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Reexamination of Scarp Development Along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada

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Reexamination of Scarp Development Along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada Reexamination of Scarp Development along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada David W. Hintz (B.A., Wilfrid Laurier University, 1995) THESIS Submitted to the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies in partial fulfdment of the requuements for the Master of Environmental Studies degree Wilfrid Laurier University 1997 ODavid W. Hintz 1997 National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington ûttawa ON KfA ON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la fome de microfiche/m de reproduction sur papier ou sufoxmat électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thése. thesis nor substantial extracts ~omit Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othenvise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. The Niagara Escarpment is generally viewed as a relict landfonn which shows ancient structural feaîures and the effects of glaciation. Since it was realized that the Escarpment was not a huit, but instead a feature of erosional origin, little interest has been paid to development of the steep cWed section of the Niagara Escarpment. This research project has several objectives. The fkst is an examination of the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological units. This will include anaiysis of the structure and lithology of each and the geochemistry, especiaiiy, of the Queenston Formation. Associated with the examination of the morphology and the IithoIogy is a detailed analysis of dope components that are invoIved in, or influence mass movements on, the Nagara Escarpment. This analysis centers around the progressively deepening fractures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data- gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an exarnination of the bedding. A Wild 'Total Station' was used to preciseiy map the cliffed zone of the escarpment, since available maps are insui3cient for any detailed dysis. In addition to the 'Total Station', the simpler method of tape and cornpass traverses was used to add detail to regions of hnited accessibility. The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid basis for constructing a repeatable, measurable data array that has been used to record large scaie mass movements. The research questions the validity of using the so-called 'homoclinal shiftuig' model to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It was shown that undercutting by strearn and spring sapping are absent from or rernote at the study sites. Finaily, this work lends support to a new scarp model for the Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995). Acknowledgments 1would like to begin by thanking Dr. Ken Hewitt for his guidance and insights in this research. 1 would also like to thank him for a bief interruption in this work for a trip to the Karakoram, Pakistan. Thank-you to cornmittee member Dr. Houston Saunderson, and readers Dr. Mary-Louise Byme and Dr. Gordon Young for theu assistance and suggestions. Technical support for both field and Iaboratory work was generously provided by Alex MacLean. Field assistance fiom Cam Chadwick, Andrew Gould, Mark Carpenter and Kirsty Dickson was greatly appreciatd. Sanity was maintained with help fiom Kirsty Dickson, Shawn Good (Quebec), Steve Ferguson (Fishing) and Mark Carpenter (Ice Climbing). Findy, 1 would like to thank my parents for their interest and support. Without their encouragement 1would not have gotten this fa. Thanks. Table of Contents Absitract ......................................................................................... i.. Acknowledgrnents .................................. .... ............................................ u... Table of Contents ................................................................................. UI List of Figures ................................................... .. ...................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................ vii Chapter 1. IN'IRODUCTION 1.1 Staternent of the Problem ........................................ 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study ..................... .... .............. 1 1.3 Location of Study Area ..................... ................... 3 1.4 Research on Mass Movements ................................ 5 Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO THE NIAGARA ESCARPMENT 2.1 Introduction .......................................................... 8 2.2 The Niagara Escarpment ...................... ..... ....... 8 2.3 Bedrock ûeology ......................~........~.~.....~............13 2.4 Previous Work on the Niagara Escarpment ............. 19 Chapter 3 . RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction ......................................................... 24 3.2 Field Techniques ..................................................... 25 3.2.1 Total Station Surveying ............................. 25 3 .2.2 Fracture Map ...................... .................. 32 3 .2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks ........................... 33 3 .2.4 Bedding Planes ........................................ 33 3 .2.5 Fracture Survey ..................... .... ........... 34 3.2.6 Aerial Photos ..................................... 35 3.3 Laboratory Techniques ............................................ 35 3.3.1 Thin Sections ...................................... ..37 3.3.2 X-ray DifEaction ................................ .... 37 Chapter 4 . ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Introduction ......................................................... 39 4.2 Observed Features at Study Sites ............................. 39 4.3 BaseMaps ............................................................... 49 4.4 Data and Test Arrays ...................... ...... ........... 54 4.5 Fracture Map .................................................... 63 4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks ........................................ 63 4.7 Bedding Planes .................................... .... ................ 69 4.8 Fracture Survey ..................................................... 77 4.9 Thin Sections ......................................................... 82 4 .IO Mineraiogy ................*............................................ 84 4.11 Behaviour .............................................................. 88 Chapter 5 . SuMh.IARY AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Sumrnaiy of Results ................................................ 90 5.2 Scarp Development Mode1 ...................................... 92 5-3 Limitations of the Study .......................................... 95 5.4 Further Research .................................................... 95 5.5 Future in Question? .................................................. 96 Appendix A Data Set &om the Total Station Base Map Survey .......... Appendix B . Data Set f?om the Data Arrays ........................................ Appendix C . Data Set for the Test Array ............................................. B edding Plane Study Sketches Appendix E. Data Set from the Fracture Survey .................................. Appendix F . X-ray Difkaction Results f?om Brockhouse Institute for Materiais Research ................................................... References ........................................................................................... List of Fimrres Fig . 1.1 Location of study sites ............................. .. .............................. Fig . 2.1 Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southern Ontario ........... Fig . 2.2 Model of 'homoclinal shifting' ................................................... Fig . 2.3 SIope profde showing the geologic ~nitsfound at the study sites.. Fig . 3.1 Contour map of the House site showing the distribution of survey points ............................................................................... Fig . 3.2 Contour map of the Quarry site showhg the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ........................................... Fig . 3.3 Contour map of the Badtop site showing the distribution of swey points .................... ... ................................................. Fig . 3.4 Contour map of the Badlands site showing the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ............................................. Fig- 3.5 Diagram showing shape of data and test arrays ........................... Fig . 4.1 Slope prome showing the dope components ............................... Fig . 4.2 Example of the "near-scarp7 zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site ........................... ........ ................... Fig . 4.3 Surface flow of rain water during a summer thunder storm .......... Fig . 4.4 Wmter view ofthe 'crevice caves' at the House site .................... Fig . 4.5 'Secondary scarp7cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at the Badtop site ........................................................... Fig . 4.6 'Perched footslope7at Badtop/Badiands site
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