Reexamination of Scarp Development along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada

David W. Hintz (B.A., Wilfrid Laurier University, 1995)

THESIS Submitted to the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies in partial fulfdment of the requuements for the Master of Environmental Studies degree Wilfrid Laurier University 1997

ODavid W. Hintz 1997 National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington ûttawa ON KfA ON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada

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The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thése. thesis nor substantial extracts ~omit Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othenvise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. The Niagara Escarpment is generally viewed as a relict landfonn which shows ancient structural feaîures and the effects of glaciation. Since it was realized that the Escarpment was not a huit, but instead a feature of erosional origin, little interest has been paid to development of the steep cWed section of the Niagara Escarpment. This research project has several objectives. The fkst is an examination of the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological units. This will include anaiysis of the structure and lithology of each and the geochemistry, especiaiiy, of the Queenston Formation. Associated with the examination of the morphology and the IithoIogy is a detailed analysis of dope components that are invoIved in, or influence mass movements on, the Nagara Escarpment. This analysis centers around the progressively deepening fractures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data- gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an exarnination of the bedding. A Wild 'Total Station' was used to preciseiy map the cliffed zone of the escarpment, since available maps are insui3cient for any detailed dysis. In addition to the 'Total Station', the simpler method of tape and cornpass traverses was used to add detail to regions of hnited accessibility. The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid basis for constructing a repeatable, measurable data array that has been used to record large scaie mass movements. The research questions the validity of using the so-called 'homoclinal shiftuig' model to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It was shown that undercutting by strearn and spring sapping are absent from or rernote at the study sites. Finaily, this work lends support to a new scarp model for the Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995). Acknowledgments

1would like to begin by thanking Dr. Ken Hewitt for his guidance and insights in this research. 1 would also like to thank him for a bief interruption in this work for a trip to the Karakoram, Pakistan. Thank-you to cornmittee member Dr. Houston Saunderson, and readers Dr. Mary-Louise Byme and Dr. Gordon Young for theu assistance and suggestions.

Technical support for both field and Iaboratory work was generously provided by Alex MacLean. Field assistance fiom Cam Chadwick, Andrew Gould, Mark Carpenter and Kirsty Dickson was greatly appreciatd.

Sanity was maintained with help fiom Kirsty Dickson, Shawn Good (Quebec), Steve Ferguson (Fishing) and Mark Carpenter (Ice Climbing).

Findy, 1 would like to thank my parents for their interest and support. Without their encouragement 1would not have gotten this fa. Thanks. Table of Contents

Absitract ...... i.. Acknowledgrnents ...... u... Table of Contents ...... UI List of Figures ...... iv List of Tables ...... vii

Chapter 1. IN'IRODUCTION 1.1 Staternent of the Problem ...... 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study ...... 1 1.3 Location of Study Area ...... 3 1.4 Research on Mass Movements ...... 5

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO THE NIAGARA ESCARPMENT 2.1 Introduction ...... 8 2.2 The Niagara Escarpment ...... 8 2.3 Bedrock ûeology ...... ~...... ~.~.....~...... 13 2.4 Previous Work on the Niagara Escarpment ...... 19

Chapter 3 . RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction ...... 24 3.2 Field Techniques ...... 25 3.2.1 Total Station Surveying ...... 25 3 .2.2 Fracture Map ...... 32 3 .2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks ...... 33 3 .2.4 Bedding Planes ...... 33 3 .2.5 Fracture Survey ...... 34 3.2.6 Aerial Photos ...... 35 3.3 Laboratory Techniques ...... 35 3.3.1 Thin Sections ...... 37 3.3.2 X-ray DifEaction ...... 37

Chapter 4 . ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Introduction ...... 39 4.2 Observed Features at Study Sites ...... 39 4.3 BaseMaps ...... 49 4.4 Data and Test Arrays ...... 54 4.5 Fracture Map ...... 63 4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks ...... 63 4.7 Bedding Planes ...... 69 4.8 Fracture Survey ...... 77 4.9 Thin Sections ...... 82 4 .IO Mineraiogy ...... *...... 84 4.11 Behaviour ...... 88

Chapter 5 . SuMh.IARY AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Sumrnaiy of Results ...... 90 5.2 Scarp Development Mode1 ...... 92 5-3 Limitations of the Study ...... 95 5.4 Further Research ...... 95 5.5 Future in Question? ...... 96

Appendix A Data Set &om the Total Station Base Map Survey ...... Appendix B . Data Set f?om the Data Arrays ......

Appendix C . Data Set for the Test Array ......

B edding Plane Study Sketches

Appendix E. Data Set from the Fracture Survey ......

Appendix F . X-ray Difkaction Results f?om Brockhouse Institute for Materiais Research ......

References ...... List of Fimrres

Fig . 1.1 Location of study sites ...... Fig . 2.1 Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southern Ontario ...... Fig . 2.2 Model of 'homoclinal shifting' ...... Fig . 2.3 SIope profde showing the geologic ~nitsfound at the study sites.. Fig . 3.1 Contour map of the House site showing the distribution of survey points ...... Fig . 3.2 Contour map of the Quarry site showhg the distribution of survey points ...... Fig . 3.3 Contour map of the Badtop site showing the distribution of swey points ...... Fig . 3.4 Contour map of the Badlands site showing the distribution of survey points ...... Fig- 3.5 Diagram showing shape of data and test arrays ...... Fig. 4.1 Slope prome showing the dope components ...... Fig . 4.2 Example of the "near-scarp7 zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site ...... Fig . 4.3 Surface flow of rain water during a summer thunder storm ...... Fig . 4.4 Wmter view ofthe 'crevice caves' at the House site ...... Fig . 4.5 'Secondary scarp7cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at the Badtop site ...... Fig . 4.6 'Perched footslope7at Badtop/Badiands site ...... Fig . 4.7 Generai view of the Badlands looking up slope ......

Fig . 4.8 Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the House site ...... Fig . 4.9 Contour map of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Quarry site ...... Fig . 4.10 Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Badtop site ...... Fig . 4.1 1 Contour map of the surface topography of the Badlands site ...... Fig . 4.12 Direction of movement, House site ...... Fig . 4.13 Direction of movement, Quarry site ...... Fig . 4.14 Direction of movement, Badtop site ...... Fig . 4.15 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the House site ...... Fig . 4.16 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the Badtop site ...... Fig . 4.17 Cross section of detached biocks at the House site ...... Fig . 4.18 Cross section of detached bIocks at the Quany site ...... Fig . 4.19 Cross section of detached blocks at the Badtop site ...... Fig . 4.20 Location Hî ffom the main fracture at the House site ...... Fig . 4.21 Location H3 shows tilting and topphg of detached blocks ...... Fig . 4.22 Location Q 1 showing typicaI bedding found in large fkactures at the Quarry site ...... Fig . 4.23 Location 43 shows an overhanging fice at the Quarry site ...... Fig . 4.24 Location B2 illustrates secondary fractures cutting through the bedding ...... Fig . 4.25 Location B3 is an example of a detached bIock tilting back ...... Fig . 4.26 Rose diagram showing the fracture angles fond at the House site ...... Fig . 4.27 Rose diagram showing the fracture angles found at the Quany site ...... ,...... Fig . 4.28 Rose diagram showing the eacture angles found at the Badtop site ...... Fig . 5.1 Mode1 of dope fdure of N~agaraEscarpment ...... List of Tables

Table 2.1 Generaiized exposed stratigraphie sections of the Niagara Escarpment ...... 15 Table 3.1 Surnrnary of sarnples coiiected for thin section and X-ray diffkaction analysis ...... 36 Table 4.1 DEerences in the test array ...... 55 Table 4.2 Results fiom the House site data array ...... 56 Table 4.3 Results from the Quarry site data array ...... 59 Table 4.4 Results Çom the Badtop site data array ...... 62 Table 4.5 Summary of minerals found in clay and shale smples at the Badlands and Badtop sites ...... 85 Cha~ter1 Introduction

-1.1 Statement of the Problem

AU too often in the academic world we see what we are told to see and not what is really there. We stop questioning things that we thuik we understand. We must never stop questioning the so called truths and always be ready to accept new interpretations of the world around us. This is attested to by Our acceptance of the development of the Escarpment.

The Escarpment is generdy viewed as a relia feature that shows ancient structural features and the effect of glaciation. Since it was realized that the

Escarpment was not a fault, but instead a feature of erosional ongin, little interest has been paid to development of the steep cliffed section of N~agaraEscarpment.

-1.2 Objectives of the Studv A search of the literature will show that the prevailing view is that scarp development dong the Escarpment ended with the last glacial penod and any activity during the Holocene capable of generating this landform is not considered.

This research project has several objectives. The nrst is an examination of the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological units. This will include analysis of the structure and lithology of each and the geochemistry, especially, that of the Queenston Formation. Associated with the examination of the morphology and the iithology is a

detailed anaiysis of slope components that are Uivolved in, or influence mass

movements on the IVmgara Escarpment. This analysis will center around the

progressively deepening fi-actures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data

gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an examination of

the beddig.

Much of the field work was completed using the highiy accurate 'Total

Station'. It was used to precisely map the cWed zone of the escarpment, suice

available maps are insufficient for any detailed analysis. In addition to the 'Total

Station', the simpler method of tape and compass traverses was used to add detail to regions of limited accessibility.

The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid basis for constructing a repeiitable measurable data array that can be used to record large scaie mass movements. This was done for aii three sites and will idente any jostiing of the detached blocks.

The research wili question the validity of using the 'homoclinai shifhg' model, explained later, to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It wiU be shown that undercutting by Stream and spring sapping are absent at the study sites. The work lends support to a new scarp model for the Niagara

Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995). While this study is not broad enough to conclusively deterrnine the

processes of scarp development, it is hoped that it will prompt others to begin a

new effort to reinterpret scarp development dong the Nagara Escarpment.

-1.3 Location of Studv Area Research was canied out during the sumrners of 1995, 1996 and 1997 at

three contrasting, but nearby, sites in the Pretty River-Blue Mountain area. The

sites were chosen partly due to ease of access, but also for the extensive cap rock

Eracturing and block glide development. It is believed that the three sites are key to

understanding development dong the Niagara Escarpment. They are east facing

slopes but aii have slightly different orientations. They ail have a complete dope

profile, not compiicated by drowning as dong Georgian Bay, or partiaiiy buried

sections and outliers to the south. It seems reasonable that, if a dope mode1 works

here, then it should work aithough possibly at different rates, elsewhere on the

Escarpment.

The fïrst site is located just south of Singhampton Caves near Nottawasaga

Lookout Nature Preserve. It can be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 A/8. This site is called the "House Site" due to its close proximity to several seasonal homes

(Figure 1.1).

The second site is found dong the Gilbraitar Sideroad where it passes over

Oder Bluff. It included a gullied area of Queenston shale that is known as the 'Sadlands". The site bas been narned the '%adtop" because of its location above

the Badands. It too cm be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 N8 (Figure 1.1).

The third and hi site is aIso on Oder Blebut is located close to Petun

Conservation Area in the headwaters of BIack Ash Creek. Found on NTS reference sheet 41 A&, it is caiied the "Quamy Site" because an area of the escarpment to the west has been quarried some thein the past (Figure 1.1).

-1.4 Research on Mass Movements Work has been done in other locations around the world, where rigid, massive rock including carbonates overlies softer mata, often shaies and other clay rich rocks. Studies of direct relevance to this work have been conducted in

Europe, the United States and New Zealand.

Zaruba and Mencl (1 969) examined dope movements caused by the squeezing out of softer rock. BIock sIides occur in areas where soft clay beds underlie jointed solid rocks. The blocks sIowly sink, squeezing out soR substratum and move downslope. This process occurs as plastic deformation of rock dong a s\ srem of partial slide surfaces. The differential shiRs do not connect to form a uniform slide surface, and this gives the movement the character of plastic deformation. The resulting movernent is slow and oRen classed as creep. This form of movement is only perceivable over very long periods of tirne. As a rule the lower part of the block moves outward, while the upper sufice inclines into the Pretty River Valley

Singhqton Caves \

Fiaure 1.1 Location of Study Sites: '?3ouseY'Site near, Singhampton Cave "BBadldsn- "Badtop" Site, Osler BlufF, "Quarry" Site, Black Ash Creek. (Source: Bruce Trail Guide, Map 23) surfàce. Zaruba and Mencl suggested that this is a widely ocçuning natural

process but is so slow that it often escapes attention.

Long-term gravitational deformation of rocks by mass rock creep has been

examuiecl by Chigira (1992). Field investigations were carrieci out at eleven

Iocalities that cover the areas of sedimentary, metamorphic, plutonic and volcanic

rock on the Island of Honshu in Japan (Chigira, 1992). It was found that

subsurface rocks are deformed gravitationally by mass rock creep to form deformational structures simiIar to those caussd by tectonism. Arnong the various fauits and fractures associated with mas rock creep, shear fiaares are the main deformational structures formed in massive rock. Field studies suggest that the shear zone grades downward into a non-fiactured or weakly fiactured rock.

Gravitational rock creep proceeds in different ways depending on different

Lithologies. In some locations creep is continuous, others incremental, whiie others need a triggering agent such as an earthquake. Radbruch-Hall(1979) has looked at the various circumstances in which gravitational creep of rock masses can occur.

Of particular importance for this work is the "valIey-ward squeezing out of weak ductile rocks overlain by or interbedded with more rigid rocks, causing tensional kacturing and outward movernent of more rigid rocks" @adbruch-Hall, 1979).

Aiso important is the "distortion and buckling of dipping interbedded strong and weak rocks or by creeping of rigid rock over soft rocks without buckling"

(R.adbr~~h-Hall,1979). Landscapes are found in England where gently dipping strata are associated

with cliffs with bare faces and scree (Sweeting, 1970). The morphology of the

clifEs depend upon the lithology of limestone and the fiequency of jointing. Where

massively bedded Iimestone occurs, rectanguiar blocks 1 -2 m in length have

column-like appearance. Sweeting (1970) tooked at massively bedded areas and found that movements are generaüy infiequent, but during the winter of 1947 many blocks feii due to intense fiost action. Again in 1958 many failures occurred due to

6ost action. Sweeting (1970) believed that, whiIe still present, this process is slower now than at the end of the last glaciai period.

The Niagara Escarpment is thought to have migrated to its present location through the removaI of vast arnounts of material. Schmidt (1989) examined the denudational efficiency of scarp retreat in the Colorado Plateau to determine if it is suflïcient to explain the wide erosional gaps in the sedimentary cover. By calculating the amount of retreat ffom the width of beheaded valleys of known age, he determined that the rates of retreat are controiied by the thickness and resistance of the cap rock.

By looking at, similar environments, around the world ideas can be drawn that suggest that the Niagara Escarpment is not just a remnant feature in the

Ontario landscape but a continuously evolving landform. Chapter 2 Introduction to the Niagara Escamment

-2.1 Introduction This chapter introduces the reader to the Niagara Escarpment. The geomorphology and geology of this one of southern Ontario's moa striking features will be outhed. In addition, Chapter 2 will summarize scientific research on the dopes of the Magara Escarpment.

-2.2 The Niagara Escamment Tovell(1992) describes the Niagara Escarpment as a massive topographie feature consisting of Ordovician and Silurian rocks that formed fiom sedirnents deposited in a shallow warm sea between 445 and 420 million years ago. The

Escarpment is what is left of the eastem rim deposits of this ancient sea. This landform results fiom erosion of various gently warped Palaeozoic formations found in concentric belts with the strata dipping southwest towards the center of the Michigan basin (Bolton, 1957). The fonnation can be traced in a giant horseshoe fiom near Rochester, New York, (not exposed in this region), through the Niagara Penninsula south of Lake Ontario to Hamilton, and north to Tobermory on the Bruce Peninsula. It then disappears beneath the water of Lake Huron to reappear on Manitoulin Island, across northem Michigan and down the West side of

Lake Michigan in to the State of Wisconsin (Tovelî, 1992) (Figure 2.1). Nigara Escarpment

Lake Erie

Figure 2.1 Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southeni Ontario. (Source: adapteci fiom Toveii, 199 1, Introduction) The Niagara Escarpment is associated with three main geologic features:

the Algonquin &ch, the AUegheny Basin and the Michigan Basin. Aii three

features involve sedimentary rocks and the ancient, underIying Precambrian rocks

(Toveil, 1992). The Algonquin Arch is a broad southwest-plunging anticline that

forrns the spine of southern Ontano (Tovell, 1992). The rocks on the southeast flank of the Algonquin Arch slope into the Megheny Basin, while the rocks on the northwest flank of the arch slope into the Michigan Basin (TovelI, 1992). Where the Niagara Escarpment intersects the Algonquin Arcti, it reaches its highest elevation at Blue Mountain, south of Collingwood (Tovell, 1992).

Spatialiy, the Escarpment morphology varies fkom steep faced landforms with talus accumulation below, to a gentle ramped feature, and in areas a completely buried landform. These ciifferences lead to a geomorphicaily complex landform and one that is dif£icult to interpret.

One factor involved in the development of the distinctive morphology of the

Niagara Escarpment is variation in rock hardness. Since sorne rock formations of the Escarpment are much more resistant to erosion than others, dserential weathering takes place. As erosion has acted on the rock of the Escarpment, irregular feaîures and a steep cliff have resulted. One such feature are Outliers which can be found in many locations. The Milton Outlier cmbe seen UnmediateIy south of highway 40 1. There is still debate as to whether the Outliers were formed smdy by erosional forces or if tectonic activity has pIayed a part. Retreat of the Escarpment has been attributed to the process of 'homociinal

shifting' (Toveii, 2992; Bird, 1972). The Escarpment is thought to have migrated

to its present location by undercutting and down dip migration by "subsequent",

strike oriented streams Figure 2.2). In this model, streams exploit different

erosional resistance's of strata, thereby undermining the base of the Escarpment.

As the underlying layers are removed, the Escarpment face moves down-dip and

cmincrease in height (Figure 2.2). However, since there are no streams actuaiiy

undercutting the base of the Escarpment at any of the research sites, little

movement should be occming. If'homochal shifling were the process causing the Escarprnent to retreat, it wodd be expected to occur especiaiiy at the study areas since they are excellent exampIes of east facing scarp slopes, not complicated by partial burial or drowning as dong Georgian Bay. If 'homoclind shilling' is not the process acting on the Blue Mountain area, then it seems unlikely to explain CH development on the Niagara Escarpment as a whole.

Much of the Niagara Escarpment, including the area evaluated by this study,

1s afTected by isostatic rebound. Studies suggest that the area is still rebounding to the nonheast at a rate of 15 cd100 years (Tovell, 1992). The isolines tend to run roughl y at right angles to the steep cWed face of the Escarprnent. While this affects the landform, it is unclear how it could affect the features studied and is probably too slow and would be masked by faster processes identified by this research. "ScarpIands and drainage patterns in dipping sedimentary rocks" as applied to the Niagara Escarpment. Subsequent streams are key to undercutting of the scarp and initiating scarp retreat (Source: adapted fiom Bird, 1972, p. 15 1)

Escarpment 'liue dip dope

Fimre 2.2 Formation of the Niagara Escarpment as suggested by ToveU. Over tirne the scarp erodes dom dip and inmeases in height. (Source: adapted fiorn Toveii, 1992, p.83) Another type of land form feature that occurs dong the Niagara Escarpment

is Karst. Karstic features occur in the dolomite caprock and include sink holes,

pitting and sub-surface caves. When water collects in holIows in rock, solution can

take place, particularly along bedding planes, joints and other lines of weakness.

Acceleration of this process cm occur because of decomposition of organic material. Increases in the acidity of sudace and shallow ground water cm be caused by decaying vegetative matter. This would have the effect of increasing the rate of solution. It is possible that solution pIays a role in widening regional joints, but, karst processes were not thought to significantly shape the features and like isostatic rebound are too slow to impact ciiffdeveloprnent.

-2.3 Bedrock Geolow The characteristics of the various lithologic units that comprise the Magara

Escarpment are integral to its evolution. The dEerent erosional resistance's affect the strength of the landform as a whole. The description of the various units provides a perspective usefûl to geomorphology, but need not include lengthy geologic interpretations found in other sources. Table 2.1 displays the spatial variability of the Escarpment iithologies fiom the Niagara Peninsula, through the study site near Blue Mountain and north along the Bruce Peninsula. Figure 2.3 is a dope profile showing the geoiogical units found at the study sites and their location relative to various features. The sequence moves upward through the Escarpment lithologies of the study area The Lindsav Formation generally outcrops beyond or at the base of the Niagara

Escarprnent and is not part of the Escarpment proper. It is gray, with thin to

medium-thin bedding, fïnely crystailine to sublithographic, very fossiliferous,

argtliaceous limestone (Telford, 1973). Shale partings are cornmon and up to 30

cm beds of medium to coarse crystailine coquinoid lirnestone and calcarenite are

present (Telford, 1973).

The Coiiingwood Member is found above the Lindsay Formation. Formaiiy part of the Whiîby Formation, it is made up of thin, extremely organic nch carbonate sediments (Toveii, 1992). The Coüingwood Member has been caiied a shale but in fact is an impure limestone.

The Blue Mountain Formation consists of poorly exposed non-organic clay shaies that represent an environmental shift fiom clear seas to more turbid sediment laden waters (Tovell, 1992).

The Geornian Bav Formation consists of bIue-gray and green-gray, blocky and fissile shales with numerous 10 cm to 30 cm beds of green-gray argdiaceous limestone and siltstones (Telford, 1973). The unit is very fossiiXerous and is believed to have a minimum thickness of about 120 meters near The Caves southwest of Cohgwood (Telford, 1973). This formation is thought to represent a rapid change in depositional environments of mud and silt in a shaiiow sea.

Evidence of waves and currents are found by the fiequent ripple marks (Tovel,

1992).

The Oueenston Formation is the youngest of the Ordovician rocks forming part of the Niagara Escarpment. It consists of red shales with thin layers of Table 2.1 Generalized Exposed Stratigraphic Sections of the Nqpra Escarpment, Outlines Formation, and Members for three locations dong the Escarpment. (Source: adapted from Toveil, 1991, p.43)

i Niagara Blue Bruce -Peninsula f Mountain Peninsula ! Guelph Fm 1 i Guelph Fm ! ; LockportFm j Amabel Fm AmabelFm

1 Reynales Fm Fossil Hill Fm ; Fossii Hill Fm , --. i-.- - - . - ! ------I

! I GrimsbyFm , Grimsby Fm i GrimsùyFm ;

- .. ------f Cabot Head Fm ; Cabot Head Fm j - Cabot Head Fm ! : Whirlpool Fm Manitoulin Fm and r Manitoulin Fm Whirlpool Fm i i J QueenstonFm ; Queenston Fm r Queenston Fm t Georgian Bay Fm Georgian Bay Fm I I Blue Mountain Fm . f i 1 Collingwood Mb j

I Lindsay Fm i I

siltstones. The red shaies are blocky, rnicaceous and arenaceous (Telford, 1973).

Green patches represent reduction zones that occur paralle1 to bedding planes

(TeKord, 1973). The shaie breaks down rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere

and results in a red, siippery clay (Toveli, 1992). This formation is thought to

result fiom an ancient coastal deltaic plah, with litt1e vegetation crossed by muddy

streams. The Queenston Formation is believed to have a decisive role in basal dope

development and overd scarp developrnent (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).

The Whirl~ooiFormation outcrops in the lower subsidiary scarp of the

Escarpment. It is gray-brown, medium-bedded, fine to medium grained

laminated, quartz sandstone (Telford, 1973). It is an unfossiliferous, resistant unit

that creates rninor terraces and waterfâils in stream vdeys and profiles. Fluvially

sculpted forms in this unit have been documented by Tinkler and Stenson (1992).

Common are ripple marks, cross bedding and large scale wave marks. This

formation weathers to thin beds and a bluEcolour. The Whirlpool Formation thins

northward, its northernrnost exposure occurring in a srnali stream on the northern

side of Oder Bluff (Telford, 1973).

The Manitoulin Formation is the cap rock of the subsidiary scarp below the main face of the Niagara Escarpment. The outcrop is very prominent at the study sites dong Osler Bluff. It is thto medium bedded, blocky hght brown to gray,

6ne to medium crystalline, argillaceous dolomitic hestone (Bolton, 1957). The formation is sparingiy fossiliferous and weathers to bluff colour in 5 cm to 15 cm beds (Telford, 1973). Within the study area the Whirlpool Formation and the

Manitoulin Formation overlap. This can be seen in Figure 2.2.

The Cabot Head Formation is red, green and bluish-gray shde interbedded

with thin beds of limestone (Tovell, 1992). The material weathers relatively easily

and rarely outcrops.

The Grimsbv Formation is a red shale conglomerate with massive red sandstone interbeds (Toveil, 1992). The soft sedient is susceptible to extensive weathering and erosion. The sediment is of deltaic ongin and is believed to have formed in nvers traversing a delta (Toveli, 1992).

The Fossil Hill Formation is unifonn, thin and unevedy bedded tan-brown dolomite (ToveU, 2992). It is medium crystalline and very fossilized, but where no fossils are present the dolomite is more dense and more finely crystaiiine (Tellord,

1973).

The Amabel Formation forms the cap rock of the main Escarpment and evposures are extensive. It is massive bedded, light gray to bluish gray, fine to medium crystalline porous dolostone (Tellord, 1973). Fossils are present but not promnent because of intense dolomitization. Vertical faces Vary in height fiom 1 mcter to 22 meters. Bolton (1957) and Liberty and Bolton (1971) divided the

.-bel Formation into several members but the study area has a relatively uniform consistency. -2.4 Previous Work on the Niaeara Escarprnent Considering the prominence of the Niagara Escarpment within the southern

Ontario landscape, one rnight expect it to have received a great deal of attention. A detailed review of the geology has been completed by Tovell(1992). Topics sumrnarized in the guide include physiographic features, bedrock geology, origin, glaciation and ancient Iakes. Included in ToveU's work are field trips that locate areas of geographical interest and importance. ToveiIYswork is the only attempt to summarize the various geological components into one unifjing presentation, and therefore represents the state of knowledge on the Nagara Escarpment at the time of publishing. Of particuiar interest for this thesis is ToveiI's explmation of

Escarpment genesis. He suggests that undercutting of lower formations by streams and nvers have gradudy dlowed the escarpment face to migrate and increase in height. This process, know as "homoclinal shifting," is the process that maintains the scarp profïie due to down-dip migration and undercutting by "subsequent" strike-orientated Stream (Bird, 1972). Believed to create escarpments in other areas of the world, it has been generdy accepted as tme for the

Escarpment. It will be shown, however, the sites for this study exhibit no streams or rivers that could accomplish such a process.

Chapman and Putnam (1966) in ï7ze Physiogrqhy of SouthOntario provide a good description of the Escarpment fkom the Niagara River to the tip of the Bruce Peninsula and across to Manitoulin Island. They discussed the detached blocks creating the deep fissures known as the crevice caves, but made no mention

of their formation.

Bolton (1 957) has contributed an exhaustive study of the Silunan

stratigraphy and paiaeontology of the Niagara Escarpment. He outlined the

identification and characteristics of the geologicd formations and the accompanying members. Bolton's work was started in order to correct some correlations formally proposed for the various Silurian formations in Ontario.

Glaciation has received some attention. Straw (1968) looked at the three main phases of ice advance and recession within the Late Wisconsinan and a general advance within the Eariy Wisconsinan and its infiuence in enlarging reentrant deysdong the Niagara Escarpment. In fact Straw suggested "that the re-entrants of the present Escarpment can be regarded as largely if not whoily produced by ice erosion during the Wisconsin Glaciation" (Straw, 1968).

Research conducted by Gras and Engeider (1991) in Western New York and Southem Ontario found that late-forming FNE joints resuIted from response to the low tensile stresses developed in bedrock adjacent to the retreating Niagara

Escarpment. They suggested that the joints and reentrants are neotectonic features.

With respect to slope processes, Milne and Moss (1995) examined biophysicai change on the escarpment face, and identified three slope types. These are the ciiffface, buried faces, and rounded dopes. Each was briefly descnbed and characteristics listed. Associated with this has been work on the interaction of geomorphoIogical processes and vegetation, and their relationship to slope stability

(Moss and Ndchg, 1980; Moss and Rosenfeld, 1978).

Lee (1978) has also dealt with cWstability, in a study that looked at long-

term stress relief of a cliffbehind a power station at Niagara Falls. The gradua1

release of strah energy fiom the rock mass has resulted in a progressive rnovernent

of the cl* and at the same tirne the development of vertical jointing behind the face

of the cliff Lee (1978) also believed that the vertical jointing and the horizontal

bedding contributed to the disintegration of the rock mass in and above the

Rochester Formation.

Straw (1966) looked at mass movements on the Niagara Escarpment near

Meaford. This work exaimed the large blocks of Middle Silurian dolomite that have been subjected to rnass rnovernents which caused a widening of the fkactures and displacernent of the blocks. The joints do not seern to have opened simultaneously and appear to have widened since formation. S taw believed that du~g"penglacial conditions aitemathg fieeze and thaw pulverked the upper layers of the shde and assisteci in the displacement of dolomite blocks (Straw,

1966). Straw found evidence of abrasion by ice, but refùted suggestions that the blocks were disturbed by glaciation, since the direction of ice would have pressed against the scarp and kept the joints cbsed.

Extreme rates of erosion have been found to occur on exposed Queenston

Shale outcrops (Tato, 1974; Deloges and Smith, 1995). Work has been done on the Chinguacousy badlands near Inglewood, Ontaxio and has found that erosion has resulted in an average surface lowering over the entire site of 2.8 cm a-' and represents a specific yield of 49,500 t km-*a-' (Desloges and Smith, 1995). Vertical degradation is up to an order of magnitude Iarger than other badland sites in North

Amenca and the specific yield is three orders of magnitude greater than yields caicuiated for agriculturally modified drainage basins in southern Ontario (Desloges and Smith, 1995).

There have also been investigations into the material properties of bedrock found dong the Escarpment. These indude deformation and strength properties of hestone (Lo and Hori, 1979), controls on shaie durability (Russell, 1982), and fracture fiequency in Mudrocks (RusselI and Harrnan, 1985).

Lo and Hori (1979) performed uniaxial compression tests on sedirnentary rocks 6om severai areas across Ontario, including dolomite and shales found dong the Niagara Escarpment. They found that strong iimestone rocks fiom the

Lockport Formations are essentialiy isotropie in deformation behaviour but that shaly lirnestone of the Gasport Member of the Lockport Formation is distinctly anisotropic, meaning that the material does not deform the same in al1 directions.

They found that the strength and behaviour of anisotropic shales is such that failure in the rock surroundiigs of underground openings is possible.

Slake durability tests, which are a combination of breakdown fiom exposure to moisture and abrasion, have been conducted on Queenston Shale by Russell

(1982). It was shown that shale durability is controlled by mineralogy and, in the case of Queenston Shaie, alrnost entirely by calcite cementation. When compared to shales of the Georgian Bay Formation, Queenston Shaie generally had a lower

durability. This was partly due to inefficient cementing by calcite, but prirnady

because the microcracks in the Queenston Shale are more curved than in the

Georgian Bay Formation, the other formation exarnined.

in ali of this work very little has been done on the geornorphic development through the Holocene and in terms of present-day geomorphic processes (Hewitt,

Saunderson and Hintz, 1995). In fact the iiterature suggests that the prevailing view is that the Escarpment is a relict feature that records the ancient structural features on the bedrock and, eariy post-glacial and penglaciai action.

Even though the Niagara Escarpment is situated close to a large percentage of Canada's popuiation, its evolution seems to have been taken for granted. Until now no one questioned the traditionaiiy held view of the geomorphology of this landform. Kt is the goal of this thesis to present evidence that highlights the need for new interpretations of the cliff development of the Niagara Escarpment. Cha~ter3 Research Methods

-3.1 Introduction There are a large number of methods available for the study of slopes. They range widely in cost and complexity. The difliculty stems fiom choosing a method that meets one's needs while being within one's means. For this study, severai factors needed to be considered in order to arrive at an appropriate method, or in this case, combination of methods. Three field seasons (1 995, 1996 and 1997) were possible to gather data, aithough a longer tenn study is clearly desirable too.

A fùrther consideration was that available maps are not at a suf£ïcient scde to show fiactures or even detached blocks. This necessitated the creation of original base maps. However, the landscape being studied is a complex three dimensionai entity that could not be mapped or even represented in a single graphical method. For this reason important components of the landforrn were looked at and portrayed in dserent ways. For example, the fiachires were displayed in rose diagrams, with the dominant fiactures also being shown in an overhead view map and also in cross section.

The other main consideration of methods was that some of the work was done alone. While this was not aiways the case the methods were chosen with this in mind. Fiaüy, hancial limits played a role in choosing research methods.

Luckily, the total station could be used without rental fees, but the cost of having samples sent to extemal laboratones for thin section and clay mùieralogy anaiysis

restncted the numbers exarnined.

The remainder of this chapter will detail the field and laboratory techniques

used to assess slope movement or its potential dong the Niagara Escarpment.

Various surveying and mapping methods dlbe outlined as weii as the creation of

data arrays for recording mas movement, and the laboratory tests made on soils

fiom the study sites.

-3.2 Field Tecbniaues The goal of this study was to investigate a complex slope environment

dong the Niagara Escarpment and to reevaluate the interpretations made of it in the

past. In order to accomplish this a single field rnethod was not sacient. A range

of field methods was used, each directed at a particular aspect of scarp

development. Included were several mapping methods, using various instruments, a

significant use of photographs, and resurveyed data arrays for recording slope

movernent. Together these methods help to provide new insights into the nature of

the smp slopes of the Niagara Escarpment.

-3.2.1 Total Station Surveving A significant amount of field work was completed during the surnmers of

1995 and 1996 with the Wdd-Leitz Total Station. The Total Station is an electronic theodolite and distomat with an on-board data terminai. It can be very effective for surveys that need precise detaii and large three diensional data sets.

The data can be downloaded fkom the REC modules as horizontal distances and angies, and converted with TOPOS software to X, Y, and Z data points (appendix

A).

The fist task was to create a digital base map for the three chosen study sites, plus the Badlands. The areas to be surveyed were well vegetated and difficult to work on. Even surveying durhg the short wuidow of opportunity in the sprîng before the leaves anived, was logisticdy demanding and tirne consuming. The first survey was completed during the summer of 1995, but was of lirnited value due to unexplained errors. A search of the literature suggested a possible explanation. The method of data collection resembled track data and may have created oscillation errors in the computational procedure as experienced by Carlson and Foley (1992).

For this reason a second survey was undertaken during the summer of 1996 with a different sarnpiing method and much better results. In order for there to be a high degree of confidence in the base maps, s&cient coverage of survey points needs to made. This was accomplished for al1 three sites, plus the badlands. The location and distribution of each survey point can be seen in figures 3.1, 3 -2, 3.3, and 3.4 .

The data was then imported into Surfer for Windows version 5 .O1, a software package for digital terrain mapping with a rnicrocomputer. It interpolates irregularly spaced Y, and Z data ont0 a regularly spaced grid. While a user defined grid can be specified, aii the maps were made using default grid settings.

These settings Vary automaticaiiy depending on the nature of the data set. There is a range of interpolation methods that aiiow the creation of a surface that best suits House Site

Figure 3.1 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Site Dots indicate location of smey points. CIifYface shown with bold line at the top of m 0.5 m contour interval. Quarry Site

Figure 3.2 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quaq Sire Dots indicate location of survey points. Cliffface shown with bold line at top of map. 1 m contour inteniai. Badtop Site

Figure 3.3 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site. Dots indicate location of survey points. ClEface shown with bold lhe at top of Map. 1 m contour intervd. Badlands Site

I l l I I

Figure 3.4 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Dots indicate distribution of survey points. 1 m contour intervai individual data sets. A comparative exercise between Krïging, Triangulation with

Linear Interpolation and the Multiquadnc Method was undertaken to determine the most appropriate rnethod. The Triangulation with Lhear Interpolation method was chosen because it needs three nodes to work fiom and therefore does not extrapolate beyond known data points.

Using the Total Station as a measuring tool a data array was constructed for each of the three study sites. The goal was to create an array of locations that could be repeatedly measured in the hope of recording movement of the detached blocks. Since the 'Total Station' records X, Y, and Z coordinates, movement in three dimensions could be identified (appendix B). The data points were selected dong two intersecting transects that form a 'T' shape (figure 3 -5). The vemcal portion of the 'T' began back from the fiachires in an area that is covered by glacial deposits and not thought to be actively movhg. The transect runs in a straight he through the Occupied site of the base map survey and terrninates at the ciiffface.

The second transect runs dong the cliffface and on to the detached blocks. Ail of the data array points are permanently marked on the ground to enable repeat surveys.

Shce no literature could be found to quantify the accuracy of using the

'Total Station' in such a way, a test array was made (appendix C). This was done in order to discover the human errors associated with occupying and reoccupying a survey location. The test may was also constructed in a 'T' shape for comparative purposes. The Figure 3-5 illustrates the array; 1anm Som OCC Som 1oom

Fimire 3 -5 Shape of Data and Test Arrays

First OCC#1 is occupied, and the backsight is shot. This is foliowed by shots dong a 200m line (horizontal portion of the 'T'). The next step is to fore shoot to the backsight, enabling the back site to become the new occupied site. To finish, the 200m iine of sites are shot again. The test involves measuring the differcnce between the two X, Y, and Z coordinates at each location.

-3.2.2 Fracture Man

Due to the depth and narrow widths Of the hctures close to the ciifYedge and the wmpletely detached blocks, the Total Station could not be used to survey them, and another rnethod was developed. Since the major hctures are large enough to climb down into, it was decided that a survey with tape and compass

would be suitable. This was cornpleted for the House and Badtop sites. It

provided a means to show the inûuence of dominant fractures on the creation of

large blocks. The terrain made the Quarry Site too difficult to survey with this method.

-3.2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks In order to austrate the three dimensionai geometry of the fkactured and detached blocks cross sections were made. A transect was made at each study site.

This was done in order to show the tilting and jostling of the blocks away from and towards the Escarpment face. Each transect begins at the top of the scarp where the blocks fist break away and form ngid units that glide towards the face and end downslope at the taius deposits.

-3.2.4 Beddine Planes In an attempt to anaiyze the structurai characteristics of the Amabel cap rock, photos of bedding planes were taken for each site. From vantage points in the fractures promes of the bedding could be viewed and measured. Each area was photographed, sketched, and bedding spacing and micro fractures measured

(appendii D). This was done to show the ciifFerences between sites, yet noting the sirnilar overaii morphology and lithological conditions that are common to ad areas. This method is aiso usefiil in examining the relationship between bedding thickness

and the resulting size of detached blocks.

-3.2.5 Fracture Survev The patterns of fractures at each site are very compiex and often de@ complete interpretation. For this survey aii fiactures and joints are included. No distinction was made between regionai joints that are present in the caprock and fiactures that have opened due to subarid processes. In order to get a clearer sense of the fiequency and orientation of the eacnires a sample survey, or inventory was undertaken. This invohed rneasuring the length, width, depth and orientation of a large number of fractures at the three study sites (appendix E). This information was then summarized and displayed in rose diagrams in order to ease recognition of dominant fiacture angles, their orientation and frequency. This method brings insights into the fiactures that would not otherwise be seen in the other methods.

For instance, the most fiequent fiacture angle is not usuaiiy the dominant, cliff forming angle. -3.2.6 Aerial Photos Stereo paired air photos were examined with the hope of seeing the larger

detached blocks. Unfortunately the vegetative cover was too thick to aiiow any

anaiysis. This is disappointing since the scde of the photos and the size of some of

the blocks would have been very valuable in getting a larger perspective on ci8

development beyond the study sites. The truth is, there is a very smd window of

opportunity for an air photo to be taken without snow or leafcover.

-3.3 Laboratorv Techniaues

Much of the information needed to interpret the Niagara Escarpment has to come fiom materiai analysis and not just fiom maps. It is very important to understand the types and behaviour of rock types at each of the three sites in order to determine their role in slope activity, Before any Iaboratory work could be started, samples needed to be coIlected in the field. Fiist, sarnples were collened for thin section and X-ray eaction analysis. This was undertaken at the Basal

Zone of the Badlands, up through the lithologic units to the dolomitic cap rock.

The sarnple number and a description of the location are summarized in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Summary of Samples Collected for Thin Sections and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis.

-~ - - -p- No. Description Elevation BA-08-96 #1 In major gully, base of slope 320m #2 In major gully, up slow 341m #3 In major gully, up dope 355m #4 In badlands area, near main site 421m #5 Top of Badlands 427m #6 Top of Badlands 427111 #7 Top of Badlands 427m #8 In gully of lower Badlands 4 17m #9 Outcrop of shale carbonate on road 457m #10 Outcrop of shale carbonate on road 457m - #11 Highesl Outcrop of Queenston Shale 450m - #12 Top of sccondary scarp 470ni #13 Top of main scarp 509m - -3.3.1 Thin Sections Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for

Materiais Research at McMaster University to make thul sections. Thin section

andysis was chosen because it is a cost effective method for determining grain size

and shape characteristics of a rock sample. It could not be used with shale samples,

for the grain size is too smaü to be seen under available microscopes. However,

this test is suflticient for anaiysis of the dolomite cap rock. The preparation of a

sample for thin section involves rnechanicdy grinding a rock fragment to a

standard thickness of 0.03 mm (0.00 12 inches), polishing it, mounting it between two pieces of glass as a microscope slide (Blatx, 1992). At this thickness most ninerals are transparent or translucent. Microscopes fitted with polarized

Light are used to view the slides. As light passes through crystals it is deflected or rotated, and identification can be made since different minerais produce diflFerent ddections (Montgomery, 1990). Thin sections are used for texturai, mineralogic and diagenetic studies (Blatt, 1992).

Thin sections were used because of its relatively low cost per sarnple and short tirne involved in anaiysis. This procedure wiii show the grain structure of a given sample.

-3.3.2 X-rav Diffraction Nme samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research, at

McMaster University for X-ray =action analysis. X-ray diffraction is based on the way crystals of a given substance diihct X-rays. This test was chosen in order to determine which minerals were present dong the escarpment and to be able to predict possible behaviour of the Lithologic units. The preparation of a sample involves powdering, mounting on a glas slide and then bombarding with X-rays

(Blatt, 1992). "The X-rays are macted by planes of atoms in the crystal structure, and a trachg is produced on a paper chart." (Blatt, 1992) The chart is an x-y plot of the dEaction angle versus the intensity of dS?acted radiation (appendix

F). It reveals the interplanar spacing which in turn shows the type of mineral, sinez dinerent rninerals posses a distinct X-ray difnaction pattern.

X-ray diffraction analysis has a relatively high cost of $100 Cdn per sample.

Price not withstanding this method was chosen because minerai content can play an

important role in material behaviour and was therefore necessary for this study. Cha~ter4 Results and Anahsis

-4.1 Introduction This Chapter presents the factors which suggest that the Niagara

Escarpment is not the relict feature the literature clhit to be. It wili begin vith a

description of the geological features observed at the three study sites. There

foliows a series of investigations centered around the cMed section of the Niagara

Escarpment. These show that there are many features that indicate

geornorpholo~calactivity in the recent past, and apparentIy a? the present time as

weii. The information is presented in several types of maps suggesting a

progressive fiacturing of the cap rock, and giving interpretation of the fracture

angles. Required is an investigation into the properties of the underlying shales and

their susceptibility to erosional forces.

-4.2 Observed Feahires at Studv Sites Several features were present at the three study sites that are relevant to the geornorphology of the Escarpment. They can be defmed by location in; Upper,

311ddlc and Basal Zones. Figure 4.1 illustrates the the siope components typicdy found at each site.

The Upper Zone has several distinct parts with a '%ue" dip slope at the head that begins roughly one hundred meters back fiorn the escarpment face. It is UPPER ZONE MIDDLE ZONE LOWER OR BASAL ZONE

Figure- 4.1 Schematic drawing of components of the dope profile. This profile is typical of dopes in the study area. Beginning with the upper zone at the upper left, down to the Basal zone at the bottom hght. Location of photos indicated by figure reference. (Not to scale) "generally blanketed in giacial deposits, notably the Gibraltar and Banks Moraine

complexes" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 19%) (Figure 4.1).

Beyond this area is a "near-scarp" zone that is partially or wholly bare exposing the carbonate bedrock. Here the cap rock has a slight dip towards the clifFface and is separated into smaller units by weli-defined fissures in the bedrock.

(Figure 4.1 and 4.2) "The exposed carbonate is ofien modeled by solution weathering forms, including "karrenY7forms" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,

1995). Within this area, drainage seerns to be entirely underground through the fissures and water was observed flowing ffom the cliff face fiirther down-slope

(Figure 4.1 and 4.3).

As the face is approached the fissures develop into "crevice caves", which tend to get wider and deeper close to the clifFface. They can be as much as several meters apart. Some narrow at the base, while others widen. "They dehe detached blocks of intact carbonate bedrock, and reflect the geometry of joints, fiacturing and patterns of movement" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Huitz, 1995, p.9) (Figure 4.1 and 4.4).

The main face of the scarp is sometimes weli defined, with a talus dope below, but more often it has a zone of detached blocks that become more broken down-slope. In either case it is usually massive carbonate of the Amabel

Formation. (Figure 4.1)

At the base of the upper zone is a talus slope dominated by carbonate debris fiom rockf'âils, toppIed blocks, sometimes with "megaclasts less than 1 meter Fiwe 4.2 Example of the "near-scarp" zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site during the summer of 1995. The cap rock is tilting towards the cliffface and this zone has well defined fractures, as seen in the foreground. Location of photo can be seen in Figure 4.1. Sdceflow of rain water du~ga summer thunder storm. Water seen flowing over secondary scarp, Badtop site. Location can be seen on Figure 4.1. Figure 4.4 Wmter view of the 'Crevice Caves' at the House site. Note the diffe~gangles and relative tilt of the wds, some tendhg to open out towards the top, others to close in. Tt is suggested that this is due to dierential sagging and tilting of the separated bedrock blocks. Location of photo iïsted on Figure 4.1. diameter and as large as 20 meters" meWitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Figure

4.1).

The Middle Zone is an area of secondary scarps some of which behave like or at least, have a sirnilar morphology to the Upper Zone. "This is a cornplex siope unit that may include cwfaces as high and continuous as the upper cm with equaiiy long or longer debns and talus slopes below" (Hewitt, Saunderson and

Hui% 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.5). This zone occurs in the Clinton and Cataract

Groups and tends to disintegrate into minor blocks and rubble. As seen in Figure

4.3, springs are found ernerging above and beiow this cWed section, oRen developing into watwfds during storrn events.

The Lower or Basal Zone is a significant, ofien the larges, part of the overaii height of the Escarpment. It is mostly made up of Queenston Shale and cm usualiy be divided into three sub-zones.

The upper section is a "perched footslope" and has a shelf a few tens to hundreds of rneters wide, with flats or depressions (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,

1995). The depression may be swampy or even have ponds or a smd stream

(Figure 4.1 and 4.6). At this same height some of the small strearns may flow paralel to the Escarpment. This is an area of both deposition and removal of eroded material.

DownsIope is the %asal Wash SIope" that descends quite steeply in most areas (20-30 degrees) with a fa11 of one hundred meters plus (Hewitt, Saunderson and Elïntz, 1995). This area generally begins with a convex upper zone that is weii Fime 4.5 'Secondary Scarp' cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at Badtop site. Note the srnall detached block that has moved down and away fiom the face. Wmter 1996. Location of the photo can be seen on Figure 4.1. Figure 4.6 'Perched footslope' at BadtopBadlands site. Summer 1995. This area is usually swampy, and in some cases, such as at the BadtopJBadlands, a smaU pond is found. Location cmbe seen on Figure 4.1. Figure 4.7 Generd view of the Badlands site looking up dope. Note the extensive gullying caused by spring runoff and periodic storm events, despite considerable efforts at erosion control. Sumrner 1995. Location cmbe seen on Figure 4.1. drained and dry most of the year but may be @ed and have considerable runoff

during the spring snow melt and periodic storm events. "The main part of this

sIope is usualiy a long, straight mid-section with deeply incised strearn guilies pardel to the dope" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Kintz, 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.7).

The final part of the dope is the "True Footslope", a concave lower section with coIluMai deposits that join with stream vdeys or flood plains beyond (Hewitt,

Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).

-4.3 Base Mam Base maps for each of the study sites were surveyed with the Total Station.

The area surveyed is of the Upper Zone, in particular the "near-scarp" zone and a srnaIl area of the crevice caves. The sites have a great variation in the depths of the fractures, ranging fiom about 10 centimeters, to as deep as 10 meters in the crevice caves. In order to represent the shallower fiactures of the near scarp zone a contour interval of -5 to 1 meter was used. This however meant that the deeper fractures of the crevice caves could not be shown.

The base map of the House Site found in Figure 4.8, clearly shows the main cliEfkce at the upper left corner as weIl as the large fiacture mnning roughly paraiiel to the cm Other fracture systems can be seen south of the cliffand have not devetoped to the depth of those near the cliffface. The rnap also clearly shows the dip of the site towards the cwopposite to the regionai down dip of the

Niagara Escarpment. House Site

Fipure 4.8 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Siti Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 0.5 m contour interval. Figure 3.1 shows location of survey points. Quarry Site

Figure 4.9 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Nesr-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quarry Siti ClifFface indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 1 m contour interval. Figue 3.2 shows the location of survey points. Badtop Site

Figrue 4.10 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site. Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the Map. 1 m contour Uitervai. Figure 3.3 shows the Iocation of swey points. 52 Badlands Site

Figure 4.1 1 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Perched Footslope to the right and Basal Wash Slope to the left. 1 m contour interval. Figure 3.4 shows the location of survey points The Ouarry Site base map, (Figure 4.9), shows a much more cornplex system of

fractures than did the house site. This site has a gradua1 dip towards the clifFface

found at the top of the map, and fairIy wefl developed hctures 10 meters back

fiom the cmbut still have a progressive deepening doser to the cliffface.

The Badtop Site has an increasingly cornplex and deepening system of

fractures as one mars the cliffface at the top of the map (Figure 4.10). Like the

other sites the fractures get deeper closer to the ci8&ce.

In addition, a survey was made of a fourth Iocation beiow the badtop site

caiied the Badlands. Figure 4.11, shows the two main gullies running down dope.

This is an area of extreme erosion and sparse vegetation. Some of the smaiier

erosionai features unfortunately did not show up due to the contour intervai of 1

meter, but a smalier interval became to cIuttered with contour iines.

-4.4 Data and Test Arravs

The ahwas to use the accuracy of the Totai Station to record movement of the detached blocks. Before we could assess the reliability of readings fiom the data arrays, a test plot needed to be made and the accuracy of the equipment measured. Not only was the accuracy of the equipment important, but as it turns out, more importantly the errors in equipment set up and human induced errors are the significant issues. In order to assess these errors the Total Station was set up and seven points were measured. Then the Total Station was moved to the back site and the same seven points were rneasured again. Table 4.1 shows the difference between these two measurements. Table 4.1 DSerences In The Test Array

It cmbe seen from the figure, many of the measurements were exactly the same and therefore had a dserence of O. This shows that the equipment and those operating it cm be very accurate at repeating a survey. On the other hand #101 had a 0.235 m error in for the Z coordinate. Whiie the reason for this is not known, it was probabIy movement of the pnsm by the person positioning the prism pole. If nothing else, this shows that sizable errors cm occur with this method, and that caution should be taken when interpreting the data array results. Generally there are two errors that can occur. The fist involves the position of the total station over the Occupied site. If this is not exactly the same position for each survey, a standard error would occur equaily through the entire data set. Theoreticaiiy, this could be identifieci and accounted for.

The second type of error involves the positioning of the prism. Slight errors occur when the sunrey prism poIe is not is a perpendicular position. Since this wiii vary with each measurement, this is random error and therefore can not be completely accounted for.

The base measurements for the data arrays of ail three sites were made du~gthe summer of 1995. Each data point of the array was pennanently marked on the ground in order to ensure accurate repeat surveys. During the summer of

1996 a repeat survey of the data arrays was made for ail three sites. A third survey of the House site and the Quarry site was made during the spring of 1997. The same procedure was used to repeat the survey as wu used for the original survey.

Once again the matching data points were compared to detennine any change in location. The foiiowing table shows the results of this analysis for the House Site:

Table 4.2 Results From The House Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.

Number X Y Z #IO2 -0.026m -0.053m -0.177m

First impressions would suggest that there has been a great deal of movement of the detached blocks. The difFerence in values between the two surveys ranges fbm -428mto -.517m While there is some error in the data arrays,

the values are too high to be errors alone. By using the test arrays as a guide to

reasonable uperator errors, it is apparent that during the the between surveys,

movement has occurred at the House Site. It is reasonable to expect some

movement at this site, since the data mypoints were positioned on semi-detached

blocks and show sipof being in an active environment. Tt is not possible to

detemine the exact amount of error and therefore the amount of movement.

In order to better assess the movement of the data arrays, the locations of

each data point for each survey was plotted. A different symbol was used for each

of the three surveys and ovedaid in order to indicate the direction of movement.

When the amount of movement was too smaü to show up, it was rneasured

manudy and the direction shom with an arrow. The results for the house site can

be seen in Figure 4.12. They show that generaiiy the movement has been Iaterai,

with some inward tilthg and some outward toppling. Data point 2.00 seems to

have moved outwards fiorn the parent ciiffbetween 1995 and 1996, but moved

back towards the ciiffin the 1997 survey. The author is unsure ifthis is an error or just jostling of a block.

The foilowing figure summarizes the results hmthe QuwSite. The

differences between readings is much smder with a range of .25 lm to -.206m.

While this is still a large amount, it is les than the results fkom the House Site.

Once again this is believed to be a combination of operator eror and genuine block movement. Due to more difl6cult tenain and the isolation ofsorne blocks the data

array needed to be set up on siightIy more stable terrain. This rnay account for the

somewhat smaller movement readuigs.

The results of the directional plot for the House site can be seen in Figure

4.12. They show that the general movement has been outward fiom the clS. Data

point 10.00, with its huge ciifference between summers 1996 and 1997 can not be

Table 4.3 Results From The Quarry Site Data Array Surnrner 1995 and 1996.

Table 4.3 showing the results fiom the Badtop Site have less deviation ktueen the two surveys than did the other sites. The range for the vahes are

OCMm to -. 1 18m. The data array for this site was located in an area of extensive fiaauring. but not completely detached blocks. This tends to explain the lower readings, yet is still high enough to indicate movement.

Figure 4.14 shows the results of the directionai plot for the Badtop site. A

third survey during the spring of 1997 was not able to be completed, therefore only

two surveys are plotted. Many of the data points showed lateral movement to the

cliE The other main direction the points moved was back towards the ciif At

fkst it would seem this is surely an error, but by examining the cross section of

Figure 4.19, it can be seen that some of the blocks tilt back towards the cm

Movement of these blocks is downslope at the base but towards the cliffat the top.

It is therefore reasonable to get movement back towards the clifffor some data

points on the directional plot.

Table 4.4 ResuIts Frorn The Badtop Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.

The results of the data arrays are strong evidence of dope movernent on the steep cWed section of east facing dopes of the Niagara Escarprnent. While the test array shows that a portion of the results must be due to error associated with setting up the total station, the readings are suf3ïcient to clah slope movement. When reasodIe directions of movement are added, it seems deto say that there

is movement at the three study sites dong the Niagara Escarpment.

-4.5 Fracture Mari Since it was not possible to use the totd station for surveying the deep fractures of the cWed zone, the sirnpler method of tape and compass was used.

This method was used for the House Site and the Badtop Site. It was not possible to do the same for the Quarry Site owing to accessibility problems. Fracture maps offers a clear view of the interconnectedness of the fractures. Tt shows the way fractures intersect to create the detached blocks. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 provide a good understanding of the length and width of the fiactures and give an idea of the size of the detached blocks. The maps (Figures 4.15 and 4.16) show that the fractures range in width fiom less than 2 meters to greater than 10 meters.

The view that the detached blocks are caused by progressively widening and deepening fiacturing is supported by the comparison of fiachire orientation in the blocks with those back fiom the clifFface (Figure 4.8 and 4.10). By comparing the fracture maps with the base maps, the fractures line up to show a deepening and widening of the fiactures as one moves toward the ciEface.

-4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks Cross sections of the detached blocks were made for each of the sites.

Distance, depth and Eracture wall angle were measured dong each transect. The Figure 4-15 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the house site. hset map shows relative Iocation of the fiaczure map at the house site. lcm = 2.6m

Fiwe 4.16 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the badtop site. Inset map shows relative location of the hcture map at the badtop site. goal was to determine the way in which detached blocks toppled. It seemed

reasonable that the blocks would fd out and away f?om the parent c& leadiig to

scarp recession. However, if this was the only method of failure, then the crevice

caves, noted in this area, would not occur. W~ththis in min& the cross sections

were used to explain the contradictory views.

The House Site (Figure 4.17) has two major fractures roughly 10 meters

deep and about 2.5 meters wide. Two detached blocks are found dong the

transe&. They are very large and relativeiy deep. The fiacrure walIs are nearly

vertical, with littie indication of a tendency to topple in any one direction. Below

the detached blocks is a large talus slope suggesting historical toppling of blocks.

The Quarry Site has two major fractures roughly 10 meters deep and alrnost

2 meters wide. They create two detached blocks foliowed by a talus slope below

the last block. Figure 4.18 shows that the blocks at the Quarry Site tilt away fiom

the parent cliffin a downslope fashion. The fî-acture waiis range in steepness fiom

8-3 degees to 90 degrees.

The Badtop Site (Figure 4.19) is more cornpfex than the other sites with respm to the nurnber of detached blocks. Along the transect there are four fractures which result in four detached blocks. They are not as deep as the other sites. averaging about 5 meters in depth. The width of the fractures are roughiy the same as the other sites with a range of 1.2 meters to 3.2 meters. While the other sites had consistent positioning, the Badtop Site has blocks toppling toward as well UPPER ZONE

Crevice caves and detached blocks Tali

Firmre 4.17 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the House Site, Moving Dodope from Left to Right.

UPPER ZONE

Crevice caves Talus : Near-scarp zone and detached blocks

Fimire 4.18 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the Quany Site, Moving Downslope iiom Left to Right. UPPER ZONE

Near-scarp zone Crevice caves and detached blocks Tal 6 I

Fimire 4.19 Cross Section of Detached BIocks at the Badtop Site, Moving Downslope fiom Left to Right. as away fiom the parent cl*. Below the blocks is a talus covered slope similar to

the other sites.

-4.7 Bedding Planes Photographs of bedding planes were taken in order to interpret the complex

vertical and horizontal hctures found at the study sites. It was hoped that this

method would aiso give insights into a possible relationship between bedding

thickness and the size of detached blocks. This examination was conducted on two

locations for each of the three study sites.

Three separate locations were examined, with two being used for the anaiysis at the House site. The hst location was named HZ and is found inside the main fiacture and is part of the climbing waü (Figure 4.20). Baseci on terminology for bedding thickness by Ingram (1954), H2 has very thick bedding with aU three pictured block tilting away fiom the parent clx The bedding for al1 three blocks is even and pardel (terrninology for sedirnentary layering fiom Campbell, 1967).

The center block is leaning against the block pictured at the left-hand side of the photo, and creates a crevice cave. The right hand block (which is a sport climbing route) is prevented &om toppling by faen boulders and iflunseen in the photo.

(Photo was taken fiom this location)

The second site was named H3 (Figure 4.21) and is located beIow the eastern most point of the survey. It is a detached block that is tiIting away fiom the parent CE. The bedding of the block is thick to very thick, parallel and even Fieure 4.20 Location H2 fiom the main fiacture at the House site shows tilting of massive bIocks of the Amabei formation. The location of cm be seen in Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3 -90 rn in length. Location Hi3 shows tilting and toppling of detached blocks. The location of H3 can be seen on Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length. Fieure 4.22 Location QI showing typicd medium to thick bedding found in large fractures at the Quarry site. Q 1 is Iocated outside the base map in a Iarge fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any figure. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length. bedding that ranges fiom 43 cm to 185 cm thick Visible downslope and at the left

side of the photo is a second block that has toppied, thus suggesting that block H3 wiIl also topple.

Two locations were examuied at the Quarry site. The first location was Q1

(Figure 4.22) which is near, but not within the Quany site survey. The upper sections are wavy non-pardel, thick bedding, while the lower sections are even nomparailei, thick bedding. Vertical fiactures do not cut through successive layers of bedding. Most of the fiactures are closed but some of the upper fiachires have roots growing in them, helping to pry them open. When the upper sections fracture into bIocks, they do so in fairly large clasts of about -25 to -5 m3.

The second location at the Quarry site (43,Figure 4.23) has an overhang of about Z 12". The upper section is thickly bedded, foilowed by a medium to thickly bedded section in the middle and findy thick bedding at the base. Al1 sections are generally even and pardel bedding. There is a large vertical fiacture that runs down through aii visible layers.

Badtop was the ha1site to be examined using two of three locations photographed. The first location (B2) is located at the north edge of the surveyed area. The bedding is medium to thick with wavy non-paralle1 layering. The thicker beds seem to have less fiachiring than do the thinner beds. There is a Iarge vertical fracture that runs down through al1 visible bedding. A sigdcant undercut cm be seen in the photo (Figure 4.24). Fimire 4.23 Location 43 shows an overhanging face and severai broken blocks that have fden fiom the face. 43 is located outside the base map in a large fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any other fi,oure. Hei& of cliffin the photo is 2.70 m. Fimire 4.24 Location B2 iiiustrates secondary fkactures cutting through the bedding. The location of B2 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White pole in picture is 3.90 m in length. Fiare 4.25 Location B3 is an example of a detached block tilthg back towards the parent cliffat the Badtop site. The location ofB3 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White survey pole in the picture is 3.90 rn in lengîh. The second location is found near B2 but Merdown slope. The bedding

of B3 ranges fiom thick to very thicic, with even non-pardel, discontinuous

layering. There is very littie space between bedding; usually about I cm to 2 cm.

Unlike the other locations examineci, this site has blocks tilting back towards the

parent clifE and creates a crevice cave. Pictured in the foreground (Figure 4.25)

are large clasts of about a 1 m3 within the main fiame.

The results of this investigation showed that wMe most block movements

were of substantial size, the largest bIocks were found in areas with the thickest

bedding. This cm be seen at the House Site at location EI2, which has the thickest

bedding of the three study sites and also has the largest detached blocks. It has

been observed that areas with thinner bedding tend to have more vertical Eacturing

and therefore may disintegrate before moving downdope in a single detached

block.

-4.8 Fracture Survev The survey of hcture angles and their fiequency Ied to some interesthg

insights that could not be recognited by the other methods. Sumrnary of the

Uiformation in rose diagrams b~gsclarity to a generally complex environment. As mentioned earlier, no distiction was made between regionaI joint and fiactwed opened by subariai processes.

The House Site has two dominant fracture @es that mn roughiy at right angles to one another (Figure 4.26). The most ii-equent angIe is 140/320°, which &UR 4.26 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angies Found a? the House Site. lnset map (Figure 4.8) shows area surveyed. CWindicated on inset map. represents 21 of 58 measured fractures, or 36.2% of ail the fractures. While this is

the most fiequent fiacture angle, it is not the most dominant or cliffforming series

of fractures. The 140/320° fhctures mn parallel to the cliffand in fact, maintain the

cWs developrnent. The 14O/3 20" fiactures cut across the cliff fohgfiactures and help to create detached blocks that, once separated, move toward the cliffface, jostle each other and eventually toppie. The second major set of joints mn at

5O/230°, which represents 12 of 58 measured fractures, or 20.6% of aii the fiactures. It is this senes of fractures that enlarge to create the major fiactures and becorne detached blocks. This series ofjoints are the ones moa easily seen on the base maps. The remahhg fkactures are less signincant with not a single orientation accounting for a very large percentage. With only two major joint systems, the

House Site is the least complex of the three sites.

The Quarry Site is more cornplex than the House Site in that it has three main joint systems (Figure 4.27). The most fiequent series is 80/260° and represents 30 of the 103 measured fractures, or 29.1%. The second most cornmon ansle of fiactures is 100/280° and accounts for 20 of the 103 fractures or 19.5% of the rotal Both of these systems of fkactures cross the main cliffforming fractures ai rou~hlya 45 degree angle. The third system of fiactures are the cliffforming fraaures that are most noticeable when visiting the site. It is at 40/220° and represents 15 of the 103, or 14.6% of fkactures surveyed. Two other fractures of

60/240° and 70/250° are of some significance. Y-'

Figure 4.27 Rose Diagram Showing the Joint and Fracture AngIes Found at the Quarry Site. Inset map (Figure 4.9) shows area surveyed. Cliffindicated on inset map. Fime 4.28 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angles Found ai the Badtop Site. Inset map (Figure 4.10) shows area surveyed. CWTindicated on inset map. The Badtop Site is the most complex of the three sites examinai (Figure

4.28). It has three major joint systems but, as the rose diagram iliustrates, there are

severai other systems that are aiso significant. The rnost fiequent fracture

orientation is 401230" and accounts for 21 of 116, or 18% of the fractures

measured. This system runs at about 90 degrees to the cwand create the blocks

found at this site. The next most fiequent series of hctures are at 60/250° and

represent 17 of 116 or 14.6% of the fractures at this site. The third major hcture

system is the cl= forming system and is orientated at 2012 20". There are 12 of

these fractures representing 10.3% of the total. As can be seen ffom the rose

diagram, there are several other joint systems that have a large percentage of the

total number of fractures. Of these 30/220°, 901280" and 140/330° are the next

most numerous fractures.

-4.9 Thin Sections Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse hstiture for

Materiais Reasearch at McMaster University to make thin sections. The anaiysis of the four thin sections was preformed by Mark Carpenter, a feüow graduate student at Wfid Laurier University. While aU four samples were taken from

Badtop/Badlands area each sarnple had significant diierences.

Sample BA-8-96-5 was collected dong the upper portion of the Badlands, dong the perched footslope (Figure 4.1). This rock is composed mostIy of carbonate minerals and is medium fine grained, with grain sue of individual crystais

around 0.1 mm in diameter. In plane polarized light the rock appears colourless

with a brown hue. Organic debris have undergone dolomitization to alter their

aragonitic and calcitic mineral assemblages. The cement matnx consists of clear

equant calcite sparite mostly

weli as within bioclasts. The absolute porosity is very low; estimated at 5% and has

been reduced by diagenetic cementation and neomorphic dolomitization.

Sample BA-8-96-9came hman outcrop of shaly carbonate (secondary

scarp talus dope) Iocated dong the road between the Badlands and Badtop sites

(Figure 4.1). This sample is composed almost entireiy of carbonate minerais with abundant shell debris, and traces of organic burrowing. This rock can be classified as a hegrained, biociastic lhestone, with an average grain size of 0.05 mm in diarneter. It has two distinct zones, the fist of which is composed of roughly 80% shell material. The cernent is extremely fhe grained carbonate minerais including calcite and micrite, each x0.025 mm in diameter. The porosity is

Sample BA-8-96-12 is an interlocking crystalline carbonate rock cornposed of dolomite and calcite. 1t was coUected at the top of the secondary scarp of the

Badtop site (Figure 4.1). There is very little evidence of bioclastic materia1 within the sarnple. While very simiIar to sarnple 13 there are regular euhedral mosaics of equant calcite that may indicate dedolomitization. This may account for the

reduced porosity, estimated at <2%.

Sarnple BA-8-96-13, coUected fiom the top of the main scarp of the Badtop

site, (na-scarp zone) is a fhe to medium-he dolomitic iixnestone made up of sub-

altered carbonate minerais and fine grained (

crystals (Figure 4.1). There is only &or evidence of relia organic matter within

the sarnple as bivalve sheils that have been altered and replaced as a result of

doiornitization. The absolute porosity is estimated at 15-20% and occurs as either

isolated or connected voids, the Iargest being 1 mm x 1 mm.

-4.10 Mineralow As mentioned eariier, nine samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for

Materials Research at McMaster University for X-ray Difûaction analysis. It was

anticipated that clay minerais would be important in weathering and therefore influentid in block movement. The prMnary minerals found in the samples were; quartz, calcite, kaolinite, hdoysite and montmorüionïte. Also identified in small concentrations were plagioclase, dolomite, ankerite and halite. Table 4.5 outlines the relative concentrations of each mineral for each of the nine samples.

Ouam concentrations range fiom 25% to 35% of the sample material, which makes it the most abundant rock forming material. The structure of quartz is usuaiiy hexagonal and prismatic, terminated by two (positive and negative) rhombohedra resembling hexagonal dipyramids (Mottana, 1978). Quartz has a Table 4.5 Summary of Minerals Found in Clay and Shale Samples at the'eadlands and Badtop Sites. hardness of 7 on Moh's hardness scaie and dispIays no planes of weakness when

fiactured. These attributes, plus its low solubility rnake quartz one of the rnost

resistant minerais to chemicai and mechanicd weathering. It has been suggested

that the arnount of quartz in shale may be indicative of shoreiine proety(Potter,

Maynard and Pryor, 1980).

Calcite, the most common of the carbonate minerals ranges greatly f?om 3%

to 27% within the samples. It forms when carbonate molecuies bond ionicaily to a

calcium ion. Calcite qstal structure is rhombohedral and varies f?om tabular

(rare) to prismatic or needle-like (Pough, 1988). Calcite has a hardness of 2.5 to 3

an the Moh's Hardness scale. Being fairly soft it has cleavage ptanes in three

directions that make up the rhombus-type structure. This makes it more minerable

to mechanical weathering than quartz. Contact with slight acidic water breaks

calcite down to bicarbonate molecules that are easily carried away in solution. This

means that it is highiy susceptible to chemicd weathering since most water is

slightly acidic due to interaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Kaohte is a hydrated aiuminum silicate and ranges in concentrations of 9% io 28" O of the sarnples. "The structure is composed of a single silica tetrahedral

~h~rrand a singIe alumina octahrai sheet combined in a unit so that the tips of the sihca tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet fom a comrnon

laver " (Grim, 1968) Kaolinite is relatively soft with a Moh hardness of 2 - 2.5 and has perfect basal cleavages. It forms by aiteration of feldspars and other duminum bearing rninerals in humid tropical to very humid tropical environments (Mottana,

1978). When rnixed with water Kaolinite becomes plastic and easy to mold.

Haiioyite, which ranges in concentrations of 10% to 17% in the samples is

a clay mineral that is structuraiiy similar to Kaolinite (Grim, 1968). In some cases it

has a layer of water between successive layers and is caiied hydrated haiioysite.

MontmoriUonite represents 5% to 10% of the samples analyzed.

Montmoriiionite is the magnesium variety of smectite with both aiuminum and

magnesium in an octahedrai sheet (Birkeland, 1984) It is very soft with a Moh

hardness of 1, disintegrates easily and has a greasy feel. A very important

characteristic for work on the Niagara Escarpment is Montmoriilonites high capacity to expand by absorbing water and other liquids (Mottana, 1978). This is of particular importance to the overaii behaviour of the underlying sofier shales.

Plagioclase, are feldspars between aibite and anorthite in composition and are found in equai concentrations of 5% in aü samples coilected. It has a hardness of 6, and 2 cleavages at about 94 degrees (Pough, 1988). Plagioclase weathers more readily than other feldspars (Leavens, 1995)

Dolomite, is found at a concentration of 2% in 3 samples and at very high

30% in sarnpie #14. Sample #14 was the closest sample taken to the dolomite that caps the Niagara Escarpment. It has a hexagonal-rhombohedral crystal structure

(Pough, 1988). Dolomite forms by the chemicai replacement of calcium with magnesium ions present in solution on the carbonate molecule. This is a simple ion exchange, but with a significant change in properties. Dolomite retains the same pIanes as calcite but its hardness increases fiom 3 to 3.5 to 4 and sohbility is much

decreased (Pough, 1988). This makes it more resistant to weathering than calcite.

Ankente and Halite, are both found in smd quantities in only a few

samples. Halite is of course rock saIt with a hardness of 2.5 and is eady dissolved

in water. Ankente is formed when iron replaces magnesium in doIomite forming an

isostructural series.

-4.11 Mineral Bebaviour Montmorillonite has the ability to absorb water and other liquids which

causes it to sweli. The samples coiiected had a 10% concentration of

montmorilionite, with sample #10 having a 5% concentration. When this is

compared to other studies of swelling clays, it seems that a 10% concentration is

sigdicant. QuigIey, Matich, Horvath and Hawson (1971) exarnined two large

dope failures on the Don Vaiiey Parkway, north of the Bloor Viaduct, Toronto.

The soils at these sites consisted of abundant iUite, chiorite, and carbonate, with moderate amounts of quartz, feldspar and swelling clays. The sweiiing clays were pseudo-montmorillonite at concentrations of 10% to 15%. It was the belief of this study that swehg clays accelerate soi1 softenïng and subsequent fdure. With a similar amount of swehg clays in the samples form the Nmgara Escarpment, it would suggest that this environment is also susceptible to soi1 sofiening and eventual Mure. This could also have an impact on the movement of detached blocks. Softening of the underlying shales is a necessary rnechanism for @ide of large detached blocks observed at the three study sites dong the Niagara

Escarpment. Cha~ter5 Summarv and Discussion

-5.1 Summarv of Results This study cails into question the previously held view of scarp development dong the Niagara Escarpment. The results of this study support a revised model of

Escarpment development and therefore conter the accepted "homochal" shifting model. Evidence to suggest this inchdes:

Sites that show the most developed hcturing, display no characteristics

(direct undercutting or spring sapping) of homochal shifting, as suggested

by the literature.

Data arrays indicate movement of fiactured and detached blocks in the

cWed zone.

Movement of the data amays indicate that the blocks are jostling, with

movement away from, and towards the parent cM It also showed lateral

movement of many of the blocks.

Cross sections of the 'near-scarp' zone showed the detached blocks tilted

both away fiom as weil as towards the parent clin.

Detached blocks may lean away fkom or towards the parent clifS thus

creating 'crevice caves'.

Undistwbed Queenston shde is bloclq and dense when dry, but rapidly

weathers and is easiiy rernoved when wet.

Clay minerdogy analysis of clay shales suggests the potential for swelling. The remaining results fiom this study center around features and the relationship between process and resulting landforms.

Cambering of the outermost portion of the cap rock towards the clifFface,

differs fi-om the regional dip of the Escarprnent.

Fractures become progressively deeper and wider towards the cliff face.

Locations with the thickest bedding tend to have the largest detached

blocks, and conversely areas with thin bedding tend to have smder

detached blocks (presumably because the blocks disintegrate before they

can travel very far as a singie unit).

Drainage of the 'near-scarp'zone seems to be entirely underground.

Large quantities of water was observed flowing fiom the base of the scarp

during a storm event.

FiaUy the over-ridùig conciusion is that this study identifies many explanations for scarp development lacking foundation that a major effort is necessary to re-investigate and reinterpret the development of the Niagara

Escarpment by the geologicd community.

The following section suggests a possible theoretical mode1 of scarp development that has been formulated fkom observations of features dong the

Escarpment and fiom this study. It seems safe to Say that Our present interpretation of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment is insufficient. -5.2 Scam Develonment Mode1 Evidence presented by this thesis suggests that current explmation of scarp development by homoclinal shifling controiied by river migration, is inadequate if not wrong. In the sites studied, there are dramatic examples of detached blocks and crevice caves without any sign of river undercutting or spring sapping. If homochai shifüng is not the process taking place on the Escarpment, then what is?

The next step is to determine the processes at work on the Niagara Escarpment and the speed at which they take place. In consulting the literature of other environments that have strong carbonate cap rock overlying softer ciays and shales one padcular model seerns possible. The model centers around weathering of the shale, which deforms under the weight of the overlying dolornitic cap rock.

Fractures develop in the cap rock and get progressively wider and deeper near the cliffface, due to greater exposure to weathering. Fracturing of the cap rock results in slow tilting, jostling and evenfuai toppling of large blocks. During this progression crevice caves develop between the detached blocks and the parent rock mass. Toveil(1992) suggested that this is caused by the weakening of the underlying Queenston Formation. While this formation plays a part, its stratagraphic position suggests other formations need to be involved as weii. In particula. the Cabot Head formation and the Grimsby formation likely influence mass movements since both are susceptible to extensive weathering and erosion.

As the Cabot Head and Grimsby shaies weather, they are unable to support the overlying cap rock and failure occurs in the cap rock dong a plane of weakness, usuaiiy a joint. The shale is then extruded lateraiiy as the block begins to tilt and eventually M. This process is aided by the Whirlpool Sandstone directiy above the shale; where its high porosity enables Iarge quantities of ground water to reach the shale, promoting rapid weathering. This is a reasonable explanauon since the bedding planes of the overlying rock strata dip back into the escarpment and are therefore inherently resistant to rnass wasting. Figure 5.1 shows in sirnpiiûed fashion, the steps involved in this proposed dope Mure model. Weathering within Cabot Heab Grimsby adQueenston Formations reduces support of overlyhg cap rock Weathaing shaie is deto support cap rack dgwidening and depening of regionai joints and nactureç.

Shaie thins and is exrmded due to compfession by overlying cap rock. Blocks begin to slide downslope, tilting away or towards the parent di& This often produces crevice caves. As this progreses, blocks become fulS derached.

Once fully detached the blocks usuaüy topple. conmbirting ta the Nbbie found on the talus dopes. Collapsing of blocks allows wcathering of newly txposed shde resulting in a rendof the entire Pr'='==

Figure- 5.1 Steps for a proposed mode1 of scarp development for the Niagara Escarpmerrt. (Source: adapteci fiom Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Not drawn to scale) -53 Limitations of the Studv The most notabie limitations of this study are the smaii nurnber and reIativeIy smd geographicd distribution of the study sites.

Even though efforts were made to select representative and appropriate sites for this study, the fact remains that only three sites within a relatively smd geographic area were examined in detd. This was sirnply a factor of the time needed to analyze additional sites and to complete the necessary measurements.

However, no site that we have examined on the main Escarpment Iacks the same basic features. For this work to be appiied to the Escarpment as a whole, additional sites located throughout the entire Escarpment wilI need to be exarnined in order to broaden the scope of this study.

Cornpared with other studies of this nature, three field seasons was very good. With this in rnind, additionai time would be usefûl in adding to the number of measurements with the data arrays. With additionai readings it may be possible to distinguish between movement and errors.

-5.4 Further Research This is redy just the beginning of what could be an ongoing project to determine rates of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment. Research could be expanded to include similar studies to this in a greater number of areas as well as long tenn measurements of slopes with data arrays sirnilar to the ones used in this study. While this study had minerd work done on the Queenston formation,

hancial as weli as accessibility restrictions prevented similar tests being performed

on shaies of the Cabot Head and Grimsby formations. It is believed that these

formations play as great a role in dope movements dong the Niagara Escarpment

as does the Queenston formation. The tmth is that the shortcornings of this sfudy

could be reversed by continued, long term research into slope processes dong the

Niagara Escarpment .

-5.5 Future in Question?

On February 8, 1990, Ontario's Niagara Escarpment was inaugurated as a

World Biosphere Reserve, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This recognizes the Niagara Escarpment as an internationaily signiticant ecosystem.

The Niagara Escarpment is protected by Canada's first large scaie environmental land-use plan controlled by the Niagara Escarpment Commission.

The Commission is a provincial agency that has control over 5,200 square- kiiometers of land, hcluding some of the continent's richest aggregate deposits.

In Marcfi 1997, during the write-up of this thesis the Conservative goveriunent under Premier Mike Hanis has moved the political and administrative responsibility for the Niagara Escarpment Plan fiom the Ministry of the

Environment to the Ministry of Naturd Resources. This places the control of the

Niagara Escarpment Plan in the hands of a Mïnistry that has long favored the exploitation of aggregate resources in the escarpment planning area. In addition the govenunent has laid off one-thkd of the commission's staff and has gotten rid of its chairperson and four of its commissioners.

This action seriously cals into question the fùture of the Niagara

Escarpment landscape, The possbiiity of relaxed controls on environmental protection and in particular an increase in aggregate extraction could severely alter the physical and cultural landscape of the escarpment. Appendix A.

Data Set from the Totai Station Base Map Survey. House Site, Quany Site, Badtop Site and the Badlands. rZOS t'IOIL16P IWIWSSS 9bI CMS 'CEOILI6P 12618b85~ SPI

ZSZOS (t'860~16P 16~~8~8~sEEI t'VOS (~'960~16~ILIP~P~SS ZEl SI-SOS / I'S60L16P j f O'9SP85S IEI ES'SOS 1 SE60L16P EP'S80855 DEI 9'90s V880LI6P / ~P'P~P~SZ1621 WLOS D'E80LI6V 1 SV ESP8SS 1821 98205 8.LLOLIdt 1 ZYZSPSSS ~LZI

LOZOS 16~80~16~1 W~SV~SS (PZ1 8.~05 jf ~60~16~Immss jn1 IYWS (t'960~16+ W88P8SS 1 n1 IL'EOS 12'660~16V I6S8W8SS 1 121

1 SOS OOILI6P OSP%SS 1001 NOUVATEi (A)HLXON wLSV?i #LNd

9-t7SP OSSIt6* T'SSZSSS ] 561 u'm ISSTM* ~snssr 1 961 9S6fP Z55IMP 8'5SZSSS / E61 9E'VSP 1 tSSIZ6P P'9SZS55 1 161 ZL'PSP 1 PSSIUCoP P'WZSSC j 161 IZ'P8b OSSIZ6t 8'ISZSSS 1 061

f 99'L8i7 ! PZSIMP 1 9.LPZ55S 1 6L1

68î9 i Z1SIZ6P 1 8'6tZ55S i

l I PNT# NOR- EASTQQ WATION DESCRETION 1210 49217989 557410.84 427993 1 3 100 49218 103 557449.03 425389 WOOD STAKE 3110 49218103 557449.03 425.879 TRAN#l 3 111 492 18 103 557449.03 425.879 TRAN#l

3324 4921783.8 557462291 421.522GULLEYS 3325 4921781 557465.09 420.791 GULLEYS 3330 49217896 557450.84 423.865 GULLEYS 3331 4921791.1 557447.53 424.575 GULLEYS 3332 1 4921731.6 557442.89 425.263 GULLEYS 3333 ) 4921793.6 55743721 425989]Guu~ys 1 33401 492179951 557435.53 426.6(GlJLLEYS 1 3341 49218025 55743729 426.125/GUUMS 1 i 1 1

3360 1 49218261 557469.85 j 420.379 GULLEYS 1 3361 1 492182231 557464.221 421.001 GUUMS 33621 4921820.61 ~57461.21 ~~I.~~~GULLEYSj 3365i 4921813.6) 557455.081 422.881 GULLEYS 1

- 3371 / 4921810.61 557444.48 1 425.246 GUYS 337d 492I818.5 557430.9 1 426.946 GUYS 3375 1 49218183 557431.191 426.927 GUUEYS 3376 1 49218t7.1 55743736 426.257 GULLEYS 33'171 4921816.7 557441.9 425.139 GULLEYS 3378 1 4921818.9 1 557447.93 424.437 GULLEYS 8 3379 i 4921 820.4 1 5~7452.01 424.06 (GULLEYS 3385 4921828.81 557425.69 427.551 ~GULLEYS k 3402 4921773 557447.03 425.113 OULLEYmE 3403 4921ï74.4 5574473 424.616 GUUEYSIDE 3404 49213163 557447.39 424.576 GUUEYSIDE 345 4921777.6 557448.W 424.583 GULLEYSIDE 34061 4921775 55745248 423.923 GUtLEYSIDE 3407 4921776.6 557453.7 423.419 GUUEYSIDE 3408 49217793 55745226 423182 GUUEYSIDE 3409 4921779.7 557451.62 423.757 GUUEYSIDE 3410 49217827 557455.47 423.431 GüLLEYSDE

3411 I 4921781.9 557457.23 422.49 GüLL,EYSIIIE

3W 4921790.5 j 557440.561 425.989 GULLEYSIDE 3441 4921793.4 1 557441.09/ 426.097 GUYSIDE 3442 4921794.91 557441.581 426.1 15 GUYSIDE 3443 ] 4921798.7 1 557442871 426.41 1 (GULLEYS~E 34441 4921801.61 557435.69 1 426.675 GULLEYSIDE 3445 49218023 [ 557439.29 1 426343 GüLLEYSiDE 3446 4921805.8 55743 l.74! 426.926 GüLLEYSiDE 3447 4921808 557434.73 1 426.54 GULLEYSIDE 3448 4921803.7 557434.97 1 426.455 GUYSIDE 3497' 49218113 1 557453 ( ~~~.~~~/GULLEYSIDE 3498 4921811.3 557451381 424.686 GUUEYSIDE * ( 3499 4921806.7) 557451.27 1 424.1% GUUEYSIDE 3500 4921804.71 557449.5 1 425.179 GULLEYSIDE .- 350 1 1 4921805.5 ( 557444.76 425.761 IGULLEYSIDE 3502 ' 4921807.2 557445.63 424.962 GUYSIDE 3503 1 4921808.9 55744626 424.721 GüLLEYSIDE 3504 / 4921809.9 557447.22 1 424.92 GUUEYSmE 350s j 4921810.1 557447.94 1 42531 GUUEYS~E L 3521 492180631 55746338 422692 GUUEYSIDE 3522 4921813.6 557464-48 422138 GUUEYSIDE 3523 4921818.8 557467-76 421.754 GULLEYSIDE 3524 4921824.7 557472.14 420.323 GUUEYSIDE 3525 4921816.5 557475.81 420.759 GUUEYSIDE

3536 1 4921804.61 557461.53 1 422.996 GULLEYSIDE 3537 / 49218033 1 557459261 423.441 GUUEYSIDE 3538 1 4921807.4 ( 557464.88 / 422.681 GULtEYSiDE

3540 1 4921807.5 1 557467.271 422225 IGUUEYSIDE 3550 4921827 557479.9 1 420.077 1 WOOD STAKE 3555 4921792.5 557485.29 1 420.723 (WOOD STAKE 3570 4921827.6 557457.981 421.861GULLEYS 3571 4921827.91 557460.241 421.0421~~~~~~~1

3577i 4921824.l1 557474.05 f 419.764 GUUEYS 1 35781 4921833.71 557476.121 417242 GUUEYS 1 3579 1 4921837.7 557484.48 1 416.244 GUUEYS 3580 1 4921 834.2 557483.39 416.872 GUYS 3581 1 4921830.2 557480.58 418.832 GUUEYS 3582 1 4921837.4 557487.85 416.154 GUUEYS

3651 4921828 557476.05 420.181 GULLE~S~E 3652 4921831.7 557468.64 420289 GüLLEYSIDE 3653 4921831 5574653 421.483 GüLLEYSiDE 3654 4921830.9 557460.1 422816 GULLEYSDE 3655 4921831 557455.13 423.733 GUUEYSDE 3656 4921832.5 557450.1 1 424.859 GüLLEYSïDE I

36691 49218471 557497.171 415.253 ~GUL~EYSIDE 3670 i 4m1m.7 557492.95! 416.263 GUUEYSIDE 3671 1 4921836.5 557489.45 1 416953 GULLEYSIDE 3672 1 492183 1.8 557485.48 418.299 GLJLLEYSIDE 36901 4921780.6 557484.54 416-77lGU~~) 3691 / 49217828 1 55747633 418.5551~~~~~~~f 36921 4921783.2 55747.891 418.0181~~~~~~~1 3693 492 1786.4 557479.02 1 41 8.622 IGULLEYS 3694) 4921790 557478 1 419.628 (GUYS - 3742 492178591 557490.03 418.212 GUYSIDE 3743 4921783.1 1 557491.57 417219 GULLEYSIDE 3744 4921781.81 557493.41 416349 GULLEYSIDE 3745 ( 4921783 / 557488.1 I 417.193 GUUEYSiDE -L

3753 i 4921790.7 557479.n/ 420.668 GULLEYSIDE 3754 1 4921790.1 557476.88 i 420.254 GUUMSiDE 3755 1 4921787.2 557475.86 1 420348 CXiKEYSiDE 3756 ( 4921787.1 557477.21 1 419.885 GWYSIDE

Appendix B.

Data Set from the Data Arrays. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site. House site Data Array Data Set t

Sumer 1997 Data Anay 1 2 1 555202.937 1 4921515.M ( 486.616 I i Summer 1996 Data Amy 1 PNTg 1 EASÏW NORTfiCr) ELEVATION 2 1 55520296 4921515.6 / 486.6 10 / 555206.91 4921519.29 1 487.25 3 1 55521334 i 4921518.7 i 4m.75

1 i I Summer 1997 Data Anav 1 1 PNT(t ! EAST0 1 NORTH(Y) 1 ELEVATION IO i 555207.47 1 4921516 ! 48738 Badtop Site Data Amy Daia Set 1 t t I I I I Summer 1995 Dafa Amy 1 PNT# 1 NORïHCY) EASTm 1 ELEVATION 8 1 4921439219 556984.111 ] 499398 7 4921431.741 556983.747 1 499.553 6 4921428.55 556988.862 1 499305 5 4921424292 556990JSt / 498.929

1 I Summer 1996 Data Array 1 PNT# I mgr) 1 NORTHCY) / EVEVATION' AppendY Ce

Data Set from the Test Arrays. Test Amy Data Set I Bedding Piane Study Sketcbes. House Site, Quany Site and Badtop Site.

Appendix E.

Data Set from the Fracture Survey. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site.

Appendix F.

X-ray Diffraction Results fmm Brockhouse Iastitute for Materiah Research.

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APPLIED IMAGE. lnc 1653 East Main Street ,-.- Rochester. NY 14609 USA -,---- Phone: 716/4826300 ------Fa: 71W88-5989

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