Index

A C Alzheimer’s disease, 160 California Poison Control System, 159 American Indian Religious Freedom Act Centro Ecle´tico da Fluente Luz Universal Amendments (AIRFAA), 73 Raimundo Irineu Serra (CEFLURIS), 115 Coca B domestic laws and traditional uses Banisteriopsis caapi,54 Argentina, 39 Beckley Foundation, 192 Aymara people, 39 BIA. See Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Bolivia, 38 Blood quantum, 73 Brazilian eastern Amazon, 39 Brain-imaging, 193 Chilean law, 39 Brazilian Colombian government, 38 Bolivia’s cultural patrimony, 124 cultural heritage, 38 cultural heritage, 125 Ecuador, 39 culture and place indigenous people, 37 ayahuasca plants, 120 licensing system, 37 nation-states, 121 licit market, 37 perpetual motion machine, 121 masculine, 39 use, 119 modernization thesis, 37 transnationalism, 119 Peru, 37 drug conventions, 126 global markets, 40–42 exportation, 125 INCB historical evidence, 116–118 CND, 31 international drug regulation, 112–114 national legislation, 32 legitimate medicine, 122–124 1988 trafficking convention, 29–31 origin of, 114–116 UN drug control framework, 34–36 psychoactive plants, 124 UN drug control treaties Brett’s Law, 156 alkaloids, 29 British Crime Survey, 143 controlled substances schedules, 28 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 67 ECOSOC, 26 Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, 68 Expert Committee on Drugs, 27

B.C. Labate and C. Cavnar (eds.), Prohibition, Religious Freedom, and Human Rights: 249 Regulating Traditional Drug Use, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-40957-8, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014 250 Index

formal reservation, 29 Misuse of Drugs Act, 237 illicit cultivation, 28 opium, 240 international narcotics control set and setting, 240 bureaucracy, 27 societal harm index, 238 League of Nations, 27 traditional drug use, 236 cactus, 29 United Nations General Assembly Political psychoactive ingredients, 29 Declaration, 235 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 26 WHO, 32–34 E Cognitive liberty, 221–223 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), 4, 26 Commission on Narcotic Drugs Empresa Nacional de la Coca (ENACO), 37 (CND), 4, 6, 31 Ephedra alkaloids, 156 Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Equality and Human Rights Commission, 102 Control Act, 46–47, 151 Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church (EZCC), 101 Controlled Substance Act (CSA), 47, 68, 101 European Convention on Human Rights Cross-Fire ceremony, 67 (ECHR), 95, 211 Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD), 32 D DACA. See Drug Abuse Control Amendments (DACA) F DEA. See Drug Enforcement Administration Federal Drug Regulation (DEA) addiction maintenance, 150 Default mode network (DMN), 192 DACA, 151 delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 123 Harrison Narcotic Act, 150 Diacetylmorphine (heroin), 152 LSD, 151 Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 54, 155 marijuana, 150 Drug Abuse Control Amendments patent medicine industry, 149 (DACA), 68, 151 Pure Food and Drug Act, 149 Drug Enforcement Administration Schedule I drugs, 152 (DEA), 69, 101, 152 Drug policy cross-cultural drug use, 235 G fear, risk and policy developments, Gamma hydroxybutyrate acid (GHB), 151–152 241–242 Genussmittel, 134, 145 human rights, social justice and drug use Global Cannabis Commission, 198 clandestine production, 244 colonialism, 242 crop eradication programs, 244 H ecological impacts, 245 Half-Moon ceremony/ Way, 67 INCB, 243 Control Act, 157 natural environment, 245 , 159–161 political institutions, 242 Harm principle, 221 quarantine, 243 Harrison Narcotic Act, 46, 150 imperialism, 236 Heffter Research Institute, 192 situated risk Hoasca, 54, 55 blood borne disease, 240 Human Rights Act (HRA), 102 control systems, 238 Human rights law fatal heroin overdoses, 239 coca leaf and human rights norms and heroin (diamorphine), 237 standards HIV/AIDS, 237 American Convention on Human injecting techniques, 239 Rights, 16 Index 251

Bolivian law, 16 I chemical precursors, 14 International Covenant on Economic, Social cultural incompleteness, 13 and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 7 democratic-pluralist policy, 18 International Foundation for Internal Freedom indigenous people, 15 (IFIF), 167 International Covenant on Civil International Monetary Fund (IMF), 138 and Political Rights, 16 International Narcotic Control Board isomorphic issues, 15 (INCB), 4, 31–32, 140, 191 Kantian ethics, 14 penalties, 17 general treaties obligations K damage drug use, 10 , 155 domestic law system, 12 Khat drug war generation, 11 cathine and cathinone, 131 escape clause, 12 conservative Muslims, 134 harm-reduction strategies, 13 control regimes, 144 legislative and administrative measures, cultural achievement, 132 10 development issue, 137–140 New York Declaration, 10 drugs discourse, 140–143 possession for personal use, 12 drug terminology, 144–145 preambles, 10 exotic cultures, 133 Quito Declaration, 10 policy decisions, 143–144 Resolution 39/141, 10 travelers tales, 135–137 Single Convention, 11 Kootenai tribe, 83 United Nations drug conventions coca chewing prohibition, 2 criminal law, 4 L drug trafficking, 3 League of Spiritual Discovery (LSD), 174 illicit drugs, 4 Leary Defense Fund, 173 narcotic drugs, 3 Leary, Timothy political-legislative power, 3 basic human rights, 178 synthetic drugs, 3 constitutional outrage, 178 treatment options and harm reduction, 2 education system, 177 , 4 Federal Wagering Tax Statutes, 180 UN System Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, 180 decriminalization, 6 freedom to act, 179 drug control treaties, 5 Free Exercise Clause, 180 humanization of international law, 5 Laredo sentencing, 178 human rights treaties, 6 legal action, 171–174 jus cogens,6 licensing provisions, 181 safeguard clause, 6 LSD, 174 violations, drug laws marijuana, 175 alternative imprisonment, 8 Mexican retreat, 165–169 capital punishment, 9 Narcotic Rehabilitation Act of 1966, 176 drug crimes, 8 Neo-American Church, 177 ethical treatment, 7 psychedelics, 175 human rights treaties, 7 public perception, 176 individual rights, 7 religious freedom, 175 mass imprisonment, 8 religious practices, 179 non-governmental organizations, 8 self-incrimination, 181 penitentiary system, 8 Supreme Court, 181–183 public health-based interventions, 9 Texas Jail, 169–171 right to health, 7 Liberalism, 222 WHO, 7 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 151, 166 252 Index

M Native American Church, 75 MAPS. See Multidisciplinary Association for non-Indian members, 78 Psychedelic Science (MAPS) political classification, 77 Marihuana Tax Act, 46, 150, 170 scheduled psychoactive substance, 77 Marijuana Peyote Way Church of v. closed regulatory system, 47 Thornburgh, 71–73 controlled substance, 47 proposed regulatory changes, 82–83 domestic laws, 48 race, membership and NAC, 83–85 interstate commerce clause, 45 State of Utah v. Mooney, 80–82 labeling restrictions, 46 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 193 medical purposes, 46 , 160, 166 medicinal use of, 48 Psychedelics and cognitive liberty prohibitions, 46 Article 9 and religious and spiritual Schedule I drugs, 47 freedom, 214–216 Schedule II drugs, 47 balancing freedoms taxation, 46 Article 9(2), 223 Mazatecs, 153 boundary-dissolving unity, 227 Methylene-dioxy-meth-amphetamine controlled drugs, 225 (MDMA), 152 implicit puritanism, 226 Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), 159 legal objectivity, 224 Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA), 104, 196, 216 MAPS, 226 Morton test, 72 plant psychedelics, 224 Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic recreational drug users, 225 Science (MAPS), 192 unqualified protection, 223 freedom of thought Beckley Foundation, 219 N consciousness, 217 National Firearms Act, 150, 170 criminalized unorthodox National Narcotics Board, 38 mindstates, 218 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health criminal justice system, 221 (NSDUH), 158 drug heresy, 220 Native American Church (NAC), 66–69, drug prohibitions, 217 171–172 global prohibition, 219 Hardison, Casey, 216 human rights-based arguments, 218 O MDA, 216 Organization of American States (OAS), 203 parliamentary sovereignty, 220 legal moralism, 227 religious and spiritual use of, 212–214 P right to psychedelics, 229–230 Peyote cactus, 29 Psychotria viridis,54 Peyote exemption PTSD. See Post-traumatic stress disorder equal protection and trust responsibility, (PTSD) 69–71 Pure Food and Drug Act, 149 NAC, 66–69 new exemption, 73–75 O Centro Espı´rita Beneficente Unia˜oDo R Vegetal (UDV) v. Ashcroft Rastafarianism, 57 AIRFAA, 79 cannabis case law ayahuasca, 75 cannabis prohibition, 105 Boyll case, 76 evolution of, 93–95 Coalition, 78 global drug prohibition, 105 Equal Protection analysis, 76 legal jurisdictions, 98–100 Index 253

possession vs. possession with intent to Bolivia, 199 supply, 104 clean injection facilities, 197 Rastafarian movement, 90–93 Global Initiative for Drug Policy religious drug use, 100–102 Reform, 202 religious freedom and UN drug INCB, 200 conventions, 102–103 Latin America, 201 religious manifestation, 96–97 policy reforms, 198 Religious Freedom Restoration Act supplementary treaty, 200 (RFRA), 53, 85 regulated markets, 204 Religious Land Use and Institutionalized science and medicine, 192–194 Persons Act (RLIUPA), 54 scientific research, 192 War on Drugs, 189 WHO, 191 S Unia˜o Do Vegetal (UDV) Salish tribe, 83 ayahuasca, 75 Boyll case, 76 California Poison Control System, 159 Coalition, 78 CSA, 157 Equal Protection analysis, 76 curandero, 154 Native American Church, 75 ephedra alkaloids, 156 non-Indian members, 78 hallucinogens, 154 political classification, 77 marijuana, 158 scheduled psychoactive substance, 77 Mazatecs, 153 United Nations International Crime and Justice psychoactive mushrooms and plants, 153 Research Institute (UNICRI), 32 , 155 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Schedule I drug, 156 (UNODC), 4, 7 Salvinorin A, 155 United Negro Improvement Association Structural adjustment programs (SAPs), 138 (UNIA), 91 Synthetic marijuana, 159 constitutional protection, 52–53 First Amendment T belief-action distinction, 49 Transnationalism, 119 civil and criminal laws, 50 lower courts, 49 national government, 52 U Native American Church, 51 UN drug conventions novel religions, 48 buprenorphine, 191 Old Order Amish, 50 cannabis, 194–195 peyote, 51 clinical-grade psychoactives, 192 psychedelic effects, 51 controlled drugs, 192 , free exercise of, 48 costs and benefits, 206 Supreme Court, 49 explicit decriminalization, 203 Wisconsin law, 50 legal highs, 196–197 Woodstock Generation, 50 legislative reform, 205 marijuana methadone, 191 closed regulatory system, 47 narcotic and opioid medications, 191 controlled substance, 47 prohibitionism, 189 domestic laws, 48 psychedelics and insufficient harm, interstate commerce clause, 45 195–196 labeling restrictions, 46 psychoactive substances, 189–191 medical purposes, 46 reformation medicinal use of, 48 Beckley Foundation, 198 prohibitions, 46 254 Index

Schedule I drugs, 47 Rastafarians, 57 Schedule II drugs, 47 religious organizations, 57 taxation, 46 religious practice, 56 post-RFRA results statutory protections, religion, 53–55 California court, 58 Coptics, 59 federal courts, 55 V Florida courts, 58 Vin Mariani,40 free license, 55 hallucinogenic effect, 56 Hindu Tantrism, 58 W marijuana use, 55 World Bank, 138 neutral drug laws, 59 World Health Organization Oklevueha Native American Church, 57 (WHO), 7, 140, 191