Migration & Diffusion, Vol. 1, Issue Number 4, 2000 THE SPICE TRADE AND ITS IMPORTANCE FOR EUROPEAN EXPANSION by Doz. Udo Pollmer Summary Both historical studies and popular accounts tend to present European expansion and the discovery of the New World as the achievements of daring adventurers who were seeking the thrill of novelty. But what leads people to take risks in everyday life is the hope of gaining an advantage - usually a financial one. If we consider European economic activity before the "discovery" of the New World by Christopher Columbus, it is clear that it was mainly the centers of the spice trade where wealth was accumulated. The palaces of Venice and Genoa, the riches of the Fugger and Welser merchant families of southern Germany, and the splendor of Lisbon and Amsterdam were established mainly on the profits from the spice trade. The route the spices took from the East Indies to the Occident was both difficult and dangerous. The spices were mostly harvested by slaves, and then sailed or paddled in tiny praos from the Spice Islands (the Moluccas) to Malacca. From there, they were shipped in junks across two or three dangerous tropical seas. After that, this freight was carried on camelback through the desert from Aden to Egypt, becoming more expensive at each stage. Emirs, sultans, and pirates levied high customs tariffs on whatever had not been lost to typhoons, sandstorms, or other pirates. The exotic freight passed through at least a dozen hands before it was received by European merchant firms in Alexandria or Constantinople. Today, we tend to underestimate their historical importance. For example, the term "spice" is not mentioned even once in the detailed subject index of Golo Mann's ten-volume History of the World (a well-known German reference work).4 For spices are merely a perishable item of consumption. As soon as they have had their effect on our tongues and palates, they vanish into our stomachs. This makes them much less accessible for archaeology than gold and silver, which outlast the centuries, and still have great material value today. Exotic spices were often more expensive than the food itself in former times. For a long time, people wondered why it was things with no nutritional value which were so strongly desired. The usual answer is, "Because they make things taste better". But this does not explain anything. For Nature does not do anything for nothing, or pointlessly. So why do human beings have this passion for spicing their food? 58 Migration & Diffusion, Vol. 1, Issue Number 4, 2000 I. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) dried, either in the sun, on sieves over a low flame, or on metal plates over glowing TO THIS DAY, saffron remains the most charcoal. In the process, the stigmas lose expensive of all spices. Someone who eats about 80% of their weight when plucked, so saffroned rice for the first time is likely to be that about 150,000 flowers are needed for one disappointed. Its aroma is faint, with a kilogram of saffron spice. "medicinal" note that is more reminiscent of a pharmacy than of exotic scents from the THE SCENT is caused mainly by the Orient. Its taste is described as "peculiar", chemical compound safranal, but also by and it is even slightly bitter on the tongue. If it pinene and cineole, while the taste is due to had only been a question of its coloring effect, the somewhat bitter picrocrocine, a glucoside then much cheaper dyestuffs, such as of safranal. The yellow dyestuff is called safflower (carthamin) would have been good crocine; it is one of the carotenoids.8,10 enough. Basically, anything that is expensive becomes Saffron has been used since antiquity. The a target of criminal profit-making. No spice Indians were exporting it in the fourth was ever counterfeited as unscrupulously and millennium BCE.7 It was well known in cunningly as saffron. Even in ancient times, ancient Egypt, as the Papyrus Ebers shows. there were lots of tips on how to "load" Saffron-dyed garments were part of the saffron with boiled-down apple pomace, typical clothing of Persian kings. Pictures on litharge (lead monoxide), or minium (lead Cretan pottery and frescos in the palace of tetroxide). In Pisa, Italy, in 1305 the Knossos show saffron pluckers at work four inspectors of the storehouses were required to thousand years ago.5,14 Aeschylus dressed his swear a special "saffron oath", and in Iphigenia of Aulis in saffron-dyed clothes, as medieval German cities, special laws and did Euripides and Virgil with their Antigone checks were introduced in order to counter the and Helen. In more worldly times, the skills of the saffron counterfeiters - but hetaerae, the expensive courtesans of ancient apparently with limited success. By 1440, Athens, seized upon the golden-yellow saffron they were so severe that the death penalty was color and made it their trademark.10 In ancient imposed. Counterfeiters were buried alive or Rome, Apicius listed, in his Excerpta, saffron burned at the stake. In 1551, the Diet of in first place among the spices that a perfect Augsburg passed a law for the entire Holy cook's spice cabinet must contain, followed by Roman Empire against "shoddy saffron", as pepper.15 The Arabs brought saffron to Europe the adulterated material was called in those after conquering the Iberian peninsula. The days. To this day, counterfeiting of saffron word itself comes from the Arabic or Persian, remains a common thing. 7, 8, 10, 11, 18, 19 from "za'faran" or "safra", which means "yellow".16 BUT SAFFRON is not only so valuable that it was sometimes paid for with its weight in The raw material is the stigmas of the flowers gold, it is also not exactly harmless. In ancient of a species of crocus from Asia, whose times, the lethal dose of saffron was estimated bluish-purple flowers resemble the poisonous at 12 grams, while today toxicologists give the autumn crocus, or meadow saffron lethal dose as 20 g.12,22 Louis Lewin confirms (Colchicum autumnale L.) of Europe. They that saffron can be poisonous even after only are harvested individually by hand in autumn. "lengthy inhalation of its volatile The aroma does not develop until they are components". And he states that, "According 59 Migration & Diffusion, Vol. 1, Issue Number 4, 2000 to older reports, serious illnesses, even death, people from consuming large quantities. were caused by accidentally sleeping on or Pepper is believed to have reached Europe as near fresh saffron".12 The pluckers sometimes a result of Alexander the Great's campaign in fainted simply while plucking the saffron.3 India. Our word "pepper" also derives from the Sanskrit word pippali. However, India was SAFFRON is an extremely potent drug. In already exporting spices such as pepper, large doses, it is poisonous, and in small ones, cloves, cardamom and saffron to other mainly euphoriant. Pharmacologists of past countries in the fourth millennium BCE.7 centuries attributed the same pain-relieving and anticonvulsive effects as opium to this crocus.3 Some reported effects such as "merry IT TOOK the Romans quite a while to come delirium" or "uncontrollable laughter". to like the hot taste, but by the beginning of Lonicerus, for example, credited it with the Imperial period, pepper had been generally making "a happy and good blood". According accepted; indeed, it was considered essential. to Gerhard Madaus, Jahn (1860) described Apicus mentions pepper in almost all of his saffron for children as being what opium was recipes.21 This referred to the considerably for adults. Other authors also emphasized the hotter "long pepper" (Piper longum), not the similarity of the effect of opium and saffron. "black pepper" (Piper nigrum) we use today. Other typical indications for its use according At the end of the first century CE, there were to folk medicine are to calm the nerves, and to special pepper storehouses (horreae treat pains, coughing fits, asthma, or diarrhea. piperatariae) in Rome, so that the citizens 3 Its relaxing effect on the intestinal and could be supplied with this sought-after bronchial muscles is also characteristic of an commodity at any time.1 When Alarich, king opiate.17 of the Visigoths, besieged the city in the year 408, he demanded as ransom for withdrawing, Even though the individual active ingredients besides silver and gold, three thousand pounds have not been identified yet, one can say that of pepper. it is the pharmacological effects of one or more opiates which make the taste of saffron seem attractive. Somebody who desires the Besides pepper and other spices, the Roman effect will recognize it by its aroma - and thus Empire imported from India such quantities of a drug became a "spice". This would explain pearls and Chinese silk that the enormous people's willingness to spend enormous sums amounts of gold and silver exchanged for of money for products that have no nutritional these luxury goods at times threatened the value. The fact that saffron has been cherished stability of the state's finances, as Pliny for thousands of years, from Europe over the reports. The Romans spend a hundred million Near East to Asia, shows that it is a biological sestertii annually on perfume imports from the phenomenon, not a sociological one. Orient.10 Since the reign of Augustus, more hundred merchant ships sailed to the ports of India and East Africa every year. They reached II. Pepper (Piper species) the Red Sea via the Necho Canal from the Nile, which no longer exists.25 The Periplus But the most important spice by volume in the maris Erythraei, an Alexandrian text probably history of Europe was not saffron, but pepper.