3. Maxwell's Equations and Light Waves
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Glossary Physics (I-Introduction)
1 Glossary Physics (I-introduction) - Efficiency: The percent of the work put into a machine that is converted into useful work output; = work done / energy used [-]. = eta In machines: The work output of any machine cannot exceed the work input (<=100%); in an ideal machine, where no energy is transformed into heat: work(input) = work(output), =100%. Energy: The property of a system that enables it to do work. Conservation o. E.: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one form into another, but the total amount of energy never changes. Equilibrium: The state of an object when not acted upon by a net force or net torque; an object in equilibrium may be at rest or moving at uniform velocity - not accelerating. Mechanical E.: The state of an object or system of objects for which any impressed forces cancels to zero and no acceleration occurs. Dynamic E.: Object is moving without experiencing acceleration. Static E.: Object is at rest.F Force: The influence that can cause an object to be accelerated or retarded; is always in the direction of the net force, hence a vector quantity; the four elementary forces are: Electromagnetic F.: Is an attraction or repulsion G, gravit. const.6.672E-11[Nm2/kg2] between electric charges: d, distance [m] 2 2 2 2 F = 1/(40) (q1q2/d ) [(CC/m )(Nm /C )] = [N] m,M, mass [kg] Gravitational F.: Is a mutual attraction between all masses: q, charge [As] [C] 2 2 2 2 F = GmM/d [Nm /kg kg 1/m ] = [N] 0, dielectric constant Strong F.: (nuclear force) Acts within the nuclei of atoms: 8.854E-12 [C2/Nm2] [F/m] 2 2 2 2 2 F = 1/(40) (e /d ) [(CC/m )(Nm /C )] = [N] , 3.14 [-] Weak F.: Manifests itself in special reactions among elementary e, 1.60210 E-19 [As] [C] particles, such as the reaction that occur in radioactive decay. -
Dielectric Permittivity Model for Polymer–Filler Composite Materials by the Example of Ni- and Graphite-Filled Composites for High-Frequency Absorbing Coatings
coatings Article Dielectric Permittivity Model for Polymer–Filler Composite Materials by the Example of Ni- and Graphite-Filled Composites for High-Frequency Absorbing Coatings Artem Prokopchuk 1,*, Ivan Zozulia 1,*, Yurii Didenko 2 , Dmytro Tatarchuk 2 , Henning Heuer 1,3 and Yuriy Poplavko 2 1 Institute of Electronic Packaging Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany; [email protected] 2 Department of Microelectronics, National Technical University of Ukraine, 03056 Kiev, Ukraine; [email protected] (Y.D.); [email protected] (D.T.); [email protected] (Y.P.) 3 Department of Systems for Testing and Analysis, Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems IKTS, 01109 Dresden, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected] (A.P.); [email protected] (I.Z.); Tel.: +49-3514-633-6426 (A.P. & I.Z.) Abstract: The suppression of unnecessary radio-electronic noise and the protection of electronic devices from electromagnetic interference by the use of pliable highly microwave radiation absorbing composite materials based on polymers or rubbers filled with conductive and magnetic fillers have been proposed. Since the working frequency bands of electronic devices and systems are rapidly expanding up to the millimeter wave range, the capabilities of absorbing and shielding composites should be evaluated for increasing operating frequency. The point is that the absorption capacity of conductive and magnetic fillers essentially decreases as the frequency increases. Therefore, this Citation: Prokopchuk, A.; Zozulia, I.; paper is devoted to the absorbing capabilities of composites filled with high-loss dielectric fillers, in Didenko, Y.; Tatarchuk, D.; Heuer, H.; which absorption significantly increases as frequency rises, and it is possible to achieve the maximum Poplavko, Y. -
The Lorentz Force
CLASSICAL CONCEPT REVIEW 14 The Lorentz Force We can find empirically that a particle with mass m and electric charge q in an elec- tric field E experiences a force FE given by FE = q E LF-1 It is apparent from Equation LF-1 that, if q is a positive charge (e.g., a proton), FE is parallel to, that is, in the direction of E and if q is a negative charge (e.g., an electron), FE is antiparallel to, that is, opposite to the direction of E (see Figure LF-1). A posi- tive charge moving parallel to E or a negative charge moving antiparallel to E is, in the absence of other forces of significance, accelerated according to Newton’s second law: q F q E m a a E LF-2 E = = 1 = m Equation LF-2 is, of course, not relativistically correct. The relativistically correct force is given by d g mu u2 -3 2 du u2 -3 2 FE = q E = = m 1 - = m 1 - a LF-3 dt c2 > dt c2 > 1 2 a b a b 3 Classically, for example, suppose a proton initially moving at v0 = 10 m s enters a region of uniform electric field of magnitude E = 500 V m antiparallel to the direction of E (see Figure LF-2a). How far does it travel before coming (instanta> - neously) to rest? From Equation LF-2 the acceleration slowing the proton> is q 1.60 * 10-19 C 500 V m a = - E = - = -4.79 * 1010 m s2 m 1.67 * 10-27 kg 1 2 1 > 2 E > The distance Dx traveled by the proton until it comes to rest with vf 0 is given by FE • –q +q • FE 2 2 3 2 vf - v0 0 - 10 m s Dx = = 2a 2 4.79 1010 m s2 - 1* > 2 1 > 2 Dx 1.04 10-5 m 1.04 10-3 cm Ϸ 0.01 mm = * = * LF-1 A positively charged particle in an electric field experiences a If the same proton is injected into the field perpendicular to E (or at some angle force in the direction of the field. -
Metamaterials and the Landau–Lifshitz Permeability Argument: Large Permittivity Begets High-Frequency Magnetism
Metamaterials and the Landau–Lifshitz permeability argument: Large permittivity begets high-frequency magnetism Roberto Merlin1 Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1040 Edited by Federico Capasso, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved December 4, 2008 (received for review August 26, 2008) Homogeneous composites, or metamaterials, made of dielectric or resonators, have led to a large body of literature devoted to metallic particles are known to show magnetic properties that con- metamaterials magnetism covering the range from microwave to tradict arguments by Landau and Lifshitz [Landau LD, Lifshitz EM optical frequencies (12–16). (1960) Electrodynamics of Continuous Media (Pergamon, Oxford, UK), Although the magnetic behavior of metamaterials undoubt- p 251], indicating that the magnetization and, thus, the permeability, edly conforms to Maxwell’s equations, the reason why artificial loses its meaning at relatively low frequencies. Here, we show that systems do better than nature is not well understood. Claims of these arguments do not apply to composites made of substances with ͌ ͌ strong magnetic activity are seemingly at odds with the fact that, Im S ϾϾ /ഞ or Re S ϳ /ഞ (S and ഞ are the complex permittivity ϾϾ ഞ other than magnetically ordered substances, magnetism in na- and the characteristic length of the particles, and is the ture is a rather weak phenomenon at ambient temperature.* vacuum wavelength). Our general analysis is supported by studies Moreover, high-frequency magnetism ostensibly contradicts of split rings, one of the most common constituents of electro- well-known arguments by Landau and Lifshitz that the magne- magnetic metamaterials, and spherical inclusions. -
Chapter 22 Magnetism
Chapter 22 Magnetism 22.1 The Magnetic Field 22.2 The Magnetic Force on Moving Charges 22.3 The Motion of Charged particles in a Magnetic Field 22.4 The Magnetic Force Exerted on a Current- Carrying Wire 22.5 Loops of Current and Magnetic Torque 22.6 Electric Current, Magnetic Fields, and Ampere’s Law Magnetism – Is this a new force? Bar magnets (compass needle) align themselves in a north-south direction. Poles: Unlike poles attract, like poles repel Magnet has NO effect on an electroscope and is not influenced by gravity Magnets attract only some objects (iron, nickel etc) No magnets ever repel non magnets Magnets have no effect on things like copper or brass Cut a bar magnet-you get two smaller magnets (no magnetic monopoles) Earth is like a huge bar magnet Figure 22–1 The force between two bar magnets (a) Opposite poles attract each other. (b) The force between like poles is repulsive. Figure 22–2 Magnets always have two poles When a bar magnet is broken in half two new poles appear. Each half has both a north pole and a south pole, just like any other bar magnet. Figure 22–4 Magnetic field lines for a bar magnet The field lines are closely spaced near the poles, where the magnetic field B is most intense. In addition, the lines form closed loops that leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole. Magnetic Field Lines If a compass is placed in a magnetic field the needle lines up with the field. -
Equivalence of Current–Carrying Coils and Magnets; Magnetic Dipoles; - Law of Attraction and Repulsion, Definition of the Ampere
GEOPHYSICS (08/430/0012) THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD OUTLINE Magnetism Magnetic forces: - equivalence of current–carrying coils and magnets; magnetic dipoles; - law of attraction and repulsion, definition of the ampere. Magnetic fields: - magnetic fields from electrical currents and magnets; magnetic induction B and lines of magnetic induction. The geomagnetic field The magnetic elements: (N, E, V) vector components; declination (azimuth) and inclination (dip). The external field: diurnal variations, ionospheric currents, magnetic storms, sunspot activity. The internal field: the dipole and non–dipole fields, secular variations, the geocentric axial dipole hypothesis, geomagnetic reversals, seabed magnetic anomalies, The dynamo model Reasons against an origin in the crust or mantle and reasons suggesting an origin in the fluid outer core. Magnetohydrodynamic dynamo models: motion and eddy currents in the fluid core, mechanical analogues. Background reading: Fowler §3.1 & 7.9.2, Lowrie §5.2 & 5.4 GEOPHYSICS (08/430/0012) MAGNETIC FORCES Magnetic forces are forces associated with the motion of electric charges, either as electric currents in conductors or, in the case of magnetic materials, as the orbital and spin motions of electrons in atoms. Although the concept of a magnetic pole is sometimes useful, it is diácult to relate precisely to observation; for example, all attempts to find a magnetic monopole have failed, and the model of permanent magnets as magnetic dipoles with north and south poles is not particularly accurate. Consequently moving charges are normally regarded as fundamental in magnetism. Basic observations 1. Permanent magnets A magnet attracts iron and steel, the attraction being most marked close to its ends. -
Permanent Magnet Design Guidelines
NOTE(2019): THIS ORGANIZATION (MMPA) IS OBSOLETE! MAGNET GUIDELINES Basic physics of magnet materials II. Design relationships, figures merit and optimizing techniques Ill. Measuring IV. Magnetizing Stabilizing and handling VI. Specifications, standards and communications VII. Bibliography INTRODUCTION This guide is a supplement to our MMPA Standard No. 0100. It relates the information in the Standard to permanent magnet circuit problems. The guide is a bridge between unit property data and a permanent magnet component having a specific size and geometry in order to establish a magnetic field in a given magnetic circuit environment. The MMPA 0100 defines magnetic, thermal, physical and mechanical properties. The properties given are descriptive in nature and not intended as a basis of acceptance or rejection. Magnetic measure- ments are difficult to make and less accurate than corresponding electrical mea- surements. A considerable amount of detailed information must be exchanged between producer and user if magnetic quantities are to be compared at two locations. MMPA member companies feel that this publication will be helpful in allowing both user and producer to arrive at a realistic and meaningful specifica- tion framework. Acknowledgment The Magnetic Materials Producers Association acknowledges the out- standing contribution of Parker to this and designers and manufacturers of products usingpermanent magnet materials. Parker the Technical Consultant to MMPA compiled and wrote this document. We also wish to thank the Standards and Engineering Com- mittee of MMPA which reviewed and edited this document. December 1987 3M July 1988 5M August 1996 December 1998 1 M CONTENTS The guide is divided into the following sections: Glossary of terms and conversion A very important starting point since the whole basis of communication in the magnetic material industry involves measurement of defined unit properties. -
Linear Elastodynamics and Waves
Linear Elastodynamics and Waves M. Destradea, G. Saccomandib aSchool of Electrical, Electronic, and Mechanical Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; bDipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit`adegli Studi di Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy. Contents 1 Introduction 3 2 Bulk waves 6 2.1 Homogeneous waves in isotropic solids . 8 2.2 Homogeneous waves in anisotropic solids . 10 2.3 Slowness surface and wavefronts . 12 2.4 Inhomogeneous waves in isotropic solids . 13 3 Surface waves 15 3.1 Shear horizontal homogeneous surface waves . 15 3.2 Rayleigh waves . 17 3.3 Love waves . 22 3.4 Other surface waves . 25 3.5 Surface waves in anisotropic media . 25 4 Interface waves 27 4.1 Stoneley waves . 27 4.2 Slip waves . 29 4.3 Scholte waves . 32 4.4 Interface waves in anisotropic solids . 32 5 Concluding remarks 33 1 Abstract We provide a simple introduction to wave propagation in the frame- work of linear elastodynamics. We discuss bulk waves in isotropic and anisotropic linear elastic materials and we survey several families of surface and interface waves. We conclude by suggesting a list of books for a more detailed study of the topic. Keywords: linear elastodynamics, anisotropy, plane homogeneous waves, bulk waves, interface waves, surface waves. 1 Introduction In elastostatics we study the equilibria of elastic solids; when its equilib- rium is disturbed, a solid is set into motion, which constitutes the subject of elastodynamics. Early efforts in the study of elastodynamics were mainly aimed at modeling seismic wave propagation. With the advent of electron- ics, many applications have been found in the industrial world. -
Electric and Magnetic Fields the Facts
PRODUCED BY ENERGY NETWORKS ASSOCIATION - JANUARY 2012 electric and magnetic fields the facts Electricity plays a central role in the quality of life we now enjoy. In particular, many of the dramatic improvements in health and well-being that we benefit from today could not have happened without a reliable and affordable electricity supply. Electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) are present wherever electricity is used, in the home or from the equipment that makes up the UK electricity system. But could electricity be bad for our health? Do these fields cause cancer or any other disease? These are important and serious questions which have been investigated in depth during the past three decades. Over £300 million has been spent investigating this issue around the world. Research still continues to seek greater clarity; however, the balance of scientific evidence to date suggests that EMFs do not cause disease. This guide, produced by the UK electricity industry, summarises the background to the EMF issue, explains the research undertaken with regard to health and discusses the conclusion reached. Electric and Magnetic Fields Electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) are produced both naturally and as a result of human activity. The earth has both a magnetic field (produced by currents deep inside the molten core of the planet) and an electric field (produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere, such as thunderstorms). Wherever electricity is used there will also be electric and magnetic fields. Electric and magnetic fields This is inherent in the laws of physics - we can modify the fields to some are inherent in the laws of extent, but if we are going to use electricity, then EMFs are inevitable. -
Measurement of Dielectric Material Properties Application Note
with examples examples with solutions testing practical to show written properties. dielectric to the s-parameters converting for methods shows Italso analyzer. a network using materials of properties dielectric the measure to methods the describes note The application | | | | Products: Note Application Properties Material of Dielectric Measurement R&S R&S R&S R&S ZNB ZNB ZVT ZVA ZNC ZNC Another application note will be will note application Another <Application Note> Kuek Chee Yaw 04.2012- RAC0607-0019_1_4E Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Overview ................................................................................. 3 2 Measurement Methods .......................................................... 3 Transmission/Reflection Line method ....................................................... 5 Open ended coaxial probe method ............................................................ 7 Free space method ....................................................................................... 8 Resonant method ......................................................................................... 9 3 Measurement Procedure ..................................................... 11 4 Conversion Methods ............................................................ 11 Nicholson-Ross-Weir (NRW) .....................................................................12 NIST Iterative...............................................................................................13 New non-iterative .......................................................................................14 -
1 Fundamental Solutions to the Wave Equation 2 the Pulsating Sphere
1 Fundamental Solutions to the Wave Equation Physical insight in the sound generation mechanism can be gained by considering simple analytical solutions to the wave equation. One example is to consider acoustic radiation with spherical symmetry about a point ~y = fyig, which without loss of generality can be taken as the origin of coordinates. If t stands for time and ~x = fxig represent the observation point, such solutions of the wave equation, @2 ( − c2r2)φ = 0; (1) @t2 o will depend only on the r = j~x − ~yj. It is readily shown that in this case (1) can be cast in the form of a one-dimensional wave equation @2 @2 ( − c2 )(rφ) = 0: (2) @t2 o @r2 The general solution to (2) can be written as f(t − r ) g(t + r ) φ = co + co : (3) r r The functions f and g are arbitrary functions of the single variables τ = t± r , respectively. ± co They determine the pattern or the phase variation of the wave, while the factor 1=r affects only the wave magnitude and represents the spreading of the wave energy over larger surface as it propagates away from the source. The function f(t − r ) represents an outwardly co going wave propagating with the speed c . The function g(t + r ) represents an inwardly o co propagating wave propagating with the speed co. 2 The Pulsating Sphere Consider a sphere centered at the origin and having a small pulsating motion so that the equation of its surface is r = a(t) = a0 + a1(t); (4) where ja1(t)j << a0. -
Lecture 8: Magnets and Magnetism Magnets
Lecture 8: Magnets and Magnetism Magnets •Materials that attract other metals •Three classes: natural, artificial and electromagnets •Permanent or Temporary •CRITICAL to electric systems: – Generation of electricity – Operation of motors – Operation of relays Magnets •Laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion –Like magnetic poles repel each other –Unlike magnetic poles attract each other –Closer together, greater the force Magnetic Fields and Forces •Magnetic lines of force – Lines indicating magnetic field – Direction from N to S – Density indicates strength •Magnetic field is region where force exists Magnetic Theories Molecular theory of magnetism Magnets can be split into two magnets Magnetic Theories Molecular theory of magnetism Split down to molecular level When unmagnetized, randomness, fields cancel When magnetized, order, fields combine Magnetic Theories Electron theory of magnetism •Electrons spin as they orbit (similar to earth) •Spin produces magnetic field •Magnetic direction depends on direction of rotation •Non-magnets → equal number of electrons spinning in opposite direction •Magnets → more spin one way than other Electromagnetism •Movement of electric charge induces magnetic field •Strength of magnetic field increases as current increases and vice versa Right Hand Rule (Conductor) •Determines direction of magnetic field •Imagine grasping conductor with right hand •Thumb in direction of current flow (not electron flow) •Fingers curl in the direction of magnetic field DO NOT USE LEFT HAND RULE IN BOOK Example Draw magnetic field lines around conduction path E (V) R Another Example •Draw magnetic field lines around conductors Conductor Conductor current into page current out of page Conductor coils •Single conductor not very useful •Multiple winds of a conductor required for most applications, – e.g.