and expense,expense, most of them were worse offoff thanthan before. before. Indeed,Indeed, therethere was a tendency toto regardregard them almost as enemiesenemies fromfrom whomwhom the trees hadhad toto bebe protected.protected. On thethe otherother hand,hand, inin areas wherewhere woodwood waswas inin greatgreat demand but but trees trees werewere scarce,scarce, forest-forest­ ers werewere not not to to be be found found thoughthough theirtheir adviceadvice andand assistanceassistance could could havehave beenbeen invaluable.invaluable.

The overalloverall developmentdevelopment policy hadhad favouredfavoured industries industries andand urbanurban areas,areas, leavingleaving thethe basic rural problemsproblems unresolved.unresolved. TheThe influx influx ofof ruralrural migrantsmigrants seekingseeking betterbetter jobsjobs hashas been far greatergreater than than thethe numbersnumbers that that could could bebe absorbedabsorbed soso thatthat immenseimmense burdensburdens werewere imposed onon thethe economiceconomic and and social social fabric fabric of of the the urban urban areas: areas. AtAt thethe samesame timetime thethe emphasis onon urbanurban development leftleft untouched the the problems problems ofof poverty poverty in in ruralrural areas wherewhere the majority ofof thethe peoplepeople in developingdeveloping countriescountries live.

ThereT here isis now now increasingincreasing efforteffort toto solvesol ve somesome ofof thesethese problemsproblems throughthrough aa comprehen-comprehen­ sive ruralrural developmentdevelopment approach.approach. In the words ofof PresidentPresident Nyerere ofof Tanzania at the World ConferenceConference onon AgrarianAgrarian Reform and Rural DevelopmentDevelopment inin July 1979: "A"A policypolicy ofof rural developmentdevelopment is aa policypolicy ofof nationalnational development. YouYou cannotcannot have 'rural'rural development' development' as anan extra,extra, tagged tagged on on toto thethe otherother policies policies of of Government. Government. ThatThat would would be be a acontinuation continuation of whatwhat wewe havehave been doingdoing untiluntil now.now. Rural DevelopmentDevelopment mustmust bebe a description ofof thethe whole strategystrategy ofof growthgrowth - thethe approach approach to to development, development, andand thethe prismprism through through whichwhich all policies are seen,seen, judged,judged, andand givengiven prioritylJ.priority".

At the same ConferenceConference it waswas recognized that "diversification"di versification ofof rural economiceconomic activities, includingincluding integratedintegrated crop-livestockcrop-livestock development,development, fisheriesfisheries and and aquacultureaquaculture andand integrated forestry development,development, isis essentialessential for for broadbased broadbased ruralrural development" development" 2/.

This newnew approach hashas somesome majormajor policypolicy implicationsimplications for for forestry. forestry. TheThe advantages advantages of wood as as aa renewablerenewable resource,resource, thethe presencepresence in in forests forests of of some some 90% 90% ofof continental continental biomass andand 60% ofof continentalcontinental primaryprimary production 11,3/, andand the absenceabsence ofof sustainablesustainable alternative usesuses forfor manymany soilssoils makemake forestryforestry anan essentialessential element element in in development.development.

1/ HansjitrgHansjurg Steinlin.Stein lin • TheThe role role of of forestry forestry in in rural rural development, development, Applied Applied Sciences Sciences and and development, 13,13, 1979,1979, 13.p. 11.1I. 'f.12/ FAO,FAO. World World Conference Conference on on Agrarian Agrarian Reform Reform and and Rural Rural Development, Development, RomeRome 12-20 JulyJuly 1979,1979, Report,Report, Rome, 1979, p.p. 3.3. 113/ H.H. Lieth Lieth and and R.H.R.H. WhitakerWhitaker (ed.),(ed.), PrimaryPrimary Productivity Productivity ofof thethe Biosphere,Biosphere, SpringerSpringer Verlad, Berlin,Berlin, 1973.1973. 2

The JakartaJakarta Declaration,Declaration, adoptedadopted inin 19781978 by the Eighth World ForestryForestry Congress (the themetheme ofof whichwhich was was "Forest "Forest for for People"),People"), statesstates that "the"the CongressCongress paid particularparticular attention to the role whichwhich forests cancan playplay inin improvingimproving the conditions forfor agriculturalagricultural and livestock production, for instanceinstance throughthrough shelterbelts, regulationregulation of of waterflow, waterflow, erosion control, asas wellwell asas aa sourcesource of of supplementarysupplementary animal fodder inin drydry periods"periods". . .1/4/ None ofof thesethese contributionscontributions isis aa newnew discovery.discovery. TheThe noveltynovelty lies inin aa moremore widespreadwidespread recognition ofof thethe potentialpotential of of forestry forestry supportsupport for for agriculture,agriculture, especiallyespecially as regards thethe small farmer. TheThe availability availability of of hitherto hitherto little little known known speciesspecies with with highhigh growth ratesrates and multiple usesuses bringbring resultsresults far earlierearlier than than seemedseemed possiblepossible before.before. In the past, prioritypriority for for the the policing policing ofof marketablemarketable forestsforests andand forfor thethe establishmentestablishment of industrial plantations hashas resultedresulted inin insufficientinsufficient attentionattention toto thethe protectionprotection of commer-commer­ cially less valuablevaluable woodlandswoodlands andand of of trees trees outsideoutside forests.forests. Recent FAO studiesstudies !i/5/ indicated that the worldworld is currentlycurrently losing losing aboutabout 7 million ha a yearyear ofof closedclosed tropicaltropical forest, outout ofof aa totaltotal ofof moremore thanthan 1,1001, 100 millionmillion ha. Considerable areasareas of of open open woodlandwoodland are alsoalso beingbeing deforested, and it is thesethese openopen areasareas thatthat are closestclosest toto ruralrural populations.populations. Lack of healthy relations relations between between foresters foresters andand forestforest neighboursneighbours (agriculturists)(agriculturists) hashas addedadded to the difficulty ofof safeguardingsafeguarding resources,resources, andand thethe compartmentalizedcompartmentalized sectoralsectoral divisiondi vision of forestry andand agricult-uralagricultural services hashas hinderedhindered collaborationcollaboration inin promotingpromoting integrated forms ofof land use wherewhere thethe productionproduction of trees,trees, annualannual cropscrops andand livestocklivestock areare combined.combined.

There areare manymany political,political, economic,economic, institutionalinstitutional andand technicaltechr.ical problems to be over­over- come before all wood-hungrywood-hungry communitiescommunities can can be be helped helped to to produce produce trees, trees, beforebefore agricuagricul- 1- ture andand forestry cancan reachreach theirtheir appropriateappropriate levellevel ofof integration,integration, andand beforebefore all thosethose landsla.nds that that are are oror should bebe forestedforested cancan bebe protectedprotected andand managed. managed. TheseThese activitiesactivities are, however, complementary.complementary.. TheThe economic economic and and social social development development of of farmingfarm ing peoplepeople willwill take much ofof thethe pressurepressure offoff forests, andand the the improvementimprovement ofof forestryforestry willwill contributecontribute directly-directly oror indirectlyindirectly toto thethe well-beingwell-being ofof thethe wholewhole nation. The next section of this chapterchapter anal-yzesanalyzes somesome ofof thethe principalprincipal benefitsbenefits thatthat forestryforestry can provide andand thethe threatthreat to the future if appropriateappropriate national forest policiespolicies areare notnot adopted. TheThe elements elements required required in in a anew new balanced balanced development development areare thenthen describeddescribed withwith examples of successfulsuccessful activities thatthat couldcould be more widelywidely diffuseddiffused in in the the future. future. AA framework is outlined for actionaction thatthat couldcould lead to a fuller contributioncontribution of forestry toto rural development.development. HISTORICAL CONTEXTCONTEXT In earliest times times when when both both density- density andand rate ofof growthgrowth ofof populationpopu lation were very lowlow the forests werewere aa readyready sourcesource ofof food,food, fuelfuel and materials forfor mankind.mankind. However,However, asas population grewgrew andand societysociety becamebecame moremore industrializedindustrialized and urbaniurbanized,z ed, thethe situationsituation alsoalso increased inin complexity.complexity .. In the developed countriescountries the forests havehave becomebecome primarilyprimarily suppliers suppliers of of wood wood toto industry, andand providers ofof secondarysecondary benefits asas recreation areasareas for for the the urban urban population.population .. Agriculture hashas becomebecome heavilyheavily dependentdependent on non-renewable energy-intensiveenergy-intensive inputs, suchsuch as chemicalchemical fertilizers andand farmfarm machinery,machinery, andand thethe useuse ofof forestfopest productsproducts byby the rural population isis littllittlee moremore thanthan thatthat byby thethe urbanurban population. TheThe competition competition forfor landland useuse does not appearappear toto bebe acuteacute anyany more. more. InIn westernwestern Europe, for example,exarnple, thethe area underunder forests hashas increasedincreased by by aboutabout 10%10% duringduring thethe lastlast 15 yearsyears and itit seems that there are seldom any major conflictsconflicts withwith other potential users ofof thethe land.land.

4/ FAOFAO "Jakarta"Jakarta Declaration". Declaration". Final Document,Document 8th World ForestryForestry Congress,Congress, Rome,Rome, p. 11 (para.(para. 5).5). .2/5/ J.P. LanlyLanly andand J. C16ment.Clement. PresentPresent andand FutureFuture ForestForest and Plantation Areas in thethe Tropics, FO:FO: Misc/79/1,Misc/79/1, FAO, FAa, Rome, Rome, JanuaryJanuary 1979. 1979. 3

In the developingdevelopinCJ countriescountries the situation is quitequite different.different. Over half thethe populationpopulation still livelive inin ruralrural areasareas and and areare primarily primarily engaged engaged inin agriculture.agriculture. In some places thethe highhigh density of population isis leadingleading to a shortageshortage ofof av-ailableavailable landland forfor cultivationcultivation andand thethe forestsforests are beingbeing clearedcleared increasingly- increasingly rapidly-.rapidly. Where thethe searchsearch for landland hashas beenbeen pushedpushed intointo areas withwith steepsteep slopesslopes oror shallowshallow toptop soils,soils, erosionerosion and and soilsoil degradationdegradation hadhad nearly alwaysal ways been the inevitableinevitable result result.. Furthermore,Furthermore, increasing increasing quantities quantities ofof tropicaltropical timbertimber areare beingbeing extracted forfor exportexport andand for useuse inin locallocal industrialindustrial undertakings,undertakings. It hashas frequentlyfrequently happenedhappened that neither thethe logginglogginq compancompaniesi es nnoror thethe forestforest authorities have ensured regeneration or replanting. Furthermore,Furthermore, forest forest services services are are usuall-y usually insufficiently insufficiently funded funded and and staffedstaffed toto cope with thesethese problems. TheThe potential potential supply supply ofof forestforest productsproducts toto whichwhich rural peoplepeople have been accustomed, andand especiallyespecially thethe fuelwood fuel wood whichwhich isis their mainmain sourcesource of of energy-, energy, has consequentlyconsequently been greatlygreatly reduced.reduced. 1tIt is unproductiveunproducti ve to try toto apportionapportion blame for whatwhat has gone wrongwrong in in thethe past.past. WhatWhat is importantimportant nc-)wnow is is that that the the progressiprogressive ve deterioration ofof landland causedcaused byby deforestationdeforestation shouldshould be arrested andthat andthat the the potential potential contribution c ontribution ofof forestryforestry to to development development shouldshould bebe fullyfully exploited. TheThe fact fact is is that that the the essE...ntial essential rolrolee of forestry inin integratedintegrated ruralrural development development has notnot yetyet beenbeen sufficientlysufficiently understood.understood.

THE ROLEROLE OF FORES1FORESTS S

There areare three three main main way-s ways inIn whichwhich forestry-forestry contributes toto ruralrural development; development: - maintainingmaintaining itsits ecological balances, - increasing thethe supplysupply ofof products forfor locallocal consumption,consumption, andand - improvinginproving thethe benefitsbenefits fromfrom industrialindustrial uses of timber. These are illustratedillustrated inin FigureFigure 1 andand apply as muchmuch coto developed as toto developingdevelopinCJ countries, thoughthough thisthis chapterchapter isis concerned concerned with with theirtheir implications implications for for developing developing countries unlessunless specificallyspecifically statedstated otherwise.

Under lIecological"ecological effects"effects" are includedincluded somesome of the major conservationconservation measuresmeasures necessary toto ensureensure catchment catchment protection,protection, soilsoil erosion erosion control control and and the the maintenance maintenance andand safeguarding of suppliessupplies of usualusual species of flora andand fauna.fauna . All thesethese factorsfactors are ofof concern to thethe maintenance of aa viable farming system, thethe productsproducts ofof whichwhich are includedincluded under "indigenouslIindigenous consumptionconsumption".ll • TheThe supplysupply ofof fuelwoodfuel wood andand charcoalcharcoal is thethe mainmain source of energy for thethe ruralrural populationpopulation andand is alsoalso importantimportant inin manymany placesplaces toto thethe urbanurban communities. LocalLocal supplies supplies ofof forestforest products products are are the the principal principal sources sources of of building building materials, fencingfencing and furniturefurniture inin ruralrural areas; andand inin somesome places places other other products products such as honey,honey, silksilk andand woodwood forfor carving are majormajor sourcessources ofof income.income.

How farfar trees whichwhich can be used for industrialindustrial purposespurposes cancan bringbring anan incomeincome toto thethe rural dwellersdwellers depends depends inin part part on on the the employment employment possibilities possibilities in in felling fellinq a.nd and extraction.extraction. More importantly, itit depends depends onon thethe economieseconomies ofof locationlocation ofof thethe processingprocessing plantplant andand inin particular whetherwhether the costs of transport of the logs are greater thanthan thethe costs ofof transporting thethe finishedfinished product.

FORE51FORESTRY RY ANDAND AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE The ecological effects of forestryforestry areare of of vitalvital importanceimportance toto ruralrural development development inin general and agriculturalagricultural developmentdevelopment in in particular. particular. BecauseBecause of of their their sheer sheer size,size, treestrees have a major rolerole toto playplay inin thethe cyclecycle byby whichwhich nutrientsnutrients passpass fromfrom thethe soil soil through through plantsplants and animals back to the soil.soil. TheThe slow slow removal removal of of nutrients nutrients through through leaching leaching byby rainwaterrainwater is compensatedcompensated byby the steady releaserelease of of minerals minerals through through the the weathering weathering of of the the underlying underlying rock. TreeTree roots roots reach reach far far down, down, bringing bringing up up water water and and nutrients nutrients from from depths depths thatthat fewfew smaller plantsplants cancan reach. In addition, manym a ny tropical species ofof treestrees belong belong toto thethe family of Leguminosaeequminosae whosewhose roots harbourharbour bacteriabacteria that that enable enable nitrogennitrogen toto bebe fixedfixed from thethe atmosphere. TheThe canopy canopy ofof foliage protects thethe soilsoil fromfrom thethe direct impactimpact of sun, rainrain and wind, and the fallingfalling leavesleaves and fruitfruit provide a regular flowflow of nutrinutrients.ents. 4

FigureFigure 1. The rolerole of forestsforests

ControlledCJnllolttd runoff,r~no". TTicn.entCatchment haterlOater aLPOireS, I~pp il es. G:eletten~ ~c t !~t ' on trr1121,0^.,r" ' J l lo~. settIe" ltferldItyl!,III, oxygenO l,~ ~n

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r;to..,nE.~ ~~~'" 2 . OudO.ngi,~ul l c , nll. 80,1d,n0 coles tOr\.00sIr,e/ds,~r ~~I,r. ' ree-.rgI/':.r.,

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Rt=~,,RecuC1,0^: ,C " ~i agrit!n : 'fOr~r ',le~l­*.ttel- Crarcoal I'IJ',rnal,ng,r. r . enern1:315.(n~~":3:~. P~po.y,:nyl' )""11 COloirde~ lor,~ .· rPVC).IPVC)' 1!rdo,, rOil'.t ll~

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lJmbe'. loIncry,to,n~I ,. lurn.lure.IUln .!urt. [inIndustrial dustrial usesusn Sahlogs pac.rg,p , ~ . ,r •. shptord.rg,~h ' '' ~~''J , n • rodong,. m,",n •. CcoostruO!dan,OII \lr u (: l,On . e!eepers~ ! Ct~erl

I'frt,,,jptj.I, .. O~~. yelee!'~t;U : Ntettufe,t ~'n ,: ,,·e . --IVerter Iola .:on:on!l l,nt'.ne,s,~. construct.oncon~I'u~l,on

r,:osarart.N. .. ·.~"nl. Paportrolr!p~O' ·,~ "J ' J . olln:";2prrntiog and3n~ wrd.ngWlt :."& paperpape r Pulpwood Conla.nerS,(onl~ . ner~. OarPH 'log.ng..i i:.n •. C.5.cl. ,lIl ; ~ ' ... C ~hll~tH. te.:tent.les.tel andJn~ clz,thingcl~lhin l

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Source:Source World Bank. Bank. FForestry:orestry: SectorSector PolicyPolicy Paper,Paper, Washington, D.C. February 1978, p. 16.16. 5

Forest vegetationvegetation alsoalso stronglystrongly influencesinfluences the stream flowsflows on watersheds byby inter­inter- cepting rainfall so thatthat itit reachesreaches thethe forestforest floor floor more more gently gently and and doesdoes notnot causecause comption.ccmpaotion. The The presence presence of of litter litter and and humus humus further further enhances enhances the the infiltration infiltration intointo thethe soil, whichwhich is aa keykey hydrologicalhydrological propertyproperty affectingaffecting surface surface run-off.run-off. DeepDeep and large root nets, bothboth livingIi ving andand decayed,decayed, actact as as underground underground storagestorage which which maintainsmaintains thethe yieldyield andand quality ofof water,water, thusthus shorteningshortening the dry season and attenuating itsits damage. TheThe reductionreduction of surfacesurface waterwater run-offrun-off alsoalso meansmeans fewerfewer andand lessless violent violent floods.floods. The establisl-rnentestablishnent of of agriculture agriculture tends tends to to break break this this cycle. cycle. ScarceScarce nutrients are concentrated in the very parts ofof cropcrop plantsplants thatthat areare removed removed for for human human consumption,consumption, and thethe transfertransfer of eelementslements fromfrom deeperdeeper layerslayers to thethe top-soiltop-soil isis reduced.reduced. TheThe surfacesurface is laidla id barebare betweenbetween harvest andand sowing, often when the the sun sun is is hottesthottest oror stormsstorms most violent. ForForestest exploitation,exploitation, unless very intensive, is quitequite different inin itsits effects, forfor wood i sis preciselyprecisely that partpart of the tree in which nutrients nutrients are are leastleast abundant. TheThe draindrain on the system cancan bebe furtherfurther reducedreduced ifif notnot onlyonly leavesleaves andand small branchesbranches butbut alsoalso thethe nutrient-rich barkbark isis removedremoved from logs before transport. TheThe baring baring ofof thethe soilsoil isis muchmuch llessess frequentfrequent andand less completecomplete than inin agriculture. The oldest known system system for for restoringrestoring the fertilityfertility of agricultural soil isis non-non­ continuous culticultivation. vation. After two oror three yearsyears ofof cropping,cropping, thethe sitesite is is abandoned abandoned andand natural vegetationvegetation returns.returns. UnderUnder moistmoist tropicaltropical conditionsconditions forest rapidlyrapidly re-establishes itself and the nutrientnutrient cyclcycles es areare restored, makingmaking it possiblepossible to clear thethe treestrees andand plant new cropscrops afterafter 10 toto 2020 years. years. InIn temperatetemperate regionsregions thethe returnreturn ofof thethe forest isis sslower,lower, butbut itit isis not necessary to waitwait so long beforebefore recultivating,recultivating, because thethe raterate at which nutrients nutrients areare lostlost underunder agricultureagriculture isis slower inin aa mildmild climate.climate. BeforeBefore thethe introduction ofof cropcrop rotationsrotations andand manuring,manuring, temperatetemperate zonezone farmers farmers therefore practised a short fallowfallow whichwhich diddid notnot revertrevert to forest, andand which which theythey werewere ableable toto useuse forfor lowlow intensity grazing. It hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated that that between between 1957 1957 andand 1977 1977 thethe numbernumber ofof peoplepeople livingliving byby ncn-continuousnm-continuous culti cultivation vation in in tropical tropical forestsforests increasedincreased fromfrom aboutabout 200200 millionmillion toto aboutabout 240 millionmillion people,people, or some 30%30% ofof thethe totaltotal population of of the the zone. zone. fl./ 6/ TheThe densitydensity ofof settlement va.riesvaries greatlygreatly fromfrom localitylocality toto localitylocality accordingaccording toto populationpopulation pressure andand to soil and rainfall, fromfrom aboutabout 33 toto 300300 persons perper km2.km 2. Increasing demanddemand for food hashas been met partly byby movingmoving intointo newnew areas areas ofof forest,forest, and partly byby shortening thethe fallowfallow period, oror even even eliminatingelimina ting itit and and goinggoing overover toto continuous cucultivation.ltivation. Both processesprocesses leadlead toto a declinedecline in productivity.producti vity. NewlyNewly clearedcleared ssitesites werewere oftenoften not used before preciselyprecisely because they were lessless suitable, andand existingexisting sites yieldyield lessless asas thethe fallowfallow is reduced.reduced. TheThe process process is is further further aggravated aggravated byby thethe tendency toto cucultivatelti vate thethe soilsoil forfor longer periods andand moremore thoroughly,thoroughly, beforebefore releasingreleasing it toto fallow. TreeTree roots, roots, suckers suckers and and seeds seeds are are thus thus destroyed, destroyed, permittingpermitting weeds weeds ratherrather than forestforest to colonizecolonize thethe area.area. In this mannermanner tens of millions of hectares of forestforest land inin southeastsoutheast AsiaAsia have beenbeen lostlost toto alang-alangalang-alang grass.grass. TheThe expansion expansion ofof suchsuch wastewaste landslands togethertogether withwith fallingfalling productivity,productivity, increases thethe demanddemand for fresh landland inin aa viciousvicious circle ofof deforestation and sitesite deterioration.

InTn more aridarid zones,zones, grazinggrazing ratherrather than than cultivation cultivation isis the the principal principal use use to to which which forest land isis transferred. At a low intensity,intensity, thethe introductionintroduction of animals into forests is notnot harmful,harmful, andand may- may even confer benefits byby stimulating thethe nitrogennitrogen cyclecycle andand preventing groundground vegetationvegetation from from building building up up to to become become a afire fire hazard. hazard. IncreasingIncreasing grazing pressure, however,however, preventsprevents the the regeneration regeneration ofof woodywoody speciesspecies, andand causes thethe slow conversionconversion ofof forest forest toto savannasavanna or or grassland. grassland. TheThe processprocess is is often ofte~ speededspeeded up byby deliberate firing to obtainobtain a a short-Iishort-lived ved burstburst ofof grassgrass production.production. This is a very ancientancient phenomenon and and has has long long since since reduced reduced thethe forestsforests of al'idarid regionsregions toto mere relics. fl./6/ UNESCO.UNESCO. TropicalTropical ForestForest Ecosystems, Ecosystems, Natural Natural Resources Resources ResearchResearch XIV,XIV , Paris,Paris , 1978, p. 469.469. 6

The removal of forests forfor cropcrop oror livestock livestock productionproduction hashas inin manymany cases beenbeen disastrous, exposingexposing the soilsoil toto destructiondestruc tion by rain, windwind and sun.sun. UninterceptedUninte r cepted rain reachesreaches thethe soil fastefaster,r, andand asas aa barebare surfacesurface absorbsabsorbs rainrain moremore slowly,slowl y, moremore waterwater runs off, carryingcarrying soilsoil particlesparticles which which inin turnturn addadd toto thethe \voter'swaterls erosiveerosi ve power.power. Erosion is worstworst wherewhere therethere isis aa pronouncedpronounced dry season,season, wherewhere peoplepeople or o r grazinggrazing ananimalsimals trampltramplee the ground,ground, where ththereere areare mountains, and where ththereere iiss hheavyeavy preci­preci- pitation in a short period.period. TheseThes econditions conditions are are often often combined combined inin thethe developingdeveloping countries, particulparticularlya rly those with aa n10nsoonmonsoon c limatclimate.e . InIn thethe driest driest lands,lands, similar destructiondestruction iiss effeceffectedt ed by wind erosion.erosion. ErosiErosionon not onlyonly destrdestroysoys thethe soilsoil that hashas beenbeen cleared,cleared, butbut also inflictsinflicts graveg r a ve damagedamage onon land,land, cropscrops and structuresstructures downstreamdownstream or downwind.downwind. IrrigationIrrigation andand drainagedrainage channels may bebecomecome choked andand dams dams blocked blocked with with silt. silt. MuchMuch water isis lostlost toto bothboth farmfarminging and forestryforestry byby runoffrunoff toto thethe seasea oror toto undergroundunder g round depositsdeposits insteadinstead ofof beingbeing stored inin the soil for slo\vslow rrelease.e lease. Likewise, sand and dustdust sstormstorms cancan covercover farmlandfarm land wiwith th sheetssheets or dunes.dunes. Erosion isis not the onlyonly prprocessocess thatthat robsrobs soilsoil ooff itsits fertility.fertility. Rain leachesleaches nutnutrientsrients down from from surface surface layerslayers and, ifif theythey area r e notnot speedilyspeedily takentaken up by roots and returned to the surfsurfaceace in the form of plant and aanimalnimal debris,debris, theythey are removedremoved from the system by groundwater. ThThoughough l alargerge amountsamounts of of for forestest areare beingbeing transferredtransferred to agagriculture,ricultu re , muchmuch agricultu-agricultu­ ral la.ndland isis at the same timetime beingbeing lostlost throughthrough erosion andand soilsoil degradation.degradation. Reliable statistics areare not not available, available, but but many many experienced experien ced peoplepeople believebelieve thatthat thethe netnet effecteffect hashas bbeeneen toto rreducee du ce thethe total total potenti potentiala l world world far farmingming area area.. ThereThere aare,r e , ofof course, cases inin which oneone country's country's lossloss hashas beenbeen anoanother'sthe r' s gagain,in, forfo r exampleexampl e the Nile Valley's formeformerr fertilifertilizationzation by ssiltilt from easteast Africa,Africa, butbut suchsuch examplesexamples are exceptional.exceptional.

Though itit hahass nnotot beenbeen provedproved thatthat deforestationdeforestation hashas a substantial local effect onon rainfall, therethe r e is is evidence evidence that that the th ecumulative cumulative effect effec t onon thethe globalglobal atmosphericatmospheric cyclescycles of wwaterater and energyenergy maymay be be co considerable.ns iderable . Similarly,Similarly, thethe exact exact contribution contribution ofof defores-defores­ tation and forforestest burningburning toto thethe increaseincrease ofof carboncarbon dioxidedi oxide inin thethe atmosphereatmosphere isis notnot yetyet known. AtAt the locallocal level level it isi s clear c lear that that the the presence presence of of trees trees affects affects microclin-iate, microclimate, lowering exextremestremes of air temperatures,temperatures, raising raising humidity-, humidity, and and reducing reducing wind wind speedsspeeds at surfaces urface level.level. TheseThese bring bring a a substantial substantial reduction reduction inin thethe raterate ofof waterwater lossloss fromfrom fieldfield crops,c r o ps, andand hencehence an increase inin agriculturalagricu Itural productivity.producti vity. TheThe inclusion inclusion ofof shelter beltsbelts and windbreakswindbreaks mustmust thereforetherefore bebe regarded as an integral partpart ofof farming.farming. In additionaddition to increasingincreasing thethe yieldyield ofof cropscrops andand livestocklivestock theythey havehave thethe furtherfurther advantage advantage ofof producingproducing fuelwoodfu e l wood as as well.well. TheThe moremore adverseadverse thethe climaticclimatic conditions,conditions, thethe more substantials ubstantial thethe effectse ffects of shelterbelts.

ENERGY FROM THETHE FORESIF ORESf

About 880%0 % ofof allall thethe woodwood cut in developingdeveloping countries countries iiss usedused asas fuel. AA specialspecial estimate estimate made made for for 1974 1974 showed s howed thatthat fuelwoodfuel wood constitutedconstituted aboutabout aa quarter ofof thethe totaltotal energy consumedconsumed in these countriescountries thoughthough thethe proportiproportionon varied widelywidely fromfl'om underunder 10%10% in thethe AsianAsian centrally plannedplanned economies to nearlynearl y 60%60% in the Africa regionregion (Table(Table 1). InTn the developingdeveloping countries,countries, the greater partpart ofof thethe 2,0002,000 millionmillion or soso peoplepeople who who liveIi ve inin thethe ruralrural areasa reas depend depend mainly, mainly, and and often often wholly,wholly , on fuelfuelwood wood for cookingcooking andand heating.heating. ApartApart from domesticdomestic use,use, it isis alsoalso thethe principalprincipal sourcesource ofof energyenergy forfor manymany ruralrura l industries,industries, suchsuch asas potteries, potteries, brickworks, brickworks, smithies smithies and and the the curing curing ofof meat,meat fishfish and tobacco.tobacco. . , _

7

Table 1. Fuelwood and roundwood consumg;tionconsumption andand energyenergy fromfrom fuel fuel wood, wood, developing countries, 1974 E f developing countries, 1974 Energynergy fromrom Total Fuelwood fuelfuelwood1/ wood 11 Share ofof CanmercialCommercial Share d .r.o.u.ndxvio0o6round woodd Total roundwood energy Total totaltotal 2,/2/ 6 "" x 10 m3,." . % ... x 101510 15 joules % DevelopingI::eveloping marketmarket economieseconomies 1,336 1,145 86 22,038 11,074 33 Africa 299 268 90 1,848 2,594 58 Far EastEast 668 577 86 7,577 5,579 42 Latin A.mericaAmerica 298 244 82 9,383 2,358 20 Near EastEast 71 56 79 3,230 543 14 Asian centrallycentrally plannedplanned economieseconomies 206 154 75 16,790 1,485 8

TOTAL lEVELOPli'GDEVELOPIN COUNTRIESCOUNfRlES 1,542 1,299 84 38,828 12,559 24

3 . .!I1/ AssumingAssuming 11 m3 m ofof fuelwoodfuel wood contains 9.67 xx 10109 joules. --],1 2/ Commercial Commercial energy energy plusplus energy from fuelwood.fuel wood. Source: FAO.FAO. TheThe State State of of Food Food andand Agriculture 1976.1976. Rome,Rome, 1977,1977, p. 90.90.

In thethe form ofof charcoalcharcoal woodwood is aa fuelfuel forfor manymany ofof thethe 500500 million urban dwellers in developing countries.countries. It is alsoalso usedused inin smallsmall enterprisesenterprises inin townstowns suchsuch as bakeriesbakeries andand laundries.laundries. TheThe production production ofof charcoalcharcoal byby traditionaltraditional methodsmethods is, however,however, veryvery wasteful, wasteful, sinces ince 50%50% toto 80% ofof thethe energyenergy content ofof wood is is lostlost inin the process ofof carbonization.carbonization. To supply a given amount ofof energy energy inin charcoalcharcoal thereforetherefore requires fromfrom twotwo toto five times as muchmuch woodwood andand correspondinglycorrespondingly moremore forest.forest. In some cases, villagersvillagers have have beenbeen forced by the need toto earnearn income toto produceproduce charcoalcharcoal forfor salesale to urban markets instead of conserving their woodwood resourcesresources toto meetmeet theirtheir own own futurefuture needs.needs. Population growthgrowth andand risingrising levels of livingIi ving have causedcaused ·manymany forestsforests to be used faster thanthan theythey can regenerate themselves. Ideally, onlyonly fallenfallen branchesbranches areare takentaken forfor fuel. TheyThey areare already already air air dry dry and and yield yield moremore energyenergy perper unitunit of weight. AboveAbove all,all, their removal doesdoes notnot affectaffect forest forest growth.growth. AsAs demanddemand rises,rises, however,however, pressurepressure grows grows toto loplop or fell livingliving trees,trees, legally legally or or illegally, illegally, and and over-exploitation over-exploitation can can rapidly rapidly destroy destroy not not only only the forest butbut any residual woodywoody vegetation.vegetation. TheThe processprocess isis exacerbated exacerbated by by somesome ofof thethe new methodsmethods ofof agriculture.agriculture. MechanizationMechanization and and monoculturemonoculture bothboth encourage the disappear-disappear­ ance of intercropping systems employing trees,trees, whichwhich are aa featurefeature ofof muchmuch traditionaltraditional agriculture. MoreMore productive productive strains strains of ofcoffee coffee and and tea tea have have been been evolved evolved which which growgrow better inin thethe openopen thanthan under a canopycanopy of shadeshade trees. The search forfor firewoodfirewood isis oneone ofof thethe mainmain causescauses ofof deforestationdeforestation inin thethe vicinityvicinity ofof human settlementssettlements andand thethe consequenceconsequence isis thatthat peoplepeople havehave toto gogo furtherfurther toto find find wood.wood. It isis notnot uncommonuncommon now forfor villagers toto havehave toto spendspend aa wholewhole dayday going toto aa source ofof wood,wood. collecting it and brinqinqbringing it back,back. onlyonly toto havehave aa fewfew days' supply.supply. It has beenbeen estimated thatthat inin somesome areasareas of of easteast Africa Africa it it now now takes takes 250 250 to to 300300 man-daysman-days aa yea.ryear ofof labour toto supplysupply householdhousehold with firewood. Y7/ This is aa tasktask forfor women women inin manymany societies and the growing labourlabour burdenburden isis therefore aa majormajor impediment impediment toto thethe improvementimprovement ofof their lot.lot •

.1/7/ E.M.E.M. Mnava.Mnava. VillageVillage afforestation afforestation in in Dodoma Dodoma District. Background PaperPaper for thethe Second FAO/SIDA ExpertExpert Consultation on Forestry for for Community Community Development, Development, Rome, 1977, p. 13.13. 8

In some areas wherewhere forestforest sources sources of of fuel fuel have have been been exhausted,exhausted, andand inin thethe absenceabsence of any other alternativealternati ve suppliessupplies ofof fuelfuel beingbeing withinwithin reach, useuse hashas beenbeen mademade ofof otherother organic fuels, suchsuch asas cropcrop residuesresidues oror dung.dung. AsAs organic organic manure manure is is usually usually thethe onlyonly available soilsoil conditioner,conditioner, ititss use for burTlingburning lowerslowers soil soil fertility. fertility. Thus,Thus, onceonce again,agaln, the pressure onon forestlandforestland contributescontributes to to -declining declining agriculturalagricultural yields.yields. The reduction in fuel supplies is alsoa lso highlyhighly detrimentaldetrimental to nutritionanutritionall levelslevels 8/.8/. None ofof thethe principalprincipal foodfood cropscrops isis palatable or eveneven fullyfully digestibledigestible unlessunless cooked.cooked. There areare reportsreports from from a anumber number of of areas areas of of peasant peasant communities communities that that now now eat eat only only oneone cooked meal a day wherewhere formerlyformerly theythey hadhad two,two, andand ofof thethe cultivationcultivation ofof vegetablesvegetables thanthan can be eaten raw in placeplace ofof thosethose thatthat mustmust bebe cooked.cooked. ReducedReduced cooking cooking timestimes havehave beenbeen found inin westwest AfricaAfrica toto decreasedecrease the biological availabavailabilityility ofof proteinsproteins inin staplestaple foods.foods. 9/ In varvariousi ous countries the intestinal parasparasitei te loadsloads havehave beenbeen observedobserved toto increase becausebeca~se of the ingestion ofof partiallypartially cooked meatmeat asas a result ofof shortagesshortages ofof fuel.fuel. FOREST MATERIALSMATERIALS Timber isi s aa majormajor elementelement inin thethe industrialindustrial economyeconomy as well as in the life of the ruralrural population. It cancan inin factfact bebe usedused atat anyany levellevel ofof technologytechnology forfor aa widewide rangerange ofof purposes-purposes" from building materials,materials, fencingfencing and furniture,furniture, to farm implements,implements , carts andand water-water­ wheels, eveneven to carving. At a higherhiCJher levels of technology, timbertimber isis the raw material for aa greatgreat varietyvariety ofof industries, includingincluding sawmillingsawmilling andand thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof such productsproducts as plywood,plywood, block-block­ board, particleboard,particleboard, fibreboard,fibreboard, pulp,pulp, paper paper and and paperboard, paperboard, celluloidcelluloid andand" rayon.rayon. Many speciesspecies ofof tropicaltropical hardwood are are greatlygreatly appreciated as decorativedecorative woods,woods, or becausebecause of exceptional stabstabilityility oror durability, oror their their freedom freedom from from flaws flaws and and the the easeease with with whichwhich they can be worked.worked.

Between 1968 andand 19781978 thethe valuevalue ofof exportsexports ofof industrialindustrial roundwoodroundwood and forest productsproducts fromfrom thethe developingdeveloping market economies rose moremore thanthan fourfoldfourfold (Table(T able 2). Three quartersquarters ofof thethe volumevolume exportedexported is in thethe form of logs, soso thatthat littlelittle ofof thethe valuevalue added accruesaccrues to thethe country ofof origin.origin. 10/ However,However , recentrecent developments developments indicate a faster growthgrowth of exports ofof processed productsproducts thanthan of logs, withwith an increase inin theirtheir share ofof thethe totaltotal valuevalue from from 44% 44% inin 19681968 toto 51%51 % inin 1978.1978. Much ofof thethe exploexploitationitation ofof tropicaltropical hardhardwoodswoods hashas takentaken thethe formform ofof timbertimber miningmmmg -- the removal of all valuablevaluable material withoutwithout concern for regenerationregeneration oror improvement.improveme nt. Poorly conceived oror badlybadly drafteddrafted contractscontracts havhavee largelylargely beenbeen responsibleresponsible forfor tractstracts ofof forest beingbeing mademade over asas concessionsconcessions onon short-termshort-term leases leases to to logging logging companies companies without without the prescription of conservation measures.measures. EvenEven where where contractscontracts werewere properlyproperly drafteddrafted many forestforest services havehave notnot beenbeen adequatelyadequately staffed, equipped€CJ.uipped oror organized to supervise their application. 11/.11/.

~/8/ G.G. Poulsen. Poulsen. Wood-fuel Wood-fuel and and nutrition:nutrition: the complementaritycomplementarity ofof treetree covercover and and food food supply, InIn .ManMan and and Tree Tree inin TropicalTropical Africa,Africa, InternationalInternational Development Development ResearchResearch Centre, Ottawa,Ottawa, 1978, p. 13.13. " 9/ W.M.W.M. Floor. Floor. The Th eenergy energy sector sector of of the the Sahelian Sahelian countries.countries. Policy PlanningPlanning Section, Ministry ofof ForeignForeign Affairs,Affairs, TheThe Netherlands,Netherlands, P.p. 9. 10/ S.L. Pringle.Pringle. Tropical Tropical moist moist forests forests in inworld world demand, demand, supply supply andand trade,trade, - Unasylva, Vol. 28, nos.nos. 112-113,112-113, 1976,1976, pp.PP. 106-118.106-118. 11/11/ F.F. Schmithiisen. Schrnithiisen. Forest utilizationutilization contractscontracts onon publicpublic landland in the tropics, Unasylva,Unasylva, Vol. 28, nos. 112-113,112-113, 1976,1976, pp. 52-73.52-73. 9

Table 22 ProductionProduction, consumptionconsum tion and grossross exportsex arts ofof industrialindustrial roundwood roundwood and forestforest products,products, developingdeveloping marketmarket economies,economies, 1968-7819 -78 Industrial Industrial Sawnwood Panels Paper roundwood Sawnwood Panels Paper 1968 1978 1968 1978 1968 1978 1968 1978 ------~ --- , ...... < ..... millionmillion -17.1-13m ...... , ...... million metric tonstons Production 141 226 33 52 4004.0 10.6 6.6 15.1 Consumption 118 189 31 50 2,82.8 8.0 10.5 19.9 GrossCross exportsexports 29 48 5.55,5 9.39,3 1.71,7 4.0 0.5 1.31,3 . , .... , . , •...... • ...... million $$ Value ofof grossgross exportsexports 672 2,499 278 1,1,181 18 1 181 943 67 429

Source: FAO,FAO, YearbookYearbook ofof ForestForest Products, 1978,1978, RomeRome 1980,1980.

The ruralrural poorpoor have have gainedgained veryvery littlelittle from from thethe rapid rapid increase increase in in the the demand demand for for wood wood for industry. Not beingbeing titulartitular ownersowners of commercialcommercial forests, eveneven wherewhere they they haveha ve beenbeen sole occupiersoccupi ers forfor generations,generations, theirtheir only only benefit benefit fromfrom salessales has has been been the the opportunity opportunity forfor some employment. BeingBeing unableunable toto competecompete withwith tl-etfe prices prices paidpaid byby industrial industrial buybuyers,e rs, theythey have lost their freedomfreedom toto useuse thethe woodwood for theirtheir ownown needs.needs. In those countries of south-south­ east Asia,Asia, forfor example,example, wherewhere teakteak waswas thethe traditionaltraditional buildingbuilding material,material , villagersvillagers now now have to make do with inferior woods.woods. The cost ofof thethe increasing shortageshortage ofof woodwood cancan bebe measuredmeasured only partlypartly inin termsterms ofof the price ofof substitutessubstitutes andand thethe valuevalue ofof goods foregone.foregone. ManyMany ruralrural peoplepeople havehave turnedturned to alternativesalternati ves suchsuch asas metalmetal or or plastic plastic which which may may bebe aestheticallyaesthetically displeasingdispleasing butbut areare nevertheless practical, durabledurable and, notnot least,leas t, cheap.cheap. In some cases,cases, suchsuch asas thatthat ofof metal cans salvagedsal vaged from thethe industrialindustrial economyeconomy and beaten flatflat forfor use as roofing,roofing, thethe cost may even bebe negligible.negligible. ThereTh",re are,are, however, however, alsoalso less less tangible tangible losses losses involved involved inin the decline ofof people1speople's artifactsartifacts so necessary toto maintainmaintain their identity andand self-respect.self-respect. Indigenous woodcraft andand thethe traditionaltraditional skills thatthat gogo withwith itit havehave oftenoften been victims ofof the shortage or highhigh pricesprice s ofof thethe woodwood usedused asas raw material. In the process,process, rural occupations suchsuch asas carpentry have in many areasareas become depressed.depressed.

FOREST EMPLOYMENTEMPLOYMENT AND AND INCOME INCOME

Though forestforest have diminisheddiminished inin areaarea and accessaccess become moremore difficult,difficult, rural communities havehave had some compensating benefit from employment inin forestryforestry andand forest-forest­ based industries. SoSo far, far, there there has has been been relatively relatively little little mechanization mechanization inin forestryforestry andand logging, both becausebecause ofof thethe naturalnatural irregularityirregularity ofof treestrees and and ofof thethe terrainterrain on on which which theythey stand, andand becausebecause of their frequentfrequent remoteness fromfrom sourcessources ofof fuelfuel andand servicing for mechanical equipment.equipment, ForestersForesters and and loggers loggers have have relied relied greatly greatly on on manual manual labourlabour forfor planting, tending,tending, thinning,thinning, pruning, felling and extractingextracting trees,trees, asas wellwell asas forfor thethe harvesting of products like cork andand resin.resin. MuchMuch of of the the processing processing of of wood wood hashas alsoalso been been carried outout inin thethe forestforest oror in in smallsmall local local sawmills sawmills using using labour-intensive labour-intensive methods.methods. Table 3 illustrates thethe labourlabour requirementsrequirements forfor thethe primaryprimary processingprocessing ofof forestforest products in a number of tropical countries.

Employment onon forest forest work cancan provideprovide extraextra income forfor farmersfarmers duringduring thethe slackslack season for cropcrop production.production. SomeSome of of thethe workwork doesdoes not require muchmuch skill or training.training. It cancan be particularly convenientconvenient forfor remoteremote forestforest communities, communities, who who would would otherwiseotherwise have to go to work farfar fromfrom their homes.homes. 10

Table 3.3. Estimated labour requirementsrequirements forfor primary processing of forestforest products Man-days perper haha perper year Indigenous forest,forest, GhanaGhana 1.1.97 97 . IndigenousIndigenous hill hill forest, forest, MalaysiaMalaysia 2.11 IndigenousIndigenous swampswamp forest, forest, Malaysia 1.1.66 66 Teak plantation, NigeriaNigeria 8.87 Teak plantation, Thailand 9.82 Albizzia plantation,plantation, PhilippinesPhilippines 36.45 Gmelina plantation,plantation, Nigeria 28.77 Pine plantation, MalaysiaMalaysia (manual)(manual) 23.3523 . 35 Pine plantation, MalaysiaMalaysia (mechanized)(mechanized) 17.35 Taungya, Nigeria (teak)(teak) 1717.18. 18 Taungya, NigeriaNigeria (Gmelina)(Gmelina) 61.43 Taungya, Thailand (teak)(teak) 16.71 Tree farming,farming, PhilippinesPhilippines (Albizzia)(Albizzia) 124.36 Rubber plantation,plantation, MalaysiaMalaysia 112.48 Source: NilsNils Svanqvist.Svanqvist. EmploymentEmployment Opportunities Oooortunities inin thethe TropicalTropical MoistMoist Forest UnderUnder Alternative SilyiculturalSil vicultural SystemsSystems IncludingIncluding AgrisilAgrisilvicultural vicultural Techniques, FAO,FAO, Rome,Rome , 1976,1976, p.p. 67.

Unfortunately thisthis isis not alwaysalways thethe case.case. ForestForest work work may may onlyonly be temporary employment, oror available when therethere areare alsoalso heavyheavy seasonal demands forfor labourlabour inin agri­agri- culture. It may be farfar from the nearest villages,villages, soso thatthat workersworkers havehave eithereither toto camp for long periodsperiods awayaway from from home home or or to to travel travel substantialsubstantial distancesdistances eacheach day.day. TheThe wages are often insuffiinsufficientcient to compensate for thethe potentialpotential dangersdangers of of felling felling and and logging logging or thethe risks of heatheat strokestroke in plantation work withoutwithout shade. shade. ill 12/ Furthermore,Furthermore ,they they have have usually usually beenbeen low inin relationrelation toto thosethose inin otherother sectors,sectors, soso that that therethere have have beenbeen manymany cases wherewhere suffi-suffi­ cient labour could notnot bebe recruitedrecruited forfor establishingestablishing oror tendingtending plantations.plantations. Parallel withwith thethe growthgrowth of employment in in commercial commercial forestry, forestry, therethere hashas beenbeen a rapid increase inin employmentemployment in thethe supplysupply of firewoodfirewood andand charcoal charcoal toto urbanurban markets.markets. ill13/ This activity isis often destructive,destructive, andand in some casescases illicit, andand itit isis byby no means clear that itit can sustain the present levelslevels ofof employment. TableTable 4 gives estimates ofof thethe magnitudema.gnitude of of such such employment employment in in different different parts parts ofof Africa.Africa. InIn UpperUpper VoltaVolta thethe 325,325,000 000 man-days requiredrequired to to supply supply wood wood fuelsfuels toto Ouagadougou Ouagadougou generated income equivalent toto $520,$520,000, 000, andand furtherfurther income income ofof $2.5$ 2. 5 millionmillion waswas generatedgenerated fromfrom thethe transport andand distributiondistribution ofof woodwood fuels.

The production ofof woodwood fuels fuels for for urban urban markets markets isis alsoalso an important rural activityactivity in many partsparts of AsiaAsia andand LatinLatin America. America. ForFor example, example, charcoalcharcoal production, production, forfor bothboth indus-indus­ trial andand urban markets,markets, isis one one of of the the principal principal economic economic activitiesactivities in in the the Chaco Chaco regionregion in northern Argentina. SalesSales of of fuelwood fuel wood areare an an importantimportant sourcesource ofof incomeincome for thethe poor inin forest villagesvillages inin manymany partsparts ofof India,India, wherewhere itit has has been been found found thatthat itit isis thethe poorestpoorest in in thethe

W12/ OlavOlav Axelson.Axelson. HeatHeat StressStress in in Forest Forest Work, Work, FAO, FAO, Rome, Rome, 1974, 1974. 13/ J.E.M.J.E.M. Arnold, Arnold, Wood Wood Energy Energy and and Rural Rural Communities, Communities, EighthEighth WorldWorld Forestry Conference, Jakarta, 1978,1978, p.P. 16.16. 11

Table 4.4. Estimated ruralrural employment employment inin thethe supplysupply ofof woodwood fuels to selected urbanurban marketsrrarkets inin AfricaAfrica Urban market Annual employment BarrakoBamako,, Mali, 19741974 246,000 man-days full time 325,000 'nan-daysman-days partpart time Ouagadougou, Upper Volta, 19751975 325,000 man-days Northern cities,cities, Nigeria,Nigeria, 19741974 16,70016, 700 man-yearsman-years Maputo, Mozambique,Mozambique, 19771977 6,6,000 000 families Ghana,Ghana , 19741974 45, 000000 personspersons 111/ J,/1/ TotalTotal employmentemployment in commercialcommercial wood fuel fuel production,production, distribution andand marketing.rrarketing. Source: CanadianCanadian InternationalInternational DevelopmentDevelopment Agency.Agency. StudyStudy Mission onon ForestForest EnergyEnergy in the SahelSahel andand WestWest Africa, 2020 OctoberOctober -- 1717 DecemberDecember 1974.1974. Ottawa, 1974, p.S7,p.57, 106, 134.134. LeLe d4boisement d~boisement en en Haute Haute Volta;Volta; lesles besoins besoins de de chauffe chauffe de de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Le DéveloppementD~veloppement Voltaigue,Voltaique, 40,40, 1976, unpublishedunpublished FAO studies.studies.

community, the landless andand jobless, whowho dependdepend on sellingselling fuelwood.fuelwood. 14/14/ InIn aa numbernumber ofof countries it isis thethe poorestpoorest areas,areas twhere where physical physical and and climatic climatic conditions conditions dodo notnot permit thethe expansion ofof cropcrop or animalanimal production,production, andand thethe naturalnatural woody woody vegetationvegetation is thethe onlyonly resource, inin which which salessales of of firewoodfirewood are mostmost important.important. EmploEmploymentyment in the production of both industrial woodwood and fuelwoodfuel wood isis being increasinglyincreasingly threatened by new formsforms of mechanization asas wellwell asas by thethe degradationdegradation andand loss loss ofof forests, forests, which areare oftenoften worstworst inin preciselyprecisely those areas wherewhere surplussurplus labourlabour has the leastleast opportu-opportu­ nities for otherother work.work. IncreasingIncreasing mechanization mechanization hashas alsoalso reducedreduced thethe labourlabour requirements for logging.logging. ThereThere have have even even been been instancesinstances wherewhere tree-plantingtree-planting machinesmachines havehave beenbeen imported to workwork in areas ofof highhigh ruralrural underemployment,underemployment, onon thethe groundsgrounds thatthat workersworkers could notnot bebe recruitedrecruited at thethe goinggoing rates andand onon the terms offered.offered.

The mostmost ubiquitousubiquitous introduction has been thethe chain saw which isis nearlynearly always impor­impor- ted fromfrom industrializedindustrialized countriescountries and requiresrequires continuing imports imports of of spare spare parts, parts, lubricantslubricants and fuel. AA two-mantwo-man crewcrew working working inin tropicaltropical conditionsconditions withwith axe and cross-cut sawsaw can·can fell 1010 to 2020 m3m 3 day, whereaswhereas withwith a power saw their productivityproductivity rises toto 3030 toto 8080 m3m 3 a dayday. 15/ l~/ Working Working conditions conditions in in logging logging have have been been greatlygreatly improved improved byby thethe chainchain sawsaw andand in financial termsterms the forestryforestry sector hashas profited.profited. TheThe foreign-exchange foreign-exchange costscosts andand social costs, however,however. havehave beenbeen high.high.

What isis truetrue of the chachainin sawsaw iiss even more true ofof the heavier machines,machines, thatthat havehave come into forestry,forestry, manymany ofof themthem capablecapable ofof veryvery substantiallysubstantially increasingincreasing thethe productivityproductivity of labour.labour. TheTh e typetype ofof sylviculture,sylviculture, basedbased onon thethe uniform treatmenttreatment ofof largelarge areas,areas, thatthat such machines make possiblepossible oror even require, isis precisely precisely that that which which does does notnot needneed thethe skills ofof ruralrural people,people, suchsuch as as their their knowledge knowledge ofof soilssoils andand plantsplants and readiness toto tendtend trees individually.individually.

14114/ B.B. Sivaraman,Sivaraman, Forestry Forestry for for Community Community Development Development (Village Forestry)'Forestry). BackgroundBackground Paper forfor thethe SecondSecond FAO/SIDAFAO/SIDA ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation onon ForestryForestry for for Community Community DevelopmentDevelopment,, Rome,Rome, 1977, P.p. 26.26. ~/15/ R.R. HeinrichHeinrich andand H.A.H. A. Hilmi.Hilmi. TheThe Training, Training. Motivation Moti vation and and SocialSocial PromotionPromotion ofof Forest Workers.Workers. EighthEighth WorldWorld Forestry Congress,Congress, _Jakarta,Jakarta, 1978,1978, p. 14.14. 12

The search forfor economieseconomies ofof scalescale has has alsoalso caused caused much much woodwood processing toto leaveleave the forest.forest. ModernModern factoriesfactories areare mostly mostly designed designed for large-scalelarge-scale centralized centralized production,production, and thethe problems of providingproviding adequateadequate infrastructure infrastructure and servicesservices havehave caused themthem usually toto bebe sitedsited in large towns. SawmillingSawmilling waswas perhapsperhaps thethe mostmost desperseddespersed formform ofof wood processing, processing, with thethe widespread useuse ofof pit-sawingpit-sawing (the(the ancientancient practice ofof convertingconverting a treetree toto boardsboards wherewhere itit waswas felledfelled withwith a hand-operatedhand-operated sasaw). wl. However,However, todaytoday eveneven a small-scalesmall- scale modernmodern sawmillsawmill requiresrequires road road access access and and a a power power supply,supply, whichwhich usually means that itit cannot bebe llocatedocated in in the the remoter remoter ruralrural communities.communities. Though futurefuture demanddemand for for forestforest products will undoubtedly increase, increase, greater efficiencyefficiency may resultresult inin veryvery fewfew extra workersworkers beingbeing employed; indeed,indeed, numbersnumbers maymay actuallyactually fall.fall. However, the importanceimportance ofof employmentemployment in in forestry forestry lliesies notnot inin itsits volume butbut in in itsits localoca-­ tion. Choice ofof appropriateappropriate technologytechnology and and of of processing processing operations operations is, is, therefore,therefore, crucialcrucial in ensuring thatthat forestryforestry contributescontributes significantly significantly toto stability,stability, employment employment and and incomeincome inin rural communities,communities, particularlyparticularly of of developingdevelopioR countries. 13

ELEMENTS OFOF A A NEWNE W BALANCEBALANCE

TnI n theirtheir efforts toto increaseincrease rapidly r apidl y food food andand agriculturalagricultural production, production, thethe developing developing councountriestries willwill havehave toto givegive duedue considerationconsideration to to achievenent achieverrert ofof optimumo ptimum and sustained productiproductivity. vi ty. TtIt iiss urgentlyurgently nnecessaryecessary to restorer esto re the the balance balance (as(as hashas already already been been done done in much of ththee ttemperateemperate world)world) between soilsoil formformationation andand soisoill lloss,oss , betweenbetween biologicalbiological production and human consumption,consumption, between perennialperennial and aannualnnua l plants,plants, betweenbetween food and woodwood production,production, betweenbetween expexploitedloited llandand andand wilderness,wilderness, andand aboveabove alla ll betweenbetween thethe livingliving llevelsevels of people inin differentdifferent regionsregions and and under under different different productive productive systems systems.. FForestryorestry has a vital role toto playplay in restoring this balance. TheThe problems of shifting ccultivationultivation exemplified thethe sortsort of mutually supportingsupporting impro­impro- vements thatthat areare needed. ToT o helphe lp farmersfarmers settle settl epermanently, permanentiy, technical technical and and institutionalinstitutional ssupportupport is necessary, includinginc luding securitysecurity ofof tenure inin thosethose parts ofof thethe forest moremore suitablesuitable for cultivation.culti vation. TheThe introduction introducti on of of a a plantedplanted fallow fallow ofof appropriateappropriate speciesspecies couldcould provideprovide additionaladdi tional outputoutput for for locallocal use,use, and ((wherewhe r e thethe necessarynecessary infrinfrastructureastructure exists)exists) forfor indus-indus­ trialtrial oro r urbanurban markets.markets .Improved Tm proved crop c rop combinations combinations for for sustained sustained production production mostmost rerelevantlevan t toto thethe capabilitycapability ofof thethe landland andand thethe peoplepeople couldcould improvei mprove theirthe ir incomeincome fromfrom cultivationculti vati on and lengthenlengthen the period betweenbetween fellows.fallows. The development ooff properproper farfarmingming systemssystems forfor many ofof thethe poorerpoorer soilssoils iiss likelylike ly to require multi-storied oror mixedmixed associationsassociations of trees withwith cropscrops onon thethe samesame piecepiece ofof land.land. PrefPreferenceerence shouldshould be givengiven toto developingdeveloping land land use use systems systems that that are are closestclosest to trtradi-adi­ tional systems, andand fitfit intointo existingexisting socio-economicsoci o - economic patterns. CreditCredit wouldwould havehave toto bebe extended ttoo cover cover purchasepurchase ofof seeds seeds and and fertilizers. fertilizers. However,However, thethe needneed forfor externalexternal inputs can bbee limited by the use of draught aanimals,nimals, rotationrotation withwith leguminouslegu minous crops (either arboraceous oror herbaceous),herbaceous), andand thethe useu se ofof allall locallylocally availableavailable organicorganic materialmateria l for green manuremanure andand composting.composting . Another exampexamplel e concernsconcerns mountamountainin regionsregions wwhich,hic h , withwith theirtheir ssteeperteeper slopes anda nd higher rainfarainfall,ll, areare particularlyparticularly subjectsubject toto erosion.e rosion. TheTh eprocess process of of erosion e rosion cancan bebe reversedreve r sed effectiveeffectivelyl y onlyonly throughthrough properproper landland useuse basedbased onon suitabsuitablele cultivationcultivation practicespractices aandnd approappro-­ priate croppingcropping patterns. ThisThis may may require require supplementary supplementar y engineeringengineering measures, butbut since thesethese areare costlycostly and and dodo notnot lastlast veryvery long, long, thethe main main emphasis emphasi s should s hould bebe on on properproper land use. If this isis toto succeed,succeed, itit must must have have the the cooperation cooperati on ofof thethe locallocal people.people. In thethe short run, theythey experienceexperience substantialsubstantial inconvenience,inconvenience, losinglosing access toto theirtheir grazinggrazing lands andand forfor severaseverall years gettinggetting little oror nono returnreturn fromfrom thethe newlynewly teterracedrraced slopess lopes andand nnewlyewly plantedplanted trees.trees. AA full full programme programme must must include inc lud ehelp he lp for for them them to to produce produce foodfood inin tthehe period of transition,transition, toto intensifyintensify theirtheir animal a nima l husbandryhusbandry techniques,techniques, andand toto learnlearn toto ttendend and marketmarket the new perennperenniali a l crops. ImprovedTmproved communication communication with with thethe outsideoutside world andand the the provis provisioni on of of other other esse essentialntial services services areare also necessary. ThereThere havehave asas yetyet beenbeen tootoo fewfew attempts at integratedintegrated solutionssolutions toto thethe variousvarious problemsproblems posed inin ddifferentifferent regionsregions byby thethe lossloss ofof treestrees and forests.forests. TheThe following following pagespages describe a number of the approaches thatthat havehave beenbeen made,made, andand somesome ofof thethe technicaltechnical innovationsinnovations or rediscoveriesrediscoveri es thatthat can contribute inin thethe future. future. FigureFigure 22 indiindicatescates thethe main factors thatthat may havehave toto bebe takentaken intointo accountaccount inin ssuchuch approaches.approaches. TREES OUTSIDEOUTSIDE T1-{ETHE FOREFORESTST ThThereere isis anorn-ousanormous potential forfor introducingintroducing treestrees on on landland thatthat is is conventionally conventionally seen as strictlystri ctly agricultural.agricultural. The Th objectivee objecti ve is inots not only only to to increase inc r ease wood wood supply, supply , thus thus reducingr educing the pressurepressure on forests.forests. It is alsoa lso toto contributecontribute toto foodfood production,production, whetherwhether directlydirectly byby the fruit oro r fodderfodder fromfrom thethe trees,trees, or or indirectly indirectly by by giving g iving shelter shelter from from wind wind and and sun,s un, restoringrestorinq nutrientsnutrie nts fromfrom deeperdeeper layers,layers , andand increasing increasinq nitrogennitrogen fixation.fixation. SuchSuch planting planting maymay taketake many forms,forms, occupyingoccupying strips andand pocketspockets ofof landland not used for crops,crops, mixingmixing 14 Figure 22 Factors forfor analyzinganalyzing thethe placeplace of forestry inin ruralrural development development

Factors PoPossiblessible respresponsos o o ses Competition ff or or llandand (trees (trees areare a less less intensiinte nsi veve use o0 f land thanthari crops) - CompetitionC ompetition forfor forest landland - Int eercropr crop treestrees andand crops - Allocate forest landland rationallyrationally betweenbetween trees andand cropscrops - 1mIm proveprove non-foodnon-food benefitsbenefits toto forestforest commcommunities:unities: forestforest and forestforest industries empemployment,loyment, secondary forest productproduct income, socia 1 infrastructureinfrastructure - CompCompetitione tition forfor crop andand grazing landland - Plant trees onon roadsides,roadsides, riverriver banks, banks, to afforest field bounda ries ries and otherother unused areas,areas, areas marginalmarginal forfor cropcrop production, production, erodable areas unsuitableunsuitable forfor cropcrop production and grazing - Improve productivity on thethe betterbetter arable areas inin order toto releaserelease landland for treetree growinggrowing - PPlant lant multi pIe-useple-use speciesspecies or mixturesmixtures of species toto increaseincrease produ produ ctivityctivity - Intercrop trees wiwi th other crops or combine withwith grazing - Introduce additional sources ofof incomeincome (e.(e. g.g . beekeeping) TimeTimescalescale f oror forestry (delayed(delaye d returns from ttree ree growing)growing) Output fromfrom treestrees wilwill 1 not meet immediateimmediate Plant multiple-use specspecies,ies, oror mixturesmixtures needs of species, whichwhich givegive some earlyearly return - Provide financialfinancial supportsupport duringduring tthe he establishment periods:periods: low-interestlow-interest loans, grants,grants, subsidies,subsidies, wage wage employ- employ­ ment - Introduce or expandexpand complementarycomplementary non-non­ forestry sourcesSOurces of of incomeincome - Risk that producer willwi II notnot benefitbenefit - Ensure securitysecurity ofof tenuretenure of of landl and usedused for treetree cropscrops DispersedD ispersed distribution of benefits fromfrom forestryforestry - Benefits fromfrom protection forestsforests orOr fromfrom - Provide comcom pensation for those benefits timber productionproduction may accrueaccrue in part foregone or inputsinputs providedprovided byby the outside thethe communitycommunity communitycommunity whichwhi ch generategenerate benefitsbenefits elsewhere SeasonalS easonal shortage ofof labour - Adopt forestryforestry systemssystems which which dodo notnot compete withwith .peak demands for labourlabour Lack of aa tradition of forestryforestry (unfamiliarity(unfamiliarity - Provision ofof guidanceguidance anda nd supportsupport throughthrough with thethe necessarynecessary techniques, lacklack ofof extensionextension services: educationeducation ofof thethe understanding of cause and effect, behaviouralbehavioural people, technicaltechnical adviceadvice andand technicaltechnical patternspatterns inimicalinimical to forestry, inappropriateinappropriate inputs, grass-rootsgrass-roots trainingtraining institutional framework)framework) - Demonstration projects - Encourage producer groupingsgroupings (cooperatives, etc.)etc. ) - Legislation andand regulatiregulati on on Source:Source : FAO,FAO, ForestryForestry for LocalLocal Community DDevelopment,evelopment, FAOFAO Forestry Forestry Paper No.No.7, 7, FAO, Rome,Kome, 1978, p. 9.9. 15 trees withwith agricultural cropscrops inin varyingvarying proportions, oror alternatingalternating annualannual crops with treetree fallow. TheThe treestrees used used may may havehave asas theirtheir primaryprimary productsproducts timber,timber, poles,poles, fuelwood, fuel wood, fodder oror food, and preferably several ofof these togethertogether. 16/ Many peoplepeople have have long long cultivated cultivated trees trees alongside alongside their their crops. crops. SuchSuch practicespractices havehave their origin either inin pragmaticpragmatic observation that thethe presencepresence ofof treestrees improved yields,yields, or as aa responseresponse toto thethe progressiveprogressive disapperancedisapperance fromfrom thethe forestsforests ofof treestrees that that provided provided food, food, fodder, shade, gums,gums, medicines,medicines, andand otherother benefits.benefits. 17/l1J Besides Besides gains gains in in productivity, productivity, there are advantagesadvantages inin thethe formform ofof increased securitysecurity andand betterbetter dietdiet fromfrom enlargingenlarging thethe range ofof products,products, and aa betterbetter spread of incomeincome over over time. time. WhereWhere the treestrees have a value asas timber, theythey can can provide provide a a widewide rangerange of of commodities commodities fromfrom fuelfuel andand buildingbuilding materials, downdown toto suchsuch thingsthings as thethe stakesstakes usedused asas supportssupports forfor growing growing yamsyams inin west AfricaAfrica.. The consequences of clearingclearing trees fromfrom agriculturalagricultural land land to to make make way way forfor farmingfarming systems involvinginvolving mechanization oror monoculture havehave includedincluded rising rising waterwater tables,tables, windwind damage toto crops,crops, disruption ofof nutrientnutrient cycles,cycles, vulnerability toto pestspests andand diseases,diseases, lossloss of didiversity versity in the local economy, and shortagesshortages of fuelwood,fuelwood, timbertimber andand poles. poles. TrulyTruly modmodernern systems forfor muchmuch ofof thethe tropicaltropical regions regions (and (and elsewhere) elsewhere) would would extendextend andand elabo-elabo­ rate thethe well-triedwell-tried methodsmethods ofof thethe past,past, addingadding newnew or improvedimproved species and varieties ofof tree, andand developingdeveloping newnew combinations ofof cropcrop plantsplants and treestrees thatthat maximizemaximize thethe useuse of space andand lightlight andand limit limit competition. competition. WhereWhere forest forest isis clearedcleared forfor agriculture,agriculture, itit shouldshould be ensured that appropriateappropriate treestrees are retainedretained oror replanted.replanted. The retention ofof wildwild trees trees isis commoncommon in in most most forest forest areas. areas. FarmersFarmers maintainmaintain andand protect tree speciesspecies thatthat areare ofof directdirect useuse toto themthem forfor food,food, fodder,fodder, minorminor commercialcommercial products, windbreakswindbreaks oror sosoilil improvement. InIn LatinLatin AmericaAmerica and elsewhere,elsewhere, forest trees are retainedretained onon coffeecoffee andand cocoa plantations in an agro-forestryagro-forestry systemsystem wherewhere theythey provideprovide shade andand humus,humus, andand mobilizemobilize through through their their root root systems systems thethe mineralmineral nutrientsnutrients inin thethe soil.soil. ThThee people inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica alsoalso have aa long listlist of palmpalm treestrees whichwhich areare retained because of their usefulness in providingproviding suchsuch thingsthings asas edibediblele fruit,fruit, oil-bearing seeds, palmitopalmi to shoots fcrfood,for food, woodywoody stems stems for for a a widewide var varietyiety ofof uses, uses, and fibrefibre for ropes. In the difficult environment ofof thethe arid arid zones.zones, various legumeslegumes are respectedrespected byby locallocal people forfor their close association with agriculture,agriculture, theirtheir beneficialbeneficial effect on soilsoil fertility,fertility, and theirtheir usefulness asas windbreaks.windbreaks. In the Sahel, AcaciaAcacia albidaalbida isis left left standing standing when when landland is clearedcleared forfor cultivation.cultivation. Its rootsroots gogo mostlymostly straightstraight downwardsdownwards ratherrather thanthan sideways,sideways, drawing up nutrientsnutrients andand using waterwater thatthat otherwiseotherwise wouldwould bebe lostlost toto locallocal production.production. It provides shade for cattle inin thethe drydry seasonseason butbut sheds itsits leavesleaves inin thethe rainyrainy season,season, whenwhen agricultural cropscrops are are growing, growing, thus thus providing providing them them with with humus humus and and not not competing competing with wi th them forfor nutrients, andand itit producesproduces poles, fuelwoodfuelwood andand fodder fodder for for lo localcal needs. needs. 18/ n/

TrTreesees areare not not only only retainedretained when when theirtheir direct direct usefulness usefulness to to rural rural people p30ple isis recognizedrecognized but are alsoalso plantedplanted forfor gran9'8B'1 manure,manure, fodder,fodder, fuelwood, fuelwood, andand nitrogennitrogen fixationfixation for soilsoil improvement,improvement. IntimateIntimate mixturesmixtures ofof treestrees and and agricultural agricultural crops crops occur occur in in intercroppingintercropping and multiple cropping system's-system" and, and, recentrecent research has has shown shown thatthat thesethese widely widely usedused

ill167 FAa.FAO. TheThe PlacePlace ofof ForestsForests and and Trees Trees in in Integrated Integrated Rural Rural Development, Development, COFOCOFO -78/3, Rome, 1978. 17/ B.B.N. N. Okigbo. NeglectedNeglected plants ofof horticultural andand nutritionalnutritional importance in tradi-tradi­ - tional farmingfarming systems of tropical Africa, ActaActa Horticulturae,Horticulturae, 53, 1977. la/W G. Poulsen.Poulsen. ManMan and and Tree Tree in in Tropical Tropical Africa, Africa. International International Development Development ResearchResearch Centre, Ottawa,Ottawa, 1978, p. 9.9. 16 tropical systems,systems, whichwhich were formerly consideredconsidered primitive, are highlyhighly productive. Yields may be 20% toto 50%50% higherhigher thanthan forfor the same crops growinggrowing separate,ly,separately, andand thethe yield advantage isis greatest whenwhen annualannual crops areare mixedmixed withwith perennials,perennials, includingincluding trees. 19/121 TnsteadInstead of trees andand annualannual crops growing sideside by side,side, theythey maymay be alternated in a controlled and improved version of the natural forestforest oror shrub shrub fallow fallow ofof shiftingshifting cultivation.culti vation. Many ofof thethe fast-growingfast-growing leguminousleguminous treestrees used in forestry plantationsplantations havehave alsoalso beenbeen foundfound suitable as aa plantedplanted fallow toto bebe usedused inin restoringrestoring soilsoil fertilityfertility in only threethree oror four years, at the samesame timetime providingproviding fuelwood,fuelwood, poles poles and and greengreen manure.manure. 20/ TheThe intimate intimate symbiosissymbiosis of forest treetree andand foodfood crop cultivation hashas been observedobserved inin severalseveral countries, wherewhere certain treestrees areare widely widely usedused as aa cashcash cropcrop inin agriculturalagricultural diversification,diversification, oror playplaya a rolerole both inin timbertimber production andand in in support support of of agriculture, agriculture, oror in an agro-forestry systems ystem with fruit fruit trees trees oror rice.rice. 21/21/ Some of the benefits of the presence ofof trees onon croplandcropland cancan bebe obtainedobtained in their absence by spreadingspreading aa mulchmulch of of foliage foliage or or l eafleaf litter, litter, gathered from a nearby forestforest or plantation. TheThe mulchmulch protectsprotects thethe soilsoil surfacesurface againstagainst thethe directdirect impactimpact ofof sunsun and rain, replenishes thethe nutrientnutrient stockstock andand maintain the population of of earthworms. earthworms. InIn parts ofof western Guatemala, for example, farmers spreadspread as as much much asas 40 40 tonstons ofof litterlitter per per ha ha on on their fieldsfields eacheach year,year, mostlymostly from from oakoak forestsforests that that produce produce onlyonly 44 tonstons perper ha;ha; thus thethe required ratio ofof forest toto farmlandfarmland is tenten toto one. 22/22/ ResearchResearch into into mulches mulches ofof variousvarious origins andand intointo mixturesmixtures ofof speciesspecies might might revealreveal ways ways of of obtainingobtaining thesethese benefitsbenefits withwi th a smaller ratioratio ofof areas,areas, using using foliage foliage from from fast-growingfast-growing plantations.plantations. WhereWhere, it it is is not not desirable desirable oror practicablepracticable for trees toto bebe cultivatedcultivated onon cropland,cropland, theythey can instead be planted whereverwherever therethere are stripssJrip> and pocketspockets ofof unused unused land. land. ThiThiss system has been very effectively developed inin ChinaChina in in the the so-called so-called "four-side""four-side" or "all"all around"around" planting programme.programme. CommunesCommunes are encouragedencouraged to plant treestrees whereverwherever there isis aa place:place: along thethe banksbanks of of streams streams andand rivers,rivers, besidebeside roads,roads, between between fields,fields, andand next next toto houseshouses and villages. In Chunhua CountyCounty of of Shaanxi Shaanxi Province, Province, whichwhich has has aa relativelyrelatively dry climatec limate and poorpoor soils,soils, "four-side""four-side" plantingplanting hashas establishedestablished 15.215.2 millionmillion trees,trees, of of which which 10.5 million are aroundaround houses and villages, 4.54.5 millionmillion alongalong 1,6001,600 kmkm of roads, andand 160,000 alongalong 232 232 km km of of rivers rivers and and canals. canals. 23/ SuccessSuccess of of this this kind kind isis evidently evidently mademade much easiereasier byby thethe absence of freely grazinggrazing ruminantsruminants inin mostmost ofof China.China. The amountamount of technicaltechnical adviceadvice andand materialmaterial help necessarynecessary toto getget suchsuch aa programmeprogramme started dependsdepends very much onon locallocal circumstances.circumstances. SomeSome of of the the most most successfulsuccessful examplesexamples have started byby beingbeing organized like a reforestationreforestation projectproject but but havehave thenthen acquiredacquired aa momentum ofof theirtheir own, forming a transitiontransition eithereither to to spontaneous spontaneous plantingplanting onon "fourIIfour sides",sides' ,

.12./19/ M.M. SteIlyStelly (ed.),(ed.), Multiple Multiple Cropping: Cropping: ProceedingsProceedings of of a aSymposium Symposium held held at at Knoxville, Knoxville, Tennessee, 1975,1975, AmericanAmerican SocietySociety of of Agronomy. Agronomy. Madison,Madison, Wisconsin,Wisconsin, 1977.1977 . 20/ B.N.B. N. Okigbo.Okigbo. LegumesLegumes in in farming farming systemssystems of of the the humidhumid tropics;tropics; A.A. Ayanaba Ayanaba andand P.J. Dart. Dart. Biological Biological nitrogen nitrogen fixation, fixation, in in Farming Farming Systems Systems of of the the Tropics,Tropics, Wiley,Wiley, New York,York, 1977, p.p. 69. 11/21/ TranT ran VanVan Nao. ForestForest resources resources of of humid humid tropical tropical Asia, Asia, Natural Natural Resources Resources of of Humid Humid Tropical Asia.Asia, UNESCO,UNESCO, Paris,Paris, 1974,1974, p.p . 211,211. 22/ G.C.G. C. Wilken. Wilken. IntegratingTntegrating forestforest andand small-scalesmall-scale farm farm systems systems in in Middle Middle America,America, Forest EcologyEcology and Management, 1, 1977,1977, pp.Pp. 223-234.223-234. 23/ FAO.FAO. China:China: ForestryForestry Support Support for for Agriculture, Agriculture, FAO, FAO, ForestryForestry Paper Paper No.12, No.12, Rome, Rome, 1978, p. 75.75. 1717 or villagevillage forestry.forestry. ForFor example, example, inin thethe StateState of Gujarat inin India,India, the State ForestForest Service startedstarted roadside roadside and and canal canal bank bank plantations,plantations, eacheach stripstrip being being linkedlinked toto aa nearbynearby community thatthat hadhad grass-cuttinggrass-cutting rights among thethe trees,trees, helpedhelped protectprotect thethe saplings,saplings, and sharedshared in thethe profitsprofits ofof thethe operation.operation. Although thethe earlyearly plantations diddid notnot involveInvolve much popularpopular participation,participation, theythey markedmarked aa criticalcritical psychological psychological turningturning point.point. People started toto realizerealize that that forestry forestry was was possible possible around around their their communities communities andand inin manymany cases gained for thethe firstfirst timetime favourable favourable impressionsimpressions of of the the forest forest department department when when theythey sawsaw that its activitiesactivities couldcould benefitbenefit thernthem directly. ByBy 1978 1978 aboutabout 6,0006,000 kmkm ofof State's 17,000 17,000 kmkm of roads and canals were lined with trees,trees, andand eacheach yearyear treestrees are are planted planted along along anotheranother 1,500 km.km. 24/ The constraintsconstraints toto bebe overcome overcome varyvary greatly greatly according according to to the the nature nature of of the the community community and its presentpresent landland use.use. They They may- may include include problemsproblems ofof reorganizingreorganizing grazinggrazing oror of of goinggoinq through a period inin whichwhich thethe use ofof landland hashas toto bebe partiallypartially foregone foregone whilewhile waitingwaiting forfor trees toto grow.grow. Difficulties of the latter kindkind maymay bebe partlypartly solved solved byby usingusing fast-growingfast-growing species. ForFor example, example, Calliandra Calliandra callothyrsus, callothyrsus, of of central central American American origin,origin, growsgrows 2.5 toto 3.53.5 mm inin sixsix to to nine nine months months inin Indonesia,Tndonesia, andand cancan bebe harvestedharvested forfor firewoodfirewood after aa year, yieldingyielding 55 toto 2020 m3m 3 perper ha.ha. It regrowsregrows fromfrom thethe stump,stump, sendingsending up up coppicecoppice shootsshoots that reachreach 33 mm inin sixsix months.months. OnceOnce in in full full production production itit yields yields 20 20 toto 100100 m3m 3 per haha perper year. It has manymany uses, providingproviding edibleedible foliagefoliage and fruitfruit for animals,animals, andand isis valuablevaluable for soil restorationrestoration andand conservation.conservation. 25/25/ OtherOther tropical tropical legumes legumes existexist withwith similarsimilar properties. AGRICIlLTAGRICIILTlJRAL URAL PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION TNSTDE INSIDE THE THE FORESTFOREST

Even where forestryforestry rather thanthan agriculture is thethe primaryprimary useuse ofof thethe land, systemssystems exist for combiningcombining the two. Indeed,Indeed, itit becomes becomes difficultdifficult toto drawdraw thethe lineline betweenbetween agricul­agricul- ture withwith forest fallowfallow on the one hand,hand, and forestryforestry withwith agricultural interludes onon the~he other. TheThe classic classic version version of of the the latter latter is is the the "taungya" "taungya" system system (from(from thethe BurmeseBurmese taungtaung~, La., whichwhich meansmeans hillhill cultivation). ItIt was firstfirst developeddeveloped in Burma in 1856, as a method forfor reducing the cost of replanting teak forests, andand has has since since been been widely widely adopted.adopted. The essence of the system is thatthat thethe forest treestrees are are planted planted by by workersworkers whowho at the same time cultivate crops alongside the seedlingsseedlings forfor two oror threethree years. InTn the original versionversion ofof taungyataungya the planters werewere paidpaid inin kind,kind, merelymerely obtaining obtaining temporary use of the land inin returnreturn for plantingplantinq and tendingtending the the trees. trees. TheyThey remainedremained landless labourers, carryingcarrying out out arduous arduous workwork withoutwithout security or rightsrights toto permanentpermanent settlement. VariousVarious improved improved versionsversions areare aimedaimed notnot onlyonly at replanting forests,forests, butbut also at improvingimproving thethe lotlot ofof thethe locallocal populationpopulation andand helpinghelping to solve thethe problem ofof shifting cultivation.culti vation. Tn Indonesia, Indonesia, forfor exampleexample, planters whowho enterenter into two-year tenancy contractscontracts areare helped byby thethe forestforest authority (Perum Perhutani),Perhutani), whichwhich provides a superior varietyvariety ofof dry-paddy rice,rice, asas wellwell asas loansloans forfor thethe purchasepurchase ofof fertilizers andand insecticides.insecticides. Rice yields have more than doubled, andand thethe fertilizerfertilizer hashas alsoalso hadhad beneficialbeneficial effects on tree growth. TheThe intensifiedintensified programme,programme, startedstarted in in 1975,1975, hashas beenbeen wellwell received, asas thethe incomincomee fromfrom crop production perper contract periodperiod isis somesome $$ 5050 higher higher than than withwith thethe traditional system. ByBy the the end end of of 1978 1978 thethe programmeprogramme waswas expectedexpected toto cover anan area ofof 20,000 ha.ha. 26/

W24/ B.K. Jhala,Jhala. SocialSocial Forestry in in Gujarat, Gujarat,. Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, 1978 1978 (mimeographed), (mimeographed), quotedquoted inin E. Eckholm,Eckholm, PlantingPlanting for thethe Future:Future: ForestryForestry for for Human Human Needs, Needs, WorldwatchWorldwatch Paper 26. WorldwatchWorldwatch Institute. Washington,Washington,D.C., D.C. , 1979, p. 52.52. 25/ NationalNational Academy of of Sciences. Sciences. Tropical Legumes: Resource5Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., D.C., 1979,1979, p. 197.197 . 26/ SoekimanSoekiman Atmosoedarjo and and S.G. S.G. Banyard.Banyard. TheThe prosperityprosperity approachapproach to forestforest community developmentdevelopment inin Java,Java, CommonwealthCommonwealth Forestry ReviewReview 57(2),57(2), 1978,1978, pp. 89-96. 18

In Thailand taungya isis usedused within thethe frameworkframework of of a a programme programme toto resettleresettle dispersed forest populationspopulations andand reconstitutereconstitute thethe forest.forest. TheThe ForestForest Industry Industry Organization Organization concen-concen­ trates thethe cultivatorscultivators andand theirtheir familiesfamilies inin thosethose areasareas wherewhere viableviable settledsettled agricultureagriculture cancan be practised, andand atat the the same same time time employs employs the the people people inin replantingreplanting thethe degradeddegraded forest areas theythey no longer use, andand in other forest work.work. ToTo encourage encourage peoplepeople toto settlesettle inin villages they areare provided wiwith th roads. roads, electricity,electricity, schools,schools, taptap water,water, medicalmedi cal andand otherother social and physical services, togethertogether with with anan allocationallocation ofof landland for growinggrowing crops,crops, andand assistance inin obtainingobtaining materials forfor househouse buildingbuilding and inin transporting transporting thetheiri r crops to the market. ReforestationReforestation is is carrie,d carried out out by by the the taungya taungya system,system, which which isis improved improved in in twotwo ways besidesbesides the provisionprovision ofof permanentpermanent cropland. cropland. Transport isi s providedprovided toto enableenable farmers toto cultivate cultivate and and tendtend taungyataungya areasareas over over a a wide wide areaarea without wi thout havinghaving toto movemove from the village. DependenceDependence onon cropcrop growinggrowing isis reduced by enablingenabling villagersvillagers toto earnearn alternat­alternat- ive income. InIn addition addition toto thethe proceedsproceeds fromfrom thethe cropscrops theythey grol,v,grow, theythey receive aa cashcash payment tortor the land theythey clearclear andand plant,plant, and bonusesbonuses for for extra extra productivity.productivity. They areare also given prioritypriority inin recruitmentrecruitment for forestry work.work. 27/271 The Thailand "forest village'?village" system pointspoints thethe wayway to a probablyprobably moremore permanentpermanent and sustainable formula.formula. TheThe allocationallocation of of forestforest land land between between cropcrop productionproduction and tree growing isis based onon anan assessmentassessment ofof sitesite capability. LandLand useuse isis basedbased toto thethe fullestfullest extent possible onon intercropping,intercropping, vertically structured croppingcropping mixes, andand otherother waysways of maximizing productiproductivity. vity. Conscious effortsefforts are mademade toto developdevelop the social as wellwell asas physical infrastructure necessarynecessary toto provideprovide thethe basisbasis forfor sustainable,sustainable, sociallysocially acceptable acceptable conditions forfor the communities living within thethe forests.forests. Similar approachesapproaches areare beingbeing worked outout inin other other countriescountries asas forfor example inin southernsouthern Nigeria.Nigeria. 28/281 Forest grazinggrazing isis aa veryvery widelywidely practisedpractised productionproduction system.system, especiallyespecially inin moremore aridarid regions, butbut it appearsappears toto bebe particularlyparticularly difficultdifficult to regulate and renderrender stabstable,le, perhapsperhaps because grazing people do not havehave aa traditiontradition of cultivating trees.trees. Nevertheless, withwith the wide spacingspacing ofof trees trees and high pruningpruning to to obtain obtain knot-free knot-free stems, stems, it isis possiblepossible toto culticultivate vate improved mixturesmixtures ofof grasses grasses and legumeslegumes onon the the forest forest floorfloor for for grazing,grazing, asas is done inin NewNew Zealand Zealand with with Pinus Pinus radiata. radiate. 29129/ InIn Indonesia,Indonesia, elephantelephant grassgrass (Pennisetum (Pennisetum purpureumlpurpureum) has been sown experimentaexperimentallylly under teak,teak, mahoganymahogany andand pinepine plantationsplantations since 1973.1973. It is soldsold toto farmersfarmers toto cutcut forfor theirtheir cattle, cattle, but but no no animals animals are are allowed allowed insideinside the forest.forest. 30/301 . Orchards are normallynormally regardedregarded asas partpart of of agriculture, agriculture, though though their their wood wood productionproduction is aa supplementsupplement toto thatthat fromfrom forests. forests. ThereThere is is scope scope forfor forestersforesters to to develop develop forestforest orchards ofof species whosewhose potential hashas not yetyet beenbeen discovereddiscovered byby farmers, farmers, especiallyespecially in the case ofof plantations forfor the production ofof fodder. fodder. ThisThis maymay bebe onlyonly a transitory phasephase in a plantationplantation whosewhose main purpose isis toto produceproduce wood,wood, withwith lowlow branchesbranches beingbeing prunedpruned and fedfed toto animalsanimals in in the the early early years,years, or itit maymay be the primaryprimary purpose. AA fodderfodder orchard could bebe managed veryvery simplysimply on thethe coppice system,system, withwith edibleedible branchesbranches beingbeing removedremoved regularly andand replacedreplaced byby newnew shoots from thethe stump.stump. AA combination combination of of fodderfodder plantationsplantations and silvicultural measuresmeasures toto improveimprove forestforest grazing grazing could could bebe thethe incentiveincentive offeredoffered inin exchange forfor thethe acceptanceacceptance byby graziers of of the the regulation regulation ofof thethe sizesize and and movements movements ofof theirthei r herds.

27127/ Sa-ardSa-ard Boonkird. Boonkird. TaunqyaTaungya System:System: its Application.Application. WaysWays andand MeansMeans ofof ImprovementImprovement in Thailand, EighthEighth World ForestryForestry Congress,Congress, :Jakarta,.Jakarta, 16-2816-28 OctoberOctober 1978,1978, pp.pp. 14-15.14-15. 28/281 J.B.J.B. Ball. Ball. Taungya. Taungya in in Southern Southern Nigeria, Nigeria. NTR/71/546, NIR/71/546, December December 1977, 1977, FAO,FAO, Rome, p. 82.82. 29/291 J.J. Kirby. Kirby. AA technique technique forfor thethe tropics:tropics: forest grazing,grazing, WorldWorld Crops,Crops, Nov./Dec.Nov. IDec. 1978,1978, pp.PP. 14-15.14-15. 30130/ SoekimanSoekiman AtmosoedarjoAtmosoedarjo and and S.C. S.C. Banyard, Banyard, op. op. cit., cit., p. 82.82. 19

There areare also also many many other other ways ways in in which which forestsforests may may be be exploited exploited toto supplysupply additionaladditional products oror income toto locallocal people.people. Fungi andand a a longlong list list of of seeds, seeds, nuts,nuts, fruits,fruits, leavesleaves and shoots can be collected for home consumptionconsumption or or for for sale. sale. UrbanUrban dwellersdwellers maymay notnot fully realize theirtheir importance, importance. but but rural rural people people know know themthem asas aa supplementsupplement toto theirtheir dietdiet and an addition toto foodfood reserves.reserves, TheThe importance importance is is well well known, known, for example,example, inin south-south­ east AsiaAsia ofof SaguSagu palm,palm, fromfrom which which aa low-proteinbw-protein starchstarch isis extractedextracted whichwhich cancan replacereplace rice oror \,vheat. wheat. Encouragement of these lesser known kncmn items ofof diet,diet, ifif approved approved should should be included in the national nutritionnutrition policy.policy. Honey usedused toto be an important commoditycommodity throughout thethe tropical andand sub-tropical forests andand wildwild bees' nestsnests areare stillstill collected. collected. Bee-keeping Bee-keeping can can be be encouraged encouraged byby simple measuresmeasures suchsuch asas makingmaking availableavailable suitable clearings for hives.hives. AsAs production production depends largellargelyy on the plants whichwhich existexist inin the forest, accountaccount hashas toto bebe takentaken ofof nectarnectar or pollenpollen quality when selectingselecting speciesspecies forfor plantation. WhereWhere legislationlegislation expressexpresslyl y forbidsforbids the lighting ofof firesfires in the forest, amendmentamendment isis necessarynecessary toto allowallow bee-keepersbee-keepers toto useuse devices of approved design to produceproduce smokesmoke forfor controcontrollinglling beesbees.. TheThe collection collection of of honeyhoney from wildwild nests isis aa frequentfrequent causecause of of forestforest fire, fire, and and public public expenditure expenditur eon on popularizing popularizing domesticated bees mightmight be amply repaid by its impactimpact onon this alone.a lone. Tn planning planning the the management management of of forests, forests, especiallyespecially in the context of agro-forestry,agro-forestry, the potential contributioncontribution thatthat wildlifewildlife cancan makemake asas aa sourcesource of of food, food, especially-especially protein,protein, is oftenoften neglected. In the southern parts ofof Nigeria,Nigeri a, wildlifewildlife hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated toto account for 19%19% of the consumption of animal foods, comparedcompared withwith 60%60% for fishfish andand 21%21 % for domestic livestock. TheThe proportion proportion of of animal animal proteinprotein from from wildlifewildlife waswas particularlyparticularly highhigh amongst communities inin forestedforested areas, wherewhere it it contributed contributed over over 80% 80% ofof thethe totaltotal inin some places.places . 11/31/ As manymany of thethe impacts of forestry activitiesactiviti es cancan result result in in grea.ter greater productivity productivity of of certain wildwild animal species, thethe possibilities possibilities need need to to be be explored explored for for modifying modifying forestry and sylvicultural practices andand managementmanagement in order toto optimizeoptimize the benefits in terms ofof food production. vrfVIII .LA(;E AC;E FORESTFORESTRY RY Where landland isis availableavailable forfor a small forestforest plantation,plantation, oror where where woodland woodland isis destineddestined primarily forfor locallocal use, thethe problemsproblems areare lessl ess technical technical thanthan organizational. ThereThere maymay in the first placeplace bebe difficultiesdifficulties inin persuadingpersuading villa.gersvillagers toto plant trees oror to to accept accept thethe constraints ofof forest management.management. OnceOnce theirtheir participation participation is is obtained, obtained, there there ma.y may bebe material difficultiesdifficulties toto be overcome. An exampleexample ofof successfulsuccessful persuasionpersuasion starting fromfrom stripstrip plantations plantations comescomes fromfrom Gujarat, India.India. In 1973, following thethe initialinitial successsuccess ofof thethe roadsideroadside andand canal-bankcanal-bank programme described above, foresters beganbegan visitingvisitin9 villagesvillages toto discussdiscuss the possible establishment of plantations on some of their communalcommunal lands. TheyThey proposed proposed toto thethe panchayats (the elected councils thatthat governgovern eacheach village)villagel thatthat theythey shouldshould set asideaside aa minimum ofof 44 haha for for thisthis purpose. TheThe government government would would supplysupply seedlings to the poorer villagers whowho derive their incomeincome fromfrom thethe communalcommunal lands, eithereither asas villagevillage herdsmenherdsmen or by collecting the meagre grassgrass oror fuelwood fuel wood theythey might produce,produce, and paypay forfor thethe prepara­prepara- tion and plantingplanting ofof thethe landland.. TheThe village village N,vould would in in turn turn guarantee guarantee to to p protectrotect thethe areasareas fromfrom grazin9grazing andand unauthorizedunauthorized gathering, gathering, aa guaranteeguarantee that was easier toto maintainmaintain since thethe previous users obtainedobtained somesome gainfulgainful employment. TheThe villagersvillagers wouldwould have the right toto harvestharvest grass andand fruit fromfrom thethe plantationsplantations free ofof charge. WhenWhen thethe timetime camecame toto harvest thethe trees,trees, the the panchayats panchayats and and thethe forestforest department department would would share thethe proceeds.proceeds. Harvested firewood and timber wouldwould bebe soldsold through government-rungovernment-run depots atat prices well belowbelow those those of of the the marketmarket place.place. TheThe system system vvas was designeddesigned for thethe bettermentbetterment ofof allall villagers andand toto bebe carried out out byby them,them, particularlyparticularly those those who who were were most most affected affected byby it.it. illLi Federal Office ofof Statistics.Statistics. RuralRural Economic Economic Survey Survey ofof Nigeria,Nigeria. 19651965-66 66 - Rural Consumption Enquiry, Enquiry, FoodFood Items Items,, West, Mid-WestMid- West and EasternEastern Nigeria, Lagos.Lagos. 20

At firstfirst thethe panchayatspanchayats werewere suspicious,SUSPiCIOUS, andand son-iesome villages had toto bebe visitedvisited byby forestersforesters five or six timestimes everyevery yearyear oror two.two. Indeed,Indeed, thethe relationship relationship andand trusttrust betweenbetween the villagers and the extension agentsagents hashas beenbeen crucial.crucial. TheThe extensionextension serviceservice has has been been greatlygreatly expanded expanded to cover this activity. ByBy 1978 1978 nearlynearly 3,0003,000 ofof thethe State's 18,00018,000 villagesvillages hadhad establishedestablished woodlots throughthrough this this programme. programme. EachEach yearyear moremore agree agree to to enter enter the the schen-le, scheme, andand many many have decideddecided toto devotedevote more more thanthan the the minimumminimam 4 4ha ha to to forestry. forestry. SomeSome havehave eveneven mademade precious irrigation waterwater availableavailable forfor treetree growing. growing. One reasonreason forfor the village program­program- meme's' s growinggrowing popularity isis the quick returnreturn it generates. MostMost of of the the land land planted planted waswas degraded commoncommon pasture pasture thatthat producedproduced hardly hardly any any grass. grass. AfterAfter aa yearyear ofof protectionprotection fromfrom Iilivestock, vestock, grassgrass that that could could bebe harvestedharvested by by handhand usuallyusually sprangs prang upup on these lands.lands. In the second year,year, somesome fruit trees beganbegan to produce, even inin thethe absenceabsence of of irrigation. irrigation. The villagers thenthen beganbegan to realizerealize thatthat they they hadhad anan economiceconomic systemsystem bringingbringing addedadded benefitsbenefits from an area formerlyformerly treatedtreated asas almc-)st almost worthless.worthless. EvidenceEvidence ofof successsuccess waswas toto behe seenseen inin thethe absence ofof good fencingfencing aroundaround both both the the roadside roadside and and village village woodlots. woodlots. TheThe trenchestrenches, Iilive ve cacti or thornythorny shrubsshrubs nownow used to demarcate the forests wouldwould scarcely bebe sufficientsufficien't to deter someonesomeone intent onon stealingstealing fodderfodder oror fuel.fuel. 32/32/

Similar resultsresults have have been been achievedachieved inin thethe RepublicRepublic of Korea, usingusing aa veryvery differentdifferent system ofof remunerating labourlabour andand distributingdistributing thethe produce.produce. In 1973, to counter serious and deteriorating erosion,erosion, overcutting,overcutting, and and fuelwood fuel wood shortages,shortages, the the Government Government adopted adopted measures designeddesigned to enable everyevery village toto setset up a fuefuelwoodl wood plantation. plantation. ToTo enterenter the scheme, aa villagevillage hashas toto setset up up a a VillageVillage Forestry Forestry Association Association (VFA) (VFA) toto whichwhich all villagersvillagers belong. Planting is onon communal landland" oror on private land reserved byby lawlaw for useuse onlyonly forfor forestry. Private landownerslandowners whowho turn over their landland toto thethe VFAVFA receivereceive 10%10% ofof thethe outputoutput in return. TheThe rest rest of of the the output output is is distributed distributed among among the the VFA VFA membersmembers inin relationrelation toto thethe voluntary labour1-abour they they contribute. contribute. By the end of 1977, there werewere overover 21,00021 ,000 VFAs,VFAs, grouped intintoo 141 ForestryForestry AssociationAssociation UnionsUnions belonging toto ninenine provincialprovincial branchesbranches of the National FedFederationeration ofof VFAs. VFAs. The VFAs areare also part ofof widerwider inter-village associations,associations, grouping them with villagevillage horticultural,horticultural, farmfarm cooperativescooperati ves andand livestocklivestock associations. In 1977, thethe VFAsVF As establishedestablished 77,00077, 000 haha ofof fuelwoodfuel wood plantations.

This programmeprogramme hashas achievedachieved aa remarkableremarkable degree degree of of collaboration collaboration betweenbetween locallocal regional andand national organizations. TriTn addition addition to to thethe establishmentestablishment andand maintenancemaintenance ofof village fuelfuelwood wood forests, forests, the VFAsVF As also take care ofof the protection of other forests inin the neighbourhood of of the the village. village. They provide forestforest patrols toto controlcontrol thethe illegalillegal useuse ofof forests, andand voluntaryvoluntary forest fire brigades,brigades, asas well well asas the the carrying carrying out out ofof pestpest controlcontrol measures. TheThe Forestry Forestry Association Association Unions Unions provideprovide marketing servicesservices for thethe sale ofof minor forest productsproducts collectedcollected byby VFAVFA members, suchsuch asas Kuzu Kuzu fibresfibres (for(for wallpaper), wallpaper), mushrooms, moss,moss, andand medicinalmedicinal herbs. In 1977, the revenue from suchsuch salessales amounted amounted to $ 18.718.7 million.million. The T he National National Federation Federation provides provides technical technical advice advice to to the the VFAs VFAs through throuqh its extensionextension agents,agents, and helpshelps them organizeorganize theirtheir activitactivities.ies. TheThe nationalnational forest service extensionextension serviceservice alsoalso providesprovides thethe VFAs VFAs withwith plantingpJanting stockstock andand fertilizer.fertilizer. All cashcash costs for thesethese andand other inputs are subsidizedsubsidized byby thethe Government.Government. 33/

FORESTRY FOR FOR JOINT .TaINT SATISFACTION SATISFACTION OF OF LOCAL LOCAL ANID AND INDUST INDlJSTRIAI" RTAT . NEEDS

Forestry forfor industrialindustrial oror exportexport marketsmarkets maymay also cater for local needs, either indirectly byby providingproviding employment andand income,income, or directlydirectly byby furnishingfurnishing goodsgoods andand services.servi ces. The The local local population population may may also also be be helped helped to to become become producersproducers tl-emselves, themselves, either ofof industrial woodwood fromfrom plantations thatthat theythey cancan managemanage themselves, themselves, oror of forestforest products that they can collect and marketmarket fromfrom an existingexisting forest.forest. TheirTheir grouping grouping intointo cooperaticooperatives ves has greatgreat potentialpotential forfor expandingexpanding this typetype of activity.acti vi"ty.

32/ E.E. Eckholm.Eckholm. Planting forfor the Future: ForestryForestry for for Human Human Needs, Needs, Worldwatcla World watch Paper 26,26, WorldwatchWorldwatch Institute, Institute, Washington, D.C., D.C., 1979,1979, p.P. 55.55 • .ll/33/ BongBong Won Ahn. Ahn. Village ForestryForestry inin Korea,Korea, EighthEighth WorldWorld Forestry Congress,Congress, p.P . 11.11. 21

In one type ofof scheme,scheme, locallocal peoplepeople are organizedorganized forfor producingproducing woodwood asas a cash cropcrop from land theythey themselvesthemselves manage. AnAn exampleexample isis givengi ven byby the smallholdersmallholder plantations organized byby thethe PaperPaper Industries CorporationCorporation ofof thethe PhilippinesPhilippines (PICOP),{PICOPl, whichwhich are designed toto improveimprove thethe lotlot ofof thethe small small farmersfarmers on the edge ofof thethe corporation'scorporation's forestforest land. 34341 / The principal elementelement of this programme is thethe encouragementencouragement ofof farmersfarmers toto grow treestrees as aa cashcash cropcrop onon theirtheir land land forfor salesale to to the the corporation corporation for for use use as as pulpwood. pulpwood. The species grown is AlbizziaAlbizzia falcataria (lfalcatan),{lifaicatalll, a fast-growing leguminous tree,tree, thethe fibrefibre cf whichwhich is is particularly particularly suitable for thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof newsprint. Tt isis ready for harvesting inin ei9hteight years,years, andand saleablesaleable thinningsthinnings cancan bebe harvestedharvested eveneven earlier. earlier. It thusthus provides incomeincome withinwithin a a shortshort enoughenough time time to to make make it it attractiveattractive andand feasiblefeasible forfor smallsmall farmers. The Development BankBank of of the the Philippines Philippines provides provides credit credit for for thethe programme, programme, supportsupport-­ ed inin partpart by aa World BankBank loan. loan. Farmers whowho dodo not have titletitle toto thethe landland areare assassistedi sted inin obtaobtainingining it.it. Tn addition addition to to providing providing advice advice and and tree tree plantingplanting stocks,stocks, the extensionextension agents helphelp inin improvingimproving farmers farmers'1 cropcrop andand livestock livestock practices. practices. FarmersFarmers are are encouraged encouraged toto devote 20%20% of of their their farmfarm area toto foodfood productionproduction and 80% toto tree growing. PTCOPPTCOP undertakes to buy pulpwoodpulpwood from from farmers farmers preparedprepared to enter into a marketing agreement at prevailing market prices, butbut leav-esleaves themthem freefree toto sellsell elsewhere atat higher prices.prices. Starting inin 1968,1968, participationparticipation inin thethe programmeprogram me hashas growngrown rapidly-rapidly sincesince thethe resultsresults achieved byby thethe first first demonstration farmersfarmers mademade itit clearclear that that the the growing growing andand harvestingharvesting of falcatafalcata pulpwood is is wellwell within within the the capabilities capabilities of of small small farmers, farmers, andand quitequite profitable for them. It has been estimatedestimated thatthat thethe financialfinancial raterate ofof returnreturn to thethe farmerfarmer from tree growing wouldwould be aboutabout 25%25%. . By MarchMarch 1978,1978, somesome 3,400 farmers werewere growing growing aboutabout 17,000 haha ofof falcatafalcata forfor pulpwood on on their their small smallholdings. holdings • TheThe programmeprogramme isis now now beingbeing developed further, further, toto introduceintroduce aa secondsecond species,species, EucalyptusEucalyptus degluptadeglupta (Bagras),(Bagrasl, whichwhich can bebe growngrown for for lumberlumber asas well asas pulpwood, andand toto helphelp farmers farmers to set up cooperatives toto improveimprove theirtheir purchasing position.

Producer cooperativescooperatives maymay alsoalso help help toto solvesol\e thethe problems ofof smallsmall privatepri vate ownersowners of natural forest andand perhapsperhaps eveneven of some shifting cultivators. At present muchmuch timber isi s inefficientlyinefficiently extracted andand marketedmarketed (or(or notnot usedused atat all)all l becausebecause ofof organizationalorganizational difficulties. AA producerproducer cooperative cooperative cancan poolpool resourcesresources toto buybuy oror rentrent equipment,equipment, organize fellingfelling andand transporttransport to achieve economies ofof scale,scale, andand undertake directdirect sale, bypassing middlemen.middlemen. There areare successfulsuccessful examplesexamples ofof thisthis inin severalseveral countriescountries ofof Latin America. InIn Guatemala,Guatemala, cooperativescooperatives enabledenabled smallholders to carry outout the sani-sani­ tary felling and marketing of beetle-infestedbeetle-infested pinepine trees.trees. IndiaTndia has has a along long history history of of forest forest labourers' labourers' cooperatives. TheyThey havehave takentaken over cutting rightsrights formerlyformerly allocated toto contractorscontractors by the StateState Forestry Departments.Departments. The vvorkers,workers, through theirtheir organization, scheduleschedule the cutting, transporttransport andand distributiondistribution of labour, overseeoversee financefinance and marketing, and reimburse the State for thethe timbertimber harvested. Maharashtra and Gujarat States havehave large numbersnumbers of forest workers'workers' cooperatives 1,vithwith thousands thousands of of members, members, which have been further extendedextended toto includeinclude thethe collection ofof minorminor forestforest products.products. 35/351

.:HI34/Michael Michael Arnold. AA habitathabitat for moremore thanthan trees: newnew approachesapproaches to tropical forestry.forestry. Ceres: FAOFAO Review Review onon AgricultureAgriculture andand Development,Development, 12(5),12(5). 1979, pp. 32-37.32-37. lJv'35/ T.E.T .E. Edwardson.Edwardson. ProspectsProspects for for Forestry Forestry Cooperatives Cooperatives inin SmallholdinSmallholding andand Forest Communities,Communities EighthEighth World Forestry Forestry Congress,Congress, Jakarta, 1978.1978. For aa moremore detaileddetailed review, see:see: M.M. Digby Digby andand T.S. Edwardson. Edwardson. TheThe Organization Organization ofof ForestryForestry Coopera-Coopera tived'.tives. Occasional Paper No.No. 41,41, The Plunkett FoundationFoundation for CooperativeCooperative Studies,Studies ITD7a.1Lon on, on, 1976. 1976. ' 22

The exploitationexploitation of timber byby cooperativescooperati ves isis likelylikely toto remainremain a a relatively-relatively unusualunusual system, asas most most commercial commercial forestforest isis publicly publicly ownedowned andand managed. managed. ThereThere is great scope, however,however, forfor the the cooperative ccoparctive organizationorganization of the exploitationexploitation ofof otherother forest products.produc ts. In addition toto wood,wood, otherother materialsmaterials thatthat comecome fromfrom thethe forestforest includeinclude thethe corky or fibrous bark of certacertainin trees,trees, thethe resins,resins, gums gums and and latexlatex ofof others,others, thethe naturalnatural ropropeses made by climbers,climbers, thethe thatchthatch of somesome grasses,grasses, thethe tubulartubular stemsstems of certain plantsplants (of which thethe bestbest knownknown are are thethe bamboos),bamboos), thethe productsproducts ofof forestforest ininsectssects (for(for example,example, beeswax and shantungshantung sisilk),lk), and the manymany medicinal products, dyestuffs,dyestuffs, tanningtanning substancessubstances and other chemicals obtained fromfrom forestforest plants and ananimals.ima ls. TheThe pastpast centurycentury hashas seenseen many ofof thethe latterlatter fall into disuse in the industrialized countrcountriesies as synthetic replacementreplacement became available,available . butbut pharmacologistspharmacologists andand chemists areare nownow realizingrealizing thatthat manymany half-half­ forgotten natural products are potentiallypotentially valuable eithereither as sources ofof substancessubstances forfor refinrefinementement or asas modelsmodels for futurefuture syntheticsyntheti c molecules.molecules. It is alsoalso possiblepossible toto catercater for for local loca lneeds needs within within thethe conventionalconventional systemssystems of large­large- scale forestry.forestry. TheThe concept concept of of multi-usemulti-use forestryforestry isis inherent inherent inin thethe veryvery nature of trees. An exampexamplel e ofof a ajoint joint production production systemsystem isis coppcoppice-with-standards.ice-with-standards. AA lowerlower tier ofof smaller treestrees cut cut on on aa shortshort rotation, rotation, typically typically for for fuelwood, fuelwood , isis produced produced by by thethe coppicecoppice method (regeneration(regeneration byby stumpstump sshoots),hoots), while anan upperupper tiertier of full-sizedfull-sized trees isis grown grown from seedlingsseedlings or cuttings.cuttings. ThisThis system system appears appears to to be be well well adapted adapted to to the the heterogeneous heterogeneous composition ofof tropicaltropical forests,forests, asas wellwell asas appropriateappropriate forfor meetingmeeting thethe needsneeds ofof locallocal people. It cancan alsoalso accommodateaccommodate a shortshort cultivationculti vatian periodperiod forfor foodfood cropscrops inin thethe annual annual fellingfellinQ areas, providedprovided sufficient sufficient care care is is taken taken to to avoid avoid any any damagedamage toto stumpstump shootsshoots andand seedlings. Even where forestryforestry has been organizedorganized entirelyentirely forfor industrial ends, small-dimensionedsmall-dimensioned wood is is ana.n inevitable inevitable by-product, by-product, whetherwhether in in ththee formform ofof thinningsthinnings (sm(smalla ll treestrees removedremoved to make room forfor thethe better ones),ones), oror of of branchwoodbranchwood fromfrom finfinala l felling.felling. ThisThis isis often often leftleft in thethe forestforest toto rot,rot, simply simply because because it it does does not not pay pay to to make make it it by by conventional conventional methods.methods. Ways mightmight bebe foundfound to to make make use use of of it, it, for example by assisting aa groupgroup ofof villagesvillages toto invest in efficientefficient mobilemobile charcoal kilnskilns toto bebe usedused inin collaborationcollaboration withwith the forest mana-mana­ gement.gement. In the forests ofof thethe SalvaSalva LacandonaL acandona inin Chiapas, Mexico, a small sawmillsawmill enterprise isis being being setset up up toto makemake useuse ofof thethe topstops andand branchesbranches ofof thethe mahoganymahogany treestrees left byby thethe more demanding industrialindustrial· operation that only takes out peelerpeeler logslogs andand high-qualityhigh-quality sawlogs. TheThe capitalcapital toto setset up up thethe smallsmall sawmill sawmill comescomes fromfrom timbertimber royaltiesroyalties duedue byby lawlaw toto locallocal populations.populations. TheThe traditionaltraditional hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers are are now now supplementing supplementing their meagre agricultural derivedderi ved incomesincomes withwith chichlechichle collectioncollection andand camedoracamedora palmpalm cutting.

Purely commercial forestryforestry may provideprovide other other serv servicesices toto locallocal communities.communities. For exampexample,le, thethe networknetwork of forestforest roads maymay bebe plannedplanned inin suchsuch aa way asas toto reach isolated villages. Indeed,Indeed, in in areas areas being being opened opened up, up, the the road road system system could could be be the the key key toto landland useuse planning byby guidingguiding colonization colonization towards towards the the areas areas ofof thethe bestbest soils.soils. In Belize,Belize, thethe forest service hashas for manymany years been the cchiefhief constructorconstructor ofof ruralrural roads.

CONTRIBUTIONCONTRIBUTIoN OFOF WOOD-PROCESSINGWOOD-PROCESSING INDUSINDUSTRIES I RIES

The wood-processingwood- processin9 industriesindustries potentiallypotentially have a 9reatgreat contributioncontribution to make toto ruralrural development. TheThe directdirect andand indirectindirect off-farmoff-farm employmentemployment created byby forest-based industriesindustries shouldshould helphelp inin siphoning offoff somesome of the population pressurepressure onon thethe landland resource. Inin addition, thethe availabilityavailability ofof a widerwider rangerange ofof construction materialsmateri.als andand of the infrainfrastructuralstructural servicesservices associated associated with with the the industry- industry shouldshould bringbring somesome urbanurban amenities to ruralrural life.life . Inin practice, however,however, forest-basedforest-based industrializationindustrialization hashas soso farfar failedfailed toto achieveachieve itsits expected results.results. TheThe reasonreason seems seems to to be be essentially essentially that that thethe potentialpotential ofof the forests has not yet been effectivelyeffectively mobilized. Until recently, exportsexports of of wood wood fromfrom developingdeveloping countries have bee~been inin thethe form form ofof unprocessed unprocessed logs. logs. Thus,Thus, itit hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated thatthat if thethe 4949 millionmillion m3m exported as logslogs inin 19731973 had beenbeen processedprocessed in the countries ofof origin, this wouldwould havehave broughtbrought them them another another $$2,000 2, 000 million,million, asas wellwell asas severalseveral hundred hundred thousand thousand man-years ofof employment.employment. 36/ AlmostAlmost all all of of the the development development potentialpotential hashas thereforetherefore beenbeen 36/ S.L.s. L. Pringle. Prin9le. Tropical Tropic amoistl moist forests forests in worldin world demand, demand. supply supply and and trade, trade, Unasylva, Unasylva. 28, 1976,1976, p. 118.118. 23 exported with thethe logs.logs. Furthermore,Furthermore, some some logging logging operationsoperations havehave been short-livedshort-lived investments, withwith thethe subsequentsubsequent collapsecollapse of of what what locallocal employmentemployment hadhad been generated. For thethe growthgrowth of forest exportsexports toto contributecontribute fully to development, itit is necessarynecessary to carry outout theirtheir processing processing in in the the developing developing countriescountries nownow exporting themthem inin unprocessedunprocessed form. ThisThis policy policy is is already already being being implemented implemented in aa numbernumber of countries,countries, asas hashas beenbeen mentioned in in Chapter Chapter 1 1 above, above, though though progress progress is is slow. slow. For it toto contributecontribute fully toto ruralrural development, it is desirabledesirable that that most most of of the the employment employment shouldshould be in the countryside and that fuetr productsproducts shouldshould if possible bebe partlypartly destineddestined forfor ruralrural uses.uses. ThisThis should should bebe possible wherever processing results inin aa savingsaving inin weightweight and space,space, as inin thethe casecase ofof sawmilling andand plywood,plywood, and and so so reduces reduces transporttransport costs.costs. More common sensesense and flexibilitflexibilityy are neededneeded in technologicaltechnological transfer andand develop-develop­ mentment.. TooToo often, often, investmentinvestment has has been been in in factories factories using using labour-saving labour-saving technology, technology, expensively importedimported from industrialized countries. It hashas alsoalso beenbeen in towns, wherewhere itit was cheapercheaper to provide the necessarynecessary infrastructure and and establishestablish thethe professionalprofessional andand technicaltechnical personnelpersonnel. 0 Factory designdesign shouldshould bebe adaptedadapted toto circumstances ofof abundantabundant unskilled labour, but should alsoalso take accountaccount ofof scarcescarce capital and managerial talent. Fortunately,Fortunately, sawmilling,sawmilling. whichwhich is thethe mostmost widespreadwidespread form ofof processing andand likelylikely to remain soso in developing countriescountries atat least,least, hashas aa veryvery flexible flexible technology.technology. ItTt cancan therefore bebe viable over the wholewhole rangerange ofof scalesscales from a craft toto aa quitequite sophisticatedsophisticated industry.industry. This meansmeans thatthat investmentinvestment andand mechanizationmechanization cancan bebe highhigh or low,low, accordingaccording toto thethe prevailing situation. TnIn addition, economies ofof scalescale are not particularly significant.significant. However, conventionalconventional sawmillingsawmilling isis often very wasteful,wasteful, usingusing onlyonly a small partpart ofof the timbertimber volumevolume potentially available.available. TheThe flexibility flexibility ofof thethe processprocess cancan bebe utilizedutilized toto reduce waste.waste. In Honduras, for example,example, ratherrather than than accept accept the the closure closure of of many many oldold sawmills withwith the consequent loss ofof employment, thethe GovernmentGovernment established a number of modern plantsplants to buy aa rough-sawn lumberlumber fromfrom the old mills and resaw it toto exportexport standards. ThisThis is is one one of of several several possible possible ways ways of of achieving achieving adequate adequate standardsstandards ofof quality andand reliability reliability inin smallsmall ruralrural mills.

With thethe moremore complexcomplex wood-usingwood-using processes, processes, economies ofof scalescale and rlSlnqrising labour costs havehave forced developeddeveloped countries towards highly capital-intensivecapital-intensive technology. TheThe adaptation ofof thesethese industries toto thethe situationsituation inin thethe developingdeveloping countries presupposes that viable alternatives,alternatives, ifif notnot alreadyalready available,available, cancan bebe designeddesigned andand produced. produced. As aa result of collaboration between FAOFAO and and industry, industry, there isis nownow a portfolioportfolio of appropriate designsdesigns for small-scale labour-intensivelabour-intensive mills,mills, especially especially for for the the manufacture manufacture ofof aa varietyvariety ofof wood-based panels. panels. The transition is not quite so easy in these industriindustrieses asas it isis inin sawmillin~.sawmilling. Nevertheless,Neverthe less, underunder certain certain conditions, conditions, fibreboardfibreboard showsshows somesome promise as a contributorcontributor toto ruralrural developments development, sincesince itit doesdoes notnot requirereouire expensiveexpensive importedimported adhesiadhesives, ves, cancan use aa greatgreat varietyvariety ofof rawraw materialsmaterials (including (including agricultural residues),residues), and producesproduces a product that could easily be used in rural housing.housing. Small-scale paperpaper industriesindustries in in rural rural areas, areas, based based on on the th pulpinge pulping of of non-wood non-wood mate-mate­ rials, havehave been been successfullysuccessfully developed developed inin IndiaTndia and elsewhere. Wood-basedWood-based pulpingpulping hhas,as, in contrast, beenbeen muchmuch moremore difficultdifficult toto modifymodify or developdevelop onon aa scalescale suitable for ruralrural development. However,However. recentrecent advances advances inin mechanicalmechanical andand chemi-mechanicalchemi-mechanical processes hahave ve gonegone aa longlong wayway towards towards overcomingovercoming the the technical technical andand economic economic obstacles. obstacles. EvenEven the possibility of small-scale chemicalchemical pulpingpulping is nownow less rernoteremote thanthan it waswas twotwo or three . years ago.aqo. Because of the more complexcomplex physical and mechanical processes involvedinvolved inin thethe panel andand pulpingpulping industries, industries, they will generallygenerally be less suitablesuitable thanthan sawmilling forfor stimulating rural development.development. ThisThis disability disability might might be be overcome overcome by by groupinggrouping aa numbernumber of individualindividual communitiescommunities toto provideprovide adequate adequate resources resources to support industries ofof thesethese types. However,However, thethe main main obstacleobstacle toto aa successfulsuccessful programmeprogramme ofof ruralrural development development based on the employment andand incomeincome potentialpotential ofof forest forest industriesindustries willwill be thethe availabilityavailability 24 of skiskilledlled operators andand managers. MajorMajor training training programmes programmes will will bebe requiredrequired andand thesethese in turn couldcould makemake a furtherfurther contributioncontribution toto ruralrural development development byby providingproviding additionaladditional edu-edu­ cationalcational opportunities. NewNew formulaeformulae areare also also needed needed forfor ownership,ownership, managementmanagement andand profit sharing, ifif forest-basedforest-based andand otherother industriesindustries areare toto contributecontribute fullyfully to rural development. The capacity of commercial forestry toto employemploy local labour may also be greatly improved by the introduction of appropriateappropriate technology. AA studystudy inin thethe PhilippinesPhilippines compared thethe useuse ofof redesignedredesigned manualmanual oror animal-powered animal-powered devices devices with with chat that ofof importedimported machinery. TheThe cost cost of of manual manual methods methods for for many many operations operations was was foundfound toto bebe lessless thanthan that of mechanicalme:ohanical methods methods that that used used less less labour. labour. For example,example, it costcost $$ 35.50 per 1,000 stems toto thinthin byby bowbow saw.saw, andand $$ 35.27 to do so by chain saw.saw. TheThe manual manual loadingloading of small logs costs $88·$88 per 100100 mm3,3 , as against $$ 91 using aa mechanicalmechanical loader.loader. Under-llnder­ bush cuttmgcutting with aa brushbrush hook costcost $ 23.2423.24 asas comparedcompared withwith $$ 51.35 per haha withwith aa motorized clearing saw.saw. 37/ APPROPRIATE TECHNOT.OGY TECHNOLCGY FCTR FOR UTILTZATTON llTILTZATION

Many waysways havehave been been envisaged envisaged of of increasing increasing thethe supply supply of of forest forest productsproducts forfor ruralrural use or atat leastleast of of satisfyingsatisfying moremore needsneeds withwith the present level of supply. SomeSome ofof thethe current techniquestechniques forfor usingusing woodwood are veryvery wasteful,wasteful, andand cancan bebe improvedimproved byby appropriateappropriate technology. TheThe requirementsrequirements forfor wood wood couldcould bebe decreaseddecreased byby thethe introductionintroduction ofof simplesimple techniquestechniques for thethe preventionprevention of decay andand insectinsect attack.attack. TheThe wood wood ofof many species lastslasts forfor onlyonly aa few yearsyears in contact with thethe soilsoil underunder aa tropicaltropical climate.clima.te. Termite damagedamage in particular is widespreadwidespread and rapid. MostMost of of thethe preservationpreservation treatments treatments available available areare expensive expensive andand have to be carried outout onon anan industrialindustrial scale,scale, but but in in Papua Papua New New Guinea,Guinea, forfor example,example, the Forest ProductsProducts Research Research Centre Centre has has developed developed simplesimple preservationpreservation techniquestechniques forfor rural users. 38/38/ Much decaydecay andand damage damage can can be be attributed attributed toto wrongwrong conditions conditions of of use. use. llntreatedUntreated timber is placedplaced inin contactcontact withwith the soil andand thusthus remainsremains dampdamp and accessible toto fungi.fungi. TheThe top top of timber structuresstructures is is often often left left inadequately inadequately protectedprotected fromfrom thethe elements,elements. crackingcracking inin the sun and absorbing rain.rain. ImprovedImproved building building design,design, byby ensuringensuring protectionprotection fromfrom aboveabove and below, ensures greatergreater durability, durability, and and the the painting painting ofof exposedexposed surfaces cancan furtherfurther improve performance. Much maymay alsoalso bebe achievedachieved by by the the appropriate appropriate choice choice of of tree tree species. species. SomeSome ofof the most durable timbers, suchsuch asas teak,teak, areare now now exported exported becausebecallse ofof theirtheir highlyhiqhly sought-after characteristics, andand thethe highhigh priceprice theythey fetch. Research into the duralility ofof lessless well-known species, species, particularly thosethose withwith highhigh growth rates,rates, maymay inin thethe meantimemeantime helphelp rural users. TheT he customarycustomary methodsmethods ofof extracting energyenergy fromfrom firewoodfirewood are highlyhiqhly inefficient,inefficient, allowing mostmost ofof thethe heatheat toto escape. C':ookingCooking on on an an open open fire fire is is estimated estimated toto needneed fivefive times asq.s muchmuch energyenergy asas onon aa kerosenekerosene stove,stove, and and even even with with a a simple simple wood-burning wood-burning stovestove 90% 90 % of the heatheat may be wasted. AA well-designedwell-designed stove,stove. simplysimply builtbuilt ofof mudmud or mudmud bricks, can greatly reducereduce thethe amountamount ofof woodwood needed,needed, and also increase thethe range range of of wood wood andand other organicorganic fuelsfuels thatthat cancan bebe convenientlyconveniently burned. TheThe addition addition ofof aa chimneychimney also removesr emoves smoke from the house, vherewhEre it isis a danger to health.heal th.

171n.J ILO.ILO. AppropriateA ro riat TechnologyT hn 0 inin PhiliPhilippine ine ForestrForestry. ReportRe ort of of thethe JointJoint PhilippinesPhili mes Bureau of Forest Development/ILO/GovernmentDevelopment/ILO/Government of Finland Project,Proiect, Geneva,Geneva; 11977, 77. p. xv.xv. 1JlV / PapuaPapua NewNew Guinea, Forest ProductsProducts ResearchResearch Centre.Centre. Manual Manual of of Rural Rural Wood Wood Preservation. DepartmentDepartment ofof Forests,Forests, MinistryMinistry forfor NaturalNatural Resources,Resources, Port Moresby,M,resby, 19771977.. 25

Studies inin IndonesiaIndonesia 3._2/J2/ have have shown shown that that good good stove stove design design can can increase increase efficiency from 6%6% to 7% between 23%23% andand 19 19%.%. ByBy using cooking potspots thatthat sit deeper andand moremore tightly intointo thethe cookingcooking hole, hole, aa furtherfurther improvementimprovement isis obtained. TheThe overalloverall gaingain fromfrom combining thethe newnew stoves stoves andand potspots isis aa reduction of b5%65% inin thethe woodwood requirement requirement.. ByBy simple measures, suchsuch as as always always covering covering thethe potpot withwith aa lidlid andand always replacing a cooking potpot byby a a waterwater potpot whenwhen cooking cooking has has finished, finished, it it cancan bebe ensuredensured thatthat allall the avaavai-i­ lablelable eenergynergy is used.used. WasteWaste can can also also be be prevented prevented byby thethe useuse ofof suitablesuitable toolstools forfor cuttingcutting fire-wofire-woodod toto sizesize forfor useuse inin aa stove.stove. 40/

TnIn countries withwith a cold season,season~ wherewhere woodwood is importantimportant forfor domesticdomestic heating,heating, similar gainsgains maymay bebe mademade byby betterbetter stovestove designdesi<:jn andand byby simplesimple techniquestechniques of insulation. Local application ofof heat,heat, for exampleexample throughthrough warmingwarmin<:j panspans andand hot-waterhot-water bottles, bottles, are often more efficient than general space heating. BetterBetter methods methods for for making making andand usingusing charcoal can alsoalso bringbring greatgreat gains.gains. AA modernmodern retort givesgives threethree timestimes moremore charcoalcharcoal per unitunit ofof woodwood thanthan aa traditionaltraditional burning-pit, andand maymay also provideprovide valuable distillation products such as woodwood alcoholalcohol andand biogas. biogas. EnergyEnergy maymay alsoalso bebe savedsaved byby ensuringensuring thatthat wood is is asas dryasdry as possiblepossible beforebefore beingbeing converted.converted. CharcoalCharcoal burning burning shouldshould thereforetherefore preferebly taketake placeplace atat thethe endend ofof aa drydl'Y seasonseason ThThee charcoalcharcoal thusthus producedproduced cancan be made to go still furtherfurther byby improvementsimprovements inin thethe design ofof charcoalcharcoal stoves, thethe efficiencyefficiency ofof whichwhich can be increased more easilyeasily thanthan thatthat of wood-burning stoves. stoves. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, thethe direct direct use use of of fuelwood fuel wood should bebe preferredpreferred wherever possible because of the substantial loss ofof energy in the conversion toto charcoal.charcoal. ThThee more efficientefficient use ofof fuel is vitalvital inin thethe faceface ofof increasingincreasing difficultiesdifficulties inin suppliessupplies and notnot leastleast in its relationrelation toto nutrition.nutrition. Despite much research,research, nono oneone hashas yetyet inventedinvented a cheaper or moremore adaptableadaptable systemsystem forfor capturingcapturing andand storing solar energyenergy thanthan leavesleaves and wood. PetroleumPetroleum fuelsfuels andand naturalnatural gasgas maymay bebe easiereasier to to distributedistribute and and moremore conve-conve­ nient to use, andand coalcoal containscontains moremore energyenergy perper unitunit ofof volumevolume than wood. However,However, thesethese fuels come fromfrom non-renewablenon-renewable resourresources,ces , entailentail heavyheavy capitalcapital investment forfor their production andand distribution,distribution, and require thethe useruser toto installinstall and and maintainmaintain costlycostly equipment.equipment. Liquid andand gaseousgaseous fuelsfuels cancan be extracted from wood,wood, and charcoalcharcoal pressed intointo briquettesbriquettes has as highhigh an energyenergy contentcontent perper unitunit of of weight weight as as coal. coal. The alternatives, however,however, are asas y-etyet rarelyrarely usedused inin thethe ruralrural areasareas of of developing developing countries,countries, notnot leastleast because because thethe techniques of manufacture are veryvery littlelittle known. known.

W39/ H.H. Singer,Singer. Improvement Improvement of ofFuelwood Fuelwood Cooking Cooking Stoves Stoves and and Economy Economy in in Fuelwood Fuel wood Consumption, ReportReport No.No. TA:TA: 1315,1315, FAO,FAO, Rome, 1961, P.p. 12.12. 40/ J.J. Ki-Zerbo,Ki-Zerbo, and and G. G. Lepeleire.Lepeleire. L'Amélioration L' Amelioration des des Foyers Foyers pour pour PUtilisation JlUtilisati on DomestigueDomestique du du Bois Bois de de Feu: Feu: sesses PossibilitésPossibilites etet sonson ImpactImpact au Sahel, CILSS,CILSS, Mai 1979, p.p. 8. 26

FRAMEWORK FOR ACTIONACTION

POLITICAL COMMITMENT COMMITMENT

The previousprevious sectionsection hashas shownshov.m how manymany waysways there there are are inin which forestry forestry is not only beneficial but essential toto ruralrural development.development. For themthem toto bebe translatedtranslated intointo actionaction involves political decisions atat the highest level.level. TheThe viability viability ofof aa ruralrural development development programme dependsdepends on thethe effectiveeffective integrationintegration ofof all all thethe activitiesactivities involved: agriculture, transport, educationeducation and soso onon as as wellwell as as forestry. forestry. ThereThere mustmust thereforetherefore bebe a clearly stated recognitionrecognition atat thethe highesthighest politicalpolitical levellevel ofof thethe importanceimportance ofof thethe rolerole played played byby eacheach sectoral activity.activity. ThisThis must must permeate permeate to to all all levels levels of of officials officials and and professional professional officersofficers so thatm tt theirtheir expertise maymay bebe mutuallymutually respected and their workwork properly coordinated.coordinated. In the case of forestry,forestry, thethe relationsrelations withwith agriculture areare ofof particularparticular importance.importance. TheThe production of foodfood cropscrops andand ofof treestrees and forests, togethertogether with with thethe managementmanagement ofof natural ecosystems, are interrelatedinterrelated parts parts of of plant plant husbandry, husbandry, which, which, combined combined withwith animalanimal husbandry, is itselfitself partpart ofof aa largerlarger landland andand waterwater husbandry.husbandry. Without thisthis understanding by all concernedconcerned therethere isis veryvery little little chance chance of of any any rural rural development development programme programme being being successfully implemented.implemented.

In some quarters inin thethe pastpast there has been aa tendency to to regard regard forestryforestry asas aa peri­peri- pheral activity to which no no priority priority need need be be attached. attached. BecauseBecause forest forest projects projects areare essentially long-term,long-term, ththe e short-termshort-term benefits benefits are are difficult difficult to to identify identify and and so so have have been been discounted toto thethe point ofof beingbeing treated treated asas negligible.negligible. ThoughThough comprehension isis still farfar from beingbeing universal, it is now becomingbecoming muchmuch better better understoodunderstood thatthat forestryforestry is anan integral partpart ofof thethe ruralrural development development andand that foresters havehave aa muchmuch broaderbroader fieldfield ofof activity than merely'merely-caring caring forfor large areas ofof wildwild or semi-wild forest.

Liaison at the centralcentral governmentgovernment levellevel isis inadequateinadequate withoutwithout comparablecomparable coordina-coordina­ tion at the local level. TheThe widest widest possible possible involvement, involvement, includingincluding that of forestersforesters should be ensured wherever there isis aa discussiondiscussion ofof anyany aspectaspect ofof ruralrural development, development, including foodfood production, production, soil soil and and water water conservation, conservation, energyenergy policy,policy, ruralrural industry, housing development,development, resettlement resettlement oror ruralrural roadroad construction.construction. TheThe involvement involvement ofof officialsofflcials mustmust bebe accon-tpaniedaccompanied by by involvement involvement of of the the people. people. TheThe preciseprecise form itit maymay take willwill vary from country toto countrycountry butbut it it isis essentialessential in assisting toto locatelocate projects, organizing self-help,self-help, recruitingrecruiting locallocal technicaltechnical skillsskills oror forming forming cooperativecooperative societies.societies. Popular participation can be almost totaltotal inin tree-plantingtree-planting outsideoutside forestsforests but but isis bound bound to remain moremore limitedlimited inin thethe managementmanagement of complex oror fragilefragile forest ecosystems.ecosystems. Its mostmost importantimportant functionfunction is toto inculcateinculcate aa sensesense ofof self-relianceself-reliance among among locallocal commu-commu­ nities andand encourageencourage themthem to promote enterprises themselves,themselves, within within the the framework framework ofof the national plans and subject always toto thethe activitiesactivities beingbeing approvedapproved asas technicallytechnically andand economically sound. The degree of political and administrativeadministrative action required willwill varyvary greatlygreatly accordingaccording to the circumstances. TheThe mostmost straightforwardstraightforward sort ofof forestryforestry projectproject isis thethe creationcreation of a large-scale plantationplantation oror thethe managementmanagement of natural forest. Provided there isis nono problem of populationpopulation pressure pressure oror extensive grazing,grazing, thethe necessary actionsactions areare mainlymainly technical, financialfinancial and organizationalorganizational on on all all of of which which there there is is a alarge large literature. literature. MoreMore commonly thethe existingexisting useuse is thethe mainmain limitinglimiting factorfactor andand thethe developmentdevelopment outsideoutside thethe forest oror plantationplantation area isis likelylikely toto bebe aa priorprior conditioncondition for forestry. The scale andand typetype ofof problem involved in small-scalesmall-scale treetree planting planting may may cevercover a a widewide range.range . SomeSome people people are are already already cultivating cultivating trees trees as as part part of of their their land land husbandry husbandry and and only only need help in the form ofof thethe provisionprovision ofof plantingplanting stockstock ofof newnew species andand thethe introductionintroduction of new usesuses andand systems. systems. OthersOthers whowho areare cultivatingcultivating treestrees butbut areare limited limited by by shortageshortage ofof land need helphelp inin raisingraising agriculturalagricultural productivity. ThereThere are, are, however, however, many many people people who who 2727 have relied onon existingexisting naturalnatural woodlandwoodland oror trees andand havehave little oror nono experienceexperience inin plantingplanting them. ThisThis isis the the situation situation which which existsexists inin manymany arid areas andand calls for a veryvery great effort of education andand mobilization.mobilization . If such anan efforteffort isis to succeed itit requires high-levelhigh-level political commitmentcommi tment and the fullest possible popularpopular participation.

MOTIVATION,MOTIVATION. MOBILIZATIONMOBILIZATION AND AND EDUCATION. EDUCATION

MatiMotivation vation mustmust beginbegin withwith thethe ruralrural people themselthemselves. ves. PeoplesPeoples'1 pa.rticipationparticipation inin development aeti activities vities isis not only aa meansmeans butbut alsoalso anan endend inin itself. itself. TheThe organizingorganizing ofof smalls mall farmersfarmers andand landlesslandless labourers labourers into into strong strong homogeneous homogeneous groupsgroups isis anan importantimportant aspect ofof ruralrural developmentdevelopment work.work. TheThe links links between between programmeprogramme and and peoplepeople areare thethe extension workers,workers, changechange agentsagents oror development development workersworkers atat thethe community community level,level, whowho playplaya a crucialc rucial rolerole inin settingsetting inin motionmotion a processprocess ofof participatoryparticipatory development.development. TheyThey must be properly trained, preparedprepared andand briefed,briefed, andand mustmust possesspossess not not onlyonly technicaltechnical extension capabilities butbut also socialsocial skillsskills and and a a sensesense of of dedication dedication and and accountabilityaccountability to thethe people.people. The motivationalmoti vational process requiredrequired willwill varyvary greatlygreatly according according toto thethe existingexisting placeplace of treestrees and forests in local practice. It isis necessarynecessary not not only only toto generategenerate motivationmotivation forfor planting butbut aboveabove allall to sustain itit throughthrough thethe monthsmonths (or(or moremore often often years)year-s) during during which which the y-oungyoung trees trees remain remain easilyeasily vulnerable.vulnerable. TheThe mainmain needneed isis toto communicatecommunicate thethe necessary ideas toto those on whose landland treestrees areare toto be planted, butbut it isis alsoalso desirabledesirable toto informinform urban populations andand increase increase theirtheir solidaritysolidarity withwith the ruralrural developmentdevelopment process. The task isis challengingchallenging butbut perhapsperhaps lessless so so tha.n than thatthat ofof introducingintroducing industrial methodsmethods to people who havehave nono previous experience ofof thern.them . Although itit has taken mankindmankind a veryvery long time toto develop thethe science and art ofof forestry-forestry and tree plantingplanting thethe principlesprinciples andand techniques cancan easilyeasily be assimilatedassimilated by rural peoplepeople familiar withwith agriculture andand horti-horti­ culture. SomeSome countries countries have have successfully successfully introduced introduced thethe basicbasic notionsnotions ofof forestry intointo primary oror secondarysecondary schooling.schooling. Species recognition,recognition, thethe importanceimportance ofof trees andand forfor forests inin ruralrural life,life, the the destructive destructive effects effects of of over-exploitation, over-exploitation, and ard simple simple methods methods ofof tree-planting cancan allall bebe taughttaught toto quitequite youngyoung children.children. AnAn exampleexample isis providedprovided byby thethe State of GujaratGujarat inin India,India, wherewhere somesome schools schools run run tree tree nurseries. nurseries. TheThe childrenchildren shareshare inin the proceeds fromfrom thethe salesale of of thethe plantingplanting stockstock theythey helphelp toto produceproduce andand becomebecome directly intinterestederested inin thethe progress ofof plantations.plantations.

TheThe most effectiveeffecti ve methodmethod ofof extension is probablyprobably participation inin thethe actualactual workwork and benefits ofof tree-planting.tree-planting. ManyMany countriescountries organizeorganize nationalnational treetree days days onon whichwhich large numbers of people,people, mostly volunteers, plantplant trees. The The effectiveness effecti veness of of this this approa.ch approach is probablyprobably inverselyinversely proportionalproportional toto thethe distancedistance between between thethe plantingplanting sitesite andand thethe volunteers!volunteers' home oror work pplace.lace. AA treetree planted planted andand thenthen nevernever seenseen againagain isis likelylikely toto make only aa fleeting impression andand toto teachteach nothingnothing about the maintenance or use ofof trees. MoreMore effective effecti ve by by far far is is the the involvement invol vement of of local local people,people, whowho areare therebythereby drawndra wn inin into thethe protectionprotection ofof theirtheir trees.trees. To the extent that voluntary work replaces paidpaid labourlabour however, it takestakes awayaway thethe opportunityopportunity to put money intointo thethe pocketspockets ofof thethe ruralrural poorpoor andand give themthem anan earlyearly benefit fromfrom the plantation. TheThe possibilitypossibility ofof suchsuch earningsearnings waswas oneone of the factors thatthat helpedhelped toto persuadepersuade villagersvillagers to to accept accept the the woodlot woodlot plantingplanting schemescheme inin Gujarat discusseddiscussed earlier.earlier.

Particular importanceimportance needsneeds toto be attached to the role of women. TheyThey are generallygenerally the main users ofof fuelwood,fuelwood, whichwhich theythey oftenoften gathergather themselves,themselves, soso thatthat theythey areare likelylikely to be very conscious ofof the potentialpotential benefits ofof tree-plantingtree-planting andand thethe conservationconservation ofof forests. It is notnot byby chancechance thatthat itit has has been been the the women women whowho havehave triggered thethe ChipkoChipko movement inin areasareas of northern India,India, inin whichwhich locallocal peoplepeoph,: havehave intervenedintervened toto preventprevent thethe felling ofof trees.trees. TheirTheir closeness closeness to to young young children children gives gi ves them them special special power power toto shapeshape thethe ideas of the next generation,generation, and the theme "plant aa tree forfor youryour child"child" has greatgreat potentialpotential appeal toto them.them. ThisThis has has been been one one ofof thethe initiativesinitiatives adopted adopted atat thethe internationalinternational levellevel byby non-govnon-governmentalernmental organizationsorganizations concernedconcerned withwith children,children, as aa contributioncontribution to the Interna-Interna­ tional YearYear ofof thethe Child.Child. 28

The organizationorganization of visits by villagers toto similar communitiescommunities that are alreadyalready enjoying benefitsbenefits fromfrom forestryforestry or tree-planting isis anotheranother potentialpotential meansmeans ofof spreadingspreading information andand enthusenthusiasm.iasm. OneOne ofof thethe greatestgreatest problemsproblems isis the the time time lapse lapse between between planting andand its its results.results. EvenEven inin thethe tropics,tropics, thethe intervalinterval forfor somesome sitessites and and objectivesobjectives is wellwell over tenten years. ToTo see see the the possible possible future future with with one'sonels ownown eyes is farfar moremore impressiimpressive ve thanthan merelymerely toto hearhear about about itit from from experts experts from from outside outside the the community community inin whomwhom one hashas littlelittle confidence. FriendlyFriendly rivalryri valry between villagesvillages oror regions maymay alsoalso playplaya a useful part as aa catalystcatalyst forfor action.action. INFORMATION BASE Correct actionaction cancan onlyonly bebe basedbased on on aa soundsound knowledgeknowledge of the situation andand oneone ofof thethe main hindranceshindrances toto ruralrural development, andand toto forestryforestry actiactivities vities within it,it, is thethe scarcityscarcity of thethe necessarynecessary- information. information. There isis nono simplesimple remedyremedy andand more resourcesresources willwill certainly havehave toto bebe devoteddevoted to obtaining andand analysinganalysing data.data. TheThe collectioncollection ofof informationinformation is expensiveexpensive and it is thereforetherefore essentialessential that that what what isis sought sought is is that that which which isis needed needed forfor the decisions thatthat havehave toto be taken.taken. At the national or regional level, informationinformation isis requiredrequired to to determine determine government government strategy andand the need forfor legislation andand specialspecial programmesprogrammes ofof action. action. This entailsentails thethe collection of general informationinformation thatthat allowsallows thethe identificationidentification of the problems thatthat needneed toto be tackled. AtAt the the local local level, level, the the community community needs needs to to know know about about thethe availabilityavailability ofof landland and its potential,potential, thethe treestrees to to use use and and the the techniques techniques for for growing growing them,them, andand whatwhat productsproducts they will produce. AtAt all all levels, levels, the the people people involved involved will will want want to to know know whatwhat willwill bebe thethe cost ofof the goodsgoods and labour and effort that haveha ve to be putput in, thethe amountamount andand valuevalue ofof the goods andand otherother benefits whichwhich will bebe produced,produced, and the cost of the other possible productsproducts they have toto give upup inin orderorder toto grow trees.trees. Only whenwhen theythey see see thethe result asas worthwhileworthwhile will they bebe preparedprepared to support thethe effort andand sacrificesacrifice involved.invol ved. For thethe developmentdevelopment ofof aa rationalrational landland useuse policy,policy, the first requirementrequirement isis aa landland capabilitycapability survey to'to.indicate indicate thethe areasarea.s mostmost suitablesuitable forfor forestry,forestry, cultivationcultivation oror grazing.grazing. With thethe aidaid ofof datadata onon requirements,requirements, onon presentpresent andand potentialpotential yieldsyields andand onon the erosion hazards of different land categories,categories, suchsuch aa surveysurvey cancan provideprovide the basis for aa targettarget distribution of land between uses.uses.

In conducting sucsuchh surveys,surveys, therethere isis much much scopescope forfor thethe improvementimprovement ofof informationinformation on treetree resources. TheThe classic c lassic form form of of enquiry enquiry is is the the forest forest inventory, inventory, whichwhich typicallytypically is anan assessmentassessment ofof thethe woodwood volumevolume and thethe growthgrowth raterate within thethe boundariesboundaries ofof aa forest.forest. Vast areas ofof thethe forestsforests of of developing developing countriescountries havehave notnot yetyet beenbeen surveyed.surveyed. Only 30% to 40% ofof thethe areaarea of closed forest ofof AsiaAsia andand AfricaAfrica havehave beenbeen inventoriedinventoried inin anyany manner.manner. Though thethe intensiintensive ve susurveyrvey ofof areasareas which willwill remainremain remoteremote from forestry andand other community activityactivity isis notnot aa priority,priority, thethe aimaim inoin anyany countrycountry wherewhere forestsforests constituteconstitute anan important potential source ofof economiceconomic activity shouldshould be the development ofof aa regularlyregularly maintained nationalnational forestforest survey toto provideprovide thethe basicbasic datadata forfor planningplanning forestry andand related communitycommunity activity.

Major shortcomings ofof thethe conventionalconventional forest inventoryinventory forfor decision-makingdecision-making onon . rural developmentdevelopment areare the absence of datadata onon treestrees outside thethe forest,forest, andand thethe failure toto include enough data data oonn products products andand benefitsbenefits otherother thanthan wood. EvenEven thethe informationinformation onon forestforest woodwood maymay bebe inadequate inadequate for for local local needs, needs, forfor itit is usually limited to commercial species, andand volumevolume is a lessless usefuluseful measuremeasure thanthan massmass forfor thethe assessmentassessment of of the the energy energy content ofof woodwood as as a a fuel. fuel. AA fullyfully adequate survey would covercover allall treestrees insideinside andand outside forests, andand mightmight eveneven includeinclude thosethose standingstanding in private gardens insofarinsofar asas theythey can contribute toto thethe stockstock ofof consumableconsumable products.products. It wouldwould distinguishdistinguish the main species or speciesspecies groups,groups, andand would would use densitydensity toto convertconvert volumevolume into mass. It wouldwould also covercover all thethe productsproducts that comecome from treestrees and and forest,forest, except except that that food food production production fromfrom orchards wouldwould normallynormally be be assessed assessed byby agriculturalists.agriculturalists. In areas,areas, where the forest cover is ofof critical importanceimportance inin regulatingregulating waterwater flowflow from watersheds, aa typologicaltypological survey isis also needed, in order toto identifyidentify the areas atat riskrisk andand thethe potentialpotential of the forestforest to support suchsuch usesuses asas grazing grazing and and fuel fuel wood wood cutting.cutting. 29

Within anyany specificspecific areaarea the aim shouldshould be to find out asas muchmuch as possible about the physical and biologicalbiological environment environment (climate, (climate, soil, soil, vegetation, land use,use, etc.);etc. l; the existing forest and forest relatedrelated resources,resources, wood wood use, use, wood wood needsneeds andand marketmarket prospects;prospects; and the population, includingincluding social social systems,systems, landland tenure, numbers,numbers, incomeincome andand expenditure,expenditure, labour budget, andand food habitshabits 41/. TheThe people people themselves themselves should should be be involved involved asas muchmuch asas possible in the survey-,survey, in order toto createcreate the the feeling feeling ofof trusttrust and and confidence confidence thatthat willwill bebe needed when ththee timetime comescomes to beginbegin thethe actionaction programmprogrammes.es. Adequate physicalphysical datadata onon thethe relationsrelations betweenbetween vegetation, vegetation, landland useuse andand erosionerosion areare notoriously difficult to assemble, eveneven thoughthough the relations betweenbetwe.,n the destruction of cover and the disasters ofof siltationsiltation andand floodingflooding are allall tootoo evident.evident. GivenGiven thethe urgencyurgency ofof suchsuch problems, policypolicy makers willwill usually have toto acceptaccept broadlybroadly based based assessments assessments as as aa basisbasis for decisions aboutabout measures toto protectprotect and and toto securesecure the the livelihood livelihood andand well-beingwell-being ofof the large numbernumber of people atat risk.risk.

ForF or informationinformation about demand,demand, forestforest managersmanagers areare oftenoften contentcontent to study the market, perhaps adding aa nominalnominal figure figure for for material material gatheredgathered by by right-holders. right-holders. AsAs soso muchmuch rural consumption takestakes placeplace outsideoutside thethe market,market, this cancan onlyonly lead to gross underestimatesunderestimates ofof actual needs. AA full full survey survey should should include include thethe assessmentassessment of of all all the the existing existing and and potentialpotential requirements forfor forestforest products,products, leavingleaving until until laterlater the the question question ofof whetherwhether theythey are toto be satisfied throughthrough the market or throughthrough some other mechanism.mechanism . An adequateadequate understandingunderstanding ofof thethe useuse ofof fuelfuelwood wood is is particularly particularly important.important. AlthoughAlthough this isis byby farfar thethe largestlargest use use of of wood wood inin mostmost developingdeveloping countries,countries, itit is is generally- generally thethe oneone about which thethe leastleast is known.known. GovernmentsGovernments areare increasingly recognizingrecognizing the need to carry out special consumption surveyssurveys toto remedyremedy thethe informationinformation gap_gap. ToTo bebe ofof use in clarifying what hashas to be done, suchsuch surveyssurveys must must do do more more than than just just identify identify how how much much fuelwood fuel wood andand charcoal isis being used.used. TheyThey mustmust alsoalso covercover alternative fuels, suchsuch as cropcrop residues and animalanimal dung, and try toto shedshed lightlight on alternatialternative ve supplysupply options. RESEARCH ANDAND THETHE COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATION OFOF NEWNEW KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

Forestry researchr esearch is is already already being being conducted conducted hyby aa hosthost ofo f organizationsorganizations at every levlevele l from the locallocal to thethe internationalinternational andand from the applied to the purely scientific.scientific. However,Howeve r, thertheree has been far tootoo little workwork in thethe area thatthat fallsfalls betweenbetween forestry andand agricultureagriculture.. ThisThis gap gap can can probably probabl y best best be be filled filled by by collaborationcollaboration betweenbetween exexistingisting insti­insti- tutions, ratherrather than than the the founding founding ofof newnew ones. Much knowledge knowledge already already exists exists in in the the form form of of lo localcal practices. practices. This is aa fieldfield inin which thethe specialistsspecialists havehave muchmuch toto learnlearn from from people people whowho havehave discovereddiscovered techniquestechniques for improving and maintaining thethe productivityproductivity of of their their landland.. TheThe reconditioningreconditioning of soil,soil, the prevention ofof erosion,erosion, andand the moderationmoderation of climate are notnot thethe only benefits threaten­threaten- ed by deforestation. Over the centuries farmsfarms havehave takentaken manymany foodbearingfoodbearing species fromfrom forests and improvedimproved them them for for use use as as agricultural agricultural crops. crops. This isis true, forfor example,exampl e, of the "home gardens" foundfound inin thethe countrysidecountryside ofof suchsuch countriescountries as Indonesia,Indonesia, Sri LankaL anka and Thailand,Thailand, wherewhere fruitfruit treestrees occupy occupy different different levels levels of of the the canopy canopy and and provideprovide foodfood almost all the year round.round. TheseThese cases cases of of the the mixing mixing of of planted planted oror self-sownself-sown treestrees withwith agricultural cropscrops havehave mostlymostly beenbeen foundfound by observing land useuse systems in various localities.

41/ SeeSee FAO. FAO. DraftDraft Guidelines Guidelines on on Collection Collection of of Socio-Economic Socia-Economic Data Data forfor DesigningDesigning RuralRUral Development Projects, Proiects, Rome,Rome, 1979;1979; Idem.Idem. GuidelinesGuidelines for for the the Development Development of LessLess FavourableFavoyrable EnvironmentEnvironment Areas:Areas: AA Comprehensive Comprehensive Integrated Integrated Management Management Approach, Roma, 1977;1977; LL.E. .E. Virone.Virone. AA Practical Practical Approach Approach to to Rural Rural Development, Development. Borgo aa Mozzano,Mozzano, AgriculturalAgricultural StudiesStudies Centre, 1969.1969. rim

30

There isis enormous enormous scopescope forfor communicating communicating locallocal knowledgeknowledge to to other other areasareas of simi­simi- lar climateclimate and and conditionsconditions withinwithin a country and stillstill moremore betweenbetween countries.countries. International organizations suchsuch asas FAOFAO andand the InternationalInternational Union ofof ForestryForestry Research OrganizationsOrganizations (IUFRO)OUFRO) havehave an an importantimportant partpart to play in collecting andand disseminating data.data. Certain national organizationsorganizations havehave also also beenbeen active active in in recent recent years. years. ThereThere areare many many usefuluseful recent handbookshandbooks onon tree-plantingtree-planting outsideoutside thethe forestforest .'tV.42/. ExchangesExchanges of of personnel personnel couldcould also bebe greatlygreatly expanded,expanded, especiallyespecially betweenbetween countriescountries of similar climateclimate butbut differentdifferent language.

LEGAL FRAMEWORKFRAMEWORK

LawsLa ws are directivesdirecti ves forfor implementing implementing policypolicy and guidelines forfor resalresolving ving conflicts. Rural developmentdevelopment a.ndand forest forest policies therefore needneed toto bebe codifiedcodified byby law.law. However, to be effectiveeffective thethe la.wlaw mustmust accuratelyaccurately reflectreflect these policiespolicies andand also be enforceable. Existing legislationlegislation affectingaffecting thethe useuse of of forests forests and and land land often often falls falls dowri down onon bothboth thesethese countscounts. .

Most forestforest law stillstill reflectsreflects earlierearlier policies policies directeddirected primarilyprimarily towardstowards conservation.conservation. It has notnot generallygenerally beenbeen conceived asas a positivepositive agent of development, butbut merelymerely asas a means of preventingpreventing the misuse ofof the forest, andand hashas been been developeddeveloped chiefly in terms ofof litigation 43/:!]I. . The consequence ofof thisthis emphasis on the deterrent andand punitivepunitive aspectsaspects ofof forest lawlaw isis thatthat law law becomesbecomes anan obstacleobstacle to to development, development, embodyingembodying thethe constraintsconstraints onon their useuse ofof thethe forestforest andand itsits benefits.benefits that so frustrate forestforest neighbours.neighbours. Most countries therefore faceface thethe need to overhaul theirtheir forestforest laws, soso thatthat theythey properly reflectreflect theirtheir new new concernsconcerns andand policiespolicies aimingaiming atat aa moremore equitableequitable distributiondistribution of benefitsbenefits in favour ofof thethe ruralrural people inin andanci around around the the forests. forests. There isis alsoalso aa widewide rangerange of other laws and regulations,regulations, such as legislationlegislation on landland tenure,tenure, land reform,reform, coloniza-coloniza­ tiont.ion and credit, thethe provisions provisions of of \vhich which directlydirectly oror indirectly indirectly influence influence the the implementation implementation of rural forestryforestry programmes.programmes. ThisThis legislation legislation too too may may need need toto bebe reexamined,reexamined, toto seesee whether it isis consistentconsistent 1,vith with thethe desireddesired new directions.directions. Particularly difficultdifficult problemsproblems arisearise in in thethe lawlaw ofof landland ownership.ownership. WhereWhere landlesslandless peasants havehave occupied forestforest land illegally for aa numbernumber ofof y-ears,years, strictstrict enforcement enforcement ofof the law cannot bebe contemplatedcontemplated unless unless associatedassociated with aa generousgenerous resettlementresettlement programme. Recognition ofof aa faitfait accompli, however,however, must notnot be be done done inin suchsuch aa wayway asas to to condone condone future repetitions. Worst ofof allall perhaps is thethe absence of any explicitexplicit solution,solution, for this leaves thethe squatterssquatters inin perpetualperpetual fearfear of of expulsion expulsion andand thethe authoritiesauthorities withwith no credible protection against further encroachment.encroachment. WhereWhere aa governmentgovernment wisheswishes toto convert certain publicpublicly-ownedl y- owned forest forest landland to to a a systemsystem ofof agriculture agriculture withwith forest forest fallow,fallow, itit isis desirable that the cultivatorscul ti vators bebe givengi ven some security of tenure, ifif necessarynecessary throughthrough newnew legislation. However successfulsuccessful the policypolicy and law may be, therethere will will alwaysalways bebe thosethose who who followfollow their ownown interests atat thethe expenseexpense ofof thosethose ofof thethe public.public. Because the private gaingain fromfrom over-exploiting aa common resource resource exceedsexceeds thethe user'suseris share in the cocollectivellective loss,loss, therethere will always bebe aa needneed for for protectiveprotective legislation.legislation. ThisThis isis notnot justjust a a modernmodern oror westernwestern notion: in Afghanistan, forfor example, inin thethe mountainsmountains of Nuristan, thethe villagevillage elders fine those whowho take more than theirtheir share ofof woodwood or wantonlywantonly damagedamage trees. trees.

42/ See:See: FAO.FAO. Forestry Forestry for for Local Local Community Community Development, Development, Rome,Rome, 1978;1978; FAO.FAO. ChinaChina Forestry SupportSupport forfor Agriculture,Agriculture, Rome,Rome , 1978;1978; National AcademyAcademy ofof Sciences.Sciences. Undend-r-xoloitedr exploited TropicalTro ical PlantsPlants withwith PromisinPromising Economic Economic Value,Value, Eashington,Eashington, D.C. 1975; Idem.Idem. Leucaena:Leucaena: PromisingPromising Forage Forage and and Tree Tree Crop Crop forfor thethe Tropics,Tropics 1977.1977. Idem. UnderexploitedUnderexpl oited TropicalTropical LegumesLegumes withwith PromisingPromising EconomicEconomic ValueValue (in prepa­prepa- ration); Idem.Idem. FirewoodF irewood Crops. Crops, Bush Bush and and Tree Tree Species SpeCles for for Energy Energy ProductionProduction (in preparation). IV FAO.FAO. Modernizing Modernizing institutions institutions to to promote promote forestryforestry development. development. TheThe State State of of Food Food and AgricultureAgriculture 1969,1969, Rome,Rome, 19691969,, p. 127127 - 133.133. 31

However,Howeve r, law enforcementenforcement should, should, as as farfar asas possible, bebe visiblyvisibly in the intinteresterest ofof those who are are askeaskedd toto restrrestraina in theirthe ir activities.acti vities. In too many casescases itit hashas seemedseemed tha.ttha t rural peoplepeople areare keptkept outout ofof forestsforests in i n orderorder that t hat outsiders outsiders may may consume consume theirtheir produce.produce. This isis notnot onlyonly duedue to the restrictive and and punitivepunitive naturenature ofof muchmuch forest law,law , butbut alsoalso to its oftenoften excessivelyexcessi vely complicatedcomplicated nature.nature. IfTf the the legislationlegislation couldcould be simplified andand reduced to its essentials,essentials, it it is is much much more more likely like l ythat tha peoplet people would would bebe ableable toto understandunde rstand and acceptaccept ththee needneed fforo r certaincertain restrictions onon thethe useuse ofof forestsforests andand forestforest landland 44/.44/. ThereThere isis alsoa l so considerableconsiderable scopescope forfor improvementimprovement inin thethe systemsystem forfor thethe enforcementenforcement of forestforest lawla w 45/. In many cocountriesuntries the samesame person is bothboth ththee forester chargedcharged withwith technical supervisionsupervision anda nd thethe gua.rdianguardian of the llawa w responsible forfor detectingdetecting andand prosecutingprosecuting miscreants. TheThe sasameme officer maymay also have powerpower ttoo grantgrant permitspermits forfor activities thatthat are otherwiseotherwise illegal,illegal, andand toto collectcollect finesfines fromfrom admittedadmitted culpritsculprits withoutwithout recourse toto thethe courts. At bestbest ththeseese duties andand powerspowers areare aa distractiondistraction fromfrom thethe fforester'sor ester ' s technicaltechnical job, andand atat worstworst theythey areare anan invitationinvita tion toto corruption.corruption . LawLaw enforcement enforcement should should bebe thethe role ofof a branchbranc h of the police,police, oror ofof anan independentindependent corpscorps of forestforest gguards,uards, oror (as(as inin thethe Korean Village Forest Associations)Associations) ofof patrolspatrols ofof villa.gers,villagers, andand sentencing sentencing shouldshould bebe byby properly constitutedconstitute d coucourts.rts . TheTh egranting granting of of permits permits should should not not bebe thethe prerogativeprerogati ve ofof individuals,indi viduals, butbut ofof boardsboards underunder somesome publicpubli c powerspowers ofof inspectioninspection andand control.control.

ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION ANDAND MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

TraditionallyTraditiona lly thethe publicpubli c forestry adn-Linistrationadministration or or forestforest servserviceice hashas beenbeen thethe motivemoti ve force in the sector.sector. ThereThe re is is stillstill an an important importa nt placeplace forfor thethe foresterforester asas thethe skilledskille d manager aandnd protprotectorector of forestsforests and plplantations,antations, aandnd ththee foreforestst seservicer vice can serve asas aa vehicle forfor bringing thosethose skiskillslls to hear.bear. It iiss necessary, however,however, toto examineexamine thethe roles involvedin vol ved inin fforestryorestry supportsupport forfor ruralrural development, development, andand the the alternative aIternati ve ways ways of of organizing organiz ing it. In many developingdeveloping countries countries itit isis no\-vnow r recognizedecognizp-d that that forestry's forestry's administrative structuresstructures mustmust bebe changed changed ifif forestersforesters are are to t obecome become agents agent sof of development d evelopment insteadins tead ofof ononlyl y conservationists.conservationists. AA model model is is emerging emerging which which takestakes intointo accountaccoun t thethe complexcomplex inter­inter- relationships betweenbetween the social, protectiveprotective anda nd productiveproducti ve functionsfunctions of thethe forforestest 46/. The role ofof thethe foresterforester isis notnot only only purelypurely technicaltechnical butbut alsoa l so socialsocial inin thethe sensesense ofof making decisionsdecisions inin thethe lonlong-termg - term interests ofof alla ll concerned.concerned. OnOn occasionoccasion itit may may involveinvol ve the embarassing problemproblem of placing the interests ofof somesome distantdistant publicpublic authority or privatepri vate owner above thethe short-short-termt erm interestsinterests of of thethe locallocal population.population. TheThe questionquestion arises ofof whatwhat rolerole thethe foresterforester should should now now perform,perform, andand whatwhat qualifi-qualifi­ cationscations he requiresrequires forfor it. The forestryforestry profession profession has has already already undergone undergone 8.n an evolutionevolution from oneone predominantly based in thethe biologicalbiological sciesciencesnces toto oneone orientedorie nte d toto thethe managementmanagement ofo f produproduction.ction . TheThe foresterforester must must now now become become in in addition addition aa managermanager of of socio-economic socio-economic systems,systems, andand alsoalso be he sufficientlysufficiently conversant conversant with with agricultureagriculture and and animal anima lhusbandry husbandry toto bebe abablele to relaterelate themthem toto chethe broaderb r oader needsneeds ofof ruralrural development.development. Education, training and preparation for thisthis broadenedbroadened profession hashas to bebe rathrathere r different frfromom thethe cconventionalonventiona l patte patterns.rns . BesidesBesides the the biologybiology ofof trees,t r ees , thethe ecology ecology ofof forests, andand thethe usesuses ofof forestforest products, products, the the student student needs needs to to learn learn enough e nough aboutabout agricul­agricul- tureture andand thethe socialsocia l sciencessciences toto havehave somesom e insight insight intointo thethe lifelife ofof forestforest dwellersdwellers andand farmingfarming

111LI-1/ M. m Allaoui.Allaoui. L'Administration foresti~re,forestire, lesles populations populations ete t lesles exiexigences ences dudu d6veloppernent,d~veloppement, Eighth Eighth World World Forestry Forestry Congress, Congress, Jakart Jakarta,a, p. 7.7.

45/ D.D. Kamweti.Kamweti. LawLaw andand ForestForest Marla Management ement inin KenyaKenya (M.Sc. thesis,thesis, UniversityUniversity ofof Oxford, 1979).1979). 46/ DavidDavid Palin. AA Comparative Com arative StudyS tud ofof PublicPublic ForestryForestr AdministrationAdministration inin thethe Asia-Asia Pacific Region,Region, FAO,F f\O , RomeRom e (inin preparation).preparation. 32 communities, andand enoughenough aboutabout thethe theorytheory andand techniquestechniques of communication toto makemake imagi­imagi- native use ofof allall thethe meansmeans of of informinginforming andand persuadingpersuading people.people. On thethe technical side, more attentionattention shouldshould bebe givengiven toto fuelwoodfuel wood production, toto forest foodsfoods andand forage, andand toto fast-growing trees suitablesuitable for for planting planting outsideoutside forestsforests and and capable capable of of supplyingsupplying fuel,fuel, food, fodder andand otherother ruralrural needs. ThisThis may may require require some some substantial substantial changes changes inin thethe sy-llabusessyllabuses ofof uniuniversity versity facultiesfaculties andand institutesinstitutes where forestry isis taught.taught. Possession of the appropr'iateappropriate expertize will notnot inin itselfitself ensureensure thatthat aa forestforest service has thethe essentialessential capacitycapacity toto organizeorganize forestryforestry development. development. Its organizational structure must also be appropriate to the task. With soso much ofof forestforest landland in thethe ownershipownership ofof thethe state, inin mostmost countriescountri es thethe tasktask ofof thethe forestforest administrationadministration willwill remain primarily that ofof a managermanager ofof publicpublic land and ofof thethe resourcesresources ofof thatthat land. TheThe management management objectivesobjectives ofof producing a sustainedsustained output,output of wood rawraw matermaterialial forfor industry,industry Janc-I and of maintaining environ-environ­ mental stabilistability,ty, remainremain asas importantil'nportant asas ever.ever. ManyMany of of the the mainmain organizationalorganizational iissuesssues facingfacing forestforest administrations stemstem fromfrom thesethese continuingcontinuing management tasks.tasks. TheyThey includeinclude how best best toto controlcontrol thethe useuse ofof largelarge remoteremote areasareas withwith limited resources ofof trainedtrained man-man­ power, andand howhow to ensureensure thethe continuitycontinuity ofof financingfinancing necessary for thethe orderlyorderly developmentdevelopment of suchsuch aa long-termlong-term activactivitiyitiy asas industrial forestry 47/.11/. There areare a a numbernumber of of alternative alte rnative approaches approaches for for effectively effectively accommodating accommodating withinwithin an organizational structurestructure the the social social objective objective that that has has been been added added to to the the production production andand protection objectives of forestforest management. AnAn exampleexample is thethe multiplemultiple uses ofof its forestforest land that the Indonesian StateState Forest CorporationCorporation hashas developeddeveloped in order toto broadenbroaden thethe range of benefits accruing toto local people.people. Alternatively, newnew institutional arrangements can be eenvisaged.nvisaged. ForFor example, example, state-ownedstate-owned land land maymay (without any change ofof ownership)ownership) be placed at thethe dispositiondisposition ofof local authoritiesauthorities toto bebe n-ianagedmanaged inin thethe locallocal interest.interest. This is thethe solutionsolution adopted in Senegal, withwith thethe transfertransfer of of responsibility- responsibility toto thethe LocalLocal Commu-Commu­ nity Councils.Councils. In suchsuch casescases the foresterforester isis answerableanswerable to the local authority.authority. AA moremore definitive stepstep with similarsimilar implications is thethe transfertransfer ofof titulartitular ownership ownership toto thethe locallocal authority. WithWith eithereither arrangement, arrangement, thethe forester forester may may either either be be directly directly employed employed byby thethe local authority or secondedseconded to itit..

Another alternativealternative wouldwould bebe toto entrustentrust the management ofof forestsforests to organizations of locallocal people,people, suchsuch asas farmers!farmers' associationsassociations andand cooperatives.cooperatives . TheseThese might might be be simplysimply marketing organizations, asas have have quite quite commonly commonly beenbeen formedformed toto handlehandle non-wood forestforest products, suchsuch asas mushroomsmushrooms andand resin. TheyThey could could also a lso be be more more ambitious, ambitious, engaging engaging in the harvesting andand even processing ofof thethe timber,timber, as has occurred underunder thethe SocialSocial Forestry SystemSystem inin Honduras.Honduras. AlongsideAlongside the the tasktask ofof managingmanaging the the forests forests iiss that of helping toto getget treestrees plantedplanted out-out­ side the forests andand collaboratingcollaborating with thethe agricuagriculturalltura l servicesservices to promotepromote thethe combinationcombination of trees withwith crop and livestockIi vestock production. ThisThis shouldshould notnot bebe seenseen asas thethe tasktask ofof aa newnew profession, butbut as aa nevvnew job job for for foresters. foresters. ManyMany ofof the skills requiredrequired areare thosethose thatthat theythey alreadyalready- possess, possess, whilewhile others cancan bebe acquiredacquired throughthrough in-service trainingtraining andand bebe includedincluded inin the educationeducation of of future future foresters. foresters. TheThe supplies supplies of of treetree products products from from outsideoutside andand insideinside forests areare twotwo partsparts ofof aa singlesingle setset of of problems. problems. To To divide divide them them between between Ovotwo separateseparate .'corps corps ofof specialistsspecialists wouldwould weakenweaken both, and would destroy destroy ththeireir unityunity ofof action.action. Moreover,Moreover thethe futurefuture of relationsrelations with forestforest neighbours will bebe greatlygreatly improvedimproved ifif thethe foresterforester isis ' thethe provider of new benefitsbenefits asas well as thethe continuingcontinuing guaguardianrdian againstagainst over-exploitation.

The various waysways in which forestryforestry can bebe adapted to make itit more responsiveresponsive andand effective in the context of rural developmentdevelopment havehave inin commoncommon thethe growinggrowing role ofof thethe forester asas anan extensionextension agent.agent. In many situations,situations, the task of foresters willwill bebe toto adviseadvise and assistassist others inin thethe planting,planting, tendingtending and utilization ofof trees,trees, ratherrather than than toto managemanage

47/ FAO.FAa. ModernizingModernizing institutions to promotepromote forestryforestry development,development, op. op. cit.;cit.; Louis VeVelay.lay. Administra.tiveAdministrative OrOr anization ofof ForestrForestr in thethe DeveloDevelo inin Countries, Fa:FO: FDT/75/51a),FDT/75/5 a, FAO,FAa, Rome,Rome, JulyJuly 1978.1978. -

33 them themselves.themsel ves. ThisThis does does not not necessarilynecessaril y meanmean thatthat aa separateseparate forestryforestry extension extension service shouldshould be created, especiallyespecially asas itit could could heightenheighten the risk ofof farmers receivingreceiving contradictory advice from different sources. AdviceAdvice onon forestryforestry might might moremore effectivelyeffectively be channelledchannelled through existingexisting agricultural extensionextension machinery.machinery. It does mean, however,however, that aa majormajor challengechallenge facingfacing forestforest administrationsadministrations inin many many countriescountries isis that that of of adding adding to their existingexisting capability-capability toto managemanage forestforest landland aa capabilitycapability toto deliverdeliver the necessary support to enable others toto growgrow and manage trees,trees, bothboth withinwithin the forest and outside it. FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS

If forestry andand tree-planting are toto playplay theirtheir fullfull partpart inin ruralrural development, development, theythey will need aa larger shareshare ofof thethe governmentgovernment budget thanthan hashas beenbeen customary. customary. The patternpattern of spending thatthat isis required is, however,however, suchsuch as as to to contribute contribute to to both both thethe growthgrowth andand the distribution of national income. TheThe capitalcapital investmentinvestment requiredrequired isis mainlymainly inin worksworks thatthat can be achieved by thethe rurarurall labourlabour forceforce combinedcombined withwith aa smallsmall elementelement ofof importedimported machmachineryinery andand equipment.equipment. With thethe useuse ofof fast-growingfast-growing species,species, returnsreturns cancan bebe expectedexpected in a fewfew years. TheyThey should should include include importimport savingssavings onon foodfood and fuels, asas wellwell asas providingproviding the basis forfor exportexport earningsearnings oror import import savings savings on on woodwood products.

The extension forester needsneeds toto bebe ableable toto negotiatenegotiate particularparticular formsforms ofof financialfinancial andand material aidaid toto villagers.villagers. One One of of the the main main impediments impediments toto tree,-plantingtree-planting in many areasareas is thethe inabilityinability toto givegive upup thethe useuse ofof anyany food-producingfood- producing land, howeverhowever poor, whilewhile waitingwaiting for treetree productsproducts toto becomebecome available.available. ThisThis may may be be overcome overcome by by offeringoffering loansloans onon easy terms oror byby givingqi ving grantsgrants or food aid.aid. WhereWhere thethe treestrees areare destined destined forfor sale,sale, advance advance purcha.sepurchase of thethe crop may-may be be possible.possible. InterimInterim intercropping intercropping with with food food productsproducts would would also help.help.

Land rehabilitation and soil conservationconservation programmes inin mountainousmountainous andand semi-aridsemi-arid landslands are particularlyparticularly onerousonerous andand requirerequire generousgenerous help.help. InTn most cases thethe financialfinancial burden of restoration workwork is beyondbeyond the economic possibilitiespossibilities ofof thethe locallocal people.people. AsAs such work wwillill resultresult inin thethe protectionprotection ofof humanhuman settlements andand agricultural landslands down-down­ stream, itit is is only onl yright right that that society society as as a whole,a whole, through through the the government government should should share, share inin the cost.

Incentive schemesschemes and conservation programmes toto restorerestore degraded degraded landland needneed toto be carefullycarefully chosen, soso asas toto leadlead toto increasedincreased production production andand toto enable farmersfarmers toto becomebecome self-reliantself- reliant again.again. Incentives that havehave been successfully appliedapplied inin watershedwatershed manage-manage­ ment and soil conservation programmes include tax exemptions, cost-sharingcost- sharing contracts,contracts, villagevillage revolvingrevol ving funds, villagevillage labourlabour banks,banks, thethe provisionprovision ofof government-paidgovernment-paid labour,labour, food forfor work,work, subsidiessubsidies inin kindkind oror cash,cash, and preferentialpreferential rates inin irrigationirrigation systemssystems andand other governmentgovernment services.services. 34

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

TThe he previous pagespages havehave givengi ven manymany examples ofof the waysways in whichwhich forestryforestry cancan contribute to ruralrural development development andand somesome ofof thethe principalprincipal factorsfactors whichwhich havehave toto bebe takentaken into account inin formulatingformulating a a programmeprogramme of of a action.ction. These contributions areare ofof particular concern to those developing countries countries where,where, untiluntil recently,recently, itit hashas generallygenerally beenbeen believedbelieved thattha.t vast vast areas areas of arablearable soils laylay beneathbeneath tropical forests, waitingwaiting to to bebe exploited e xploited byby modern methodsmethods ofof agriculture,a.griculture, suchsuch aass mechmechanization.aniz ation. TheThe neednee d forfor thethe mostmost carefulcareful husbandry ofof ththesee se soils, whichwhich arcare often often shallow s ha llow and a nd very very fragile, fragile is, isnovs., now beingbe ing inincreasinglyc reas ingly recognized. The implementationimplementation of of forestry forestry policiespolicies a ass anan essentialessential andand integralintegral partpart ofof ruralrural development in involves vol ves no no great areat technical technical problems. problems. There is, however,however, anan urgenturgent needneed toto inculcate a far deeperdeeper understandingunderstanding on the part ofof all concerned,concerned, fromfrom policypolic y makersmakers toto land users,users, ofof thethe importanceimportance ofof treestrees bothboth withinwithin and outside thethe forests.forests. TheThe opportunity opportunity costs of the various usesuses toto whichwhich land may be putput mustmust bebe carefullycarefully examined;examined; the short term benefitsbenefits mustmust bebe weighedweighed against thethe long-termlong-term needneed toto conserveconserve thethe environmentenvironment and ensure the optimum andand sustainedsustained productivity productivity of of plants plants and and animals. animals. ThisThis is a mattermatter which transcendstranscends anyany locallocal interestsinterests andand is vitalvital toto allall sectorssectors of of the the community, community, toto both both rural andand urbanurban dwellersdwellers alike.alike. TheThe amount amount of of work work that that will will have have toto bebe donedone isis immenseimmense and adequateadequate popularpopular supportsupport willwill bebe nenecessaryc essary if the programmes envisagedenvisaged are toto bebe feasible. An indicationindication of of the the scale scale ofof acti activity vity likely to be required is givengi ven by FAO's latestlatest perspective study, Agriculture:Agriculture: TowardToward 2000. 2000. AA cautious cautious estimate estimate suggests suggests that that fuelwood fuel wood consumption inin thethe developing market market economieseconomies maymay riserise by the year 20002000 from thethe present levellevel ofof aboutabout 1,0001,000 million m3m 3 to some 1,200 m3,m 3 , andand that,that, ifif availabilityavailability werewere not a limiting factor, thethe figurefigure wouldwould bebe closercloser toto 1,9001,900 m3m 3 48/.1§/. If it is assumedassumed thatthat 300 millionmillion m3m 3 wouldwould comecome fromfrom usingusing upup the the Ii living ving capital capital of of trees trees andand forests, forests, thenthen toto replace thisthis capitalcapital andand makemake goodgood the shortfall ofof 700700 million m3,m 3 , itit wouldwould be necessary to install capacitycapacity toto produceproduce thethe equivalentequivalent ofof anan extraextra 1,0001,000 million million m3m 3 ofof woodwood in 20 years.years. TheThe "average "average tree" tree" is is too too fictitious fictitious an an entity entity forfor suchsuch figuresfigures toto bebe translatedtranslated into a certain numbernumber ofof trees. However, However, even even making making optimistic optimistic assumptions assumptions about about thethe provision ofof energyenergy from from crop crop residues, residues, biogasbiogas reactors, reactors, solar cookers,cookers, andand other sources, and about improvementsimprovements inin the efficiency ofof stovesstoves and cookingcooking apparatus, apparatus, ththee required extra numbernumber ofof treestrees wouldwould bebe severalseveral thousandthousand million.million.

The volumevolume of woodwood requiredrequired forfor allall other other needs needs in in the the 4ileveloping jeveloping marketmarket economyeconomy countries is much smallersmaller and isis estimated atat 550 millionmillion m m'. . TheThe needneed forfor resourcesresources inin the immediate localitylocality isis also less, soso that that itit should should bebe relativelyrelatively easyeasy toto meetmeet thethe requi-requi­ rements from existingexisting forests, althoughalthough greatgreat effortsefforts willwill bebe neededneeded if this is toto bebe -achieved on on a asustainable sustainable basis. basis. Hovever,However, ifif most most of of this this wood wood isis toto bebe processedprocessed inin rural industry,industry, therethere is is a avast vast task task ahead ahead in in designing de signing and and installinginstalling plant,plant, andand inin trainingtraining workers, technicianstechnicians andand managers.

The degree of effort required toto ensureensure thatthat treestrees make make theirtheir full full contributioncontribution toto integrated land husbandryhusbandry will will vary vary very very greatly greatly from from area area to to area. area. ThereThere isis an immense task a.headahead ifif 240 millionmillion peoplepeople who areare estimated toto livelive byby non-continuousnon-continuous cultivationculti vation inin tropical forests areare all all to to be be reached reached by by extensionextension services. TheyThey will will need need to to be be helped helped not only with suchsuch thingsthings asas credit andand plantingplanting stockstock butbut alsoalso withwith thethe meansmeans tot6 becomebecome settled communitiescommunities with accessaccess to schooling, health facilitiesfacilities and otherother necessities. In comparison expanding thethe number number of of trees trees overover thethe vastvast areasareas of settledsettled agriculture is relativelyrelati vel y easier.

48/ FAO. Agriculture:Agriculture: TowardToward 2000,2000, Rome,Rome, 1979,1979, p.p. 129.129. 3S35

Hardest of all inin termsterms of of material material organization organization is is no no doubt doubt thethe renovationrenovation ofof mountainous regions regions ravagedravaged by by erosion erosion.. ToTo restorerestore depleted depleted andand erodederoded soils andand establish aa vegetationvegetation covercover whichwhich can fulfil production andand protection protection objectives, objectives, itit is necessary not just to plant trees oror appropriateappropriate cropscrops whereverwherever needed,needed, but to treat the land byby constructingconstructing check check dams, dams, bench bench terraces terraces andand other other structures structures to stabilize the soil. To make this possible, radicalradical alterations a lterations in in the the present present production production systems systems will will oftenoften bebe necessary. AtAt the the very very minimum, minimum, local local people people will will bebe facedfaced withwith a transitional period during whichwhich their their customary customary practices practices areare severely disrupted. TheThe rehabilitation rehabilitation ofof mountain watershedswatersheds requiresrequires enormous labourlabour andand materialmaterial inputs,inputs, and thethe costscosts areare far beyond thethe resourcesresources ofof thethe populationspopulations of the upland areas.areas. In order toto provideprovide thethe necessary supportsupport andand incentives,incentives, massivemassive outside outside aida id willwill bebe needed,needed, muchmuch ofof itit fromfrom the industrialized countries. The hardest tasktask inin psychologicalpsychological terms isis probablyprobably that of reintroducingr eintroducing treestrees inin the arid andand semi-aridsemi-arid grazing grazing lands lands of of the the world, world, which which occupy occupy some some 14 14 millionmillion km2.km2 • Although isolated isolated shade shade trees trees and and relic relic forests forests existexist andand are are valued,valued, therethere isis a general<:jeneral bbeliefelief that thethe lalackck ofof treestrees is dictateddictated by thethe climate.climate. ThereThere are are far far too too few few successfulsuccessful fuel woodwood plantations plantations to to have have an an impact impact as as demonstrationsdemonstrations toto thethe contrary,contrary, andand fodderfodder orchards areare soso fewfew thatthat eveneven many forestersforesters andand agriculturalagricultura l specialistsspeci alists haveha ve nevernever seenseen one. TheThe widespread widespread combination combination ofof collectivecollective landland ownershipownership withwith privateprivate herd owner-owner­ ship, withwith the attendant incentiincentiveve forfor eacheach graziergrazier to maximize thethe sizesize ofof hishis herd,herd, is an obstacle even toto rationalrational pasturepasture management, letlet alone thethe plantingplanting of of trees. trees. TheThe magnitude ofof thethe psychological psychological barrier barrier should not,not, however, discouragediscourage determineddetermined effortsefforts to introduce change,change, forfor these vast areas threatenthreaten toto turnturn toto desertdesert if if not not betterbetter managed. managed.