A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARA IN BAHRAIN A Brief History of Discrimination Against Baharna In Bahrain Eman AbdulZahra A Major Research Paper submitted to the Institute of Feminist and Gender Studies In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters in Women’s Studies Institute of Feminist and Gender Studies University of Ottawa Ottawa, Ontario, Canada January 8th, 2020 A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN Dedication To the people who worshipped Awal in Akkadian, fought alongside Imam Ali (as) with pure intentions, and now, bow to no one but Allah . And to my mother, for being my guardian angel. My father, for his support. My partner, for his patience and relentless love. i A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN Abstract The Baharna people, at the hands of Al Khalifa, have had their lands taken, their title as to Bahrain erased, and their jobs limited. This paper explores the hidden history of the slavery (sukhra) of the Baharna, the discriminatory taxes enforced against them, and how security apparatus then and now monitor and never hesitate to use physical force to enforce the law. The women’s movement is also crucial to the understanding of the status of the Baharna, as Bahraini women are also lower-class citizens, especially in terms of inheritance, divorce and marriage laws and practices. ii A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN Table of Content Introduction p.1 Significance of the Research p.1 Overview of the Paper p.1 Framework and Methodology p.2 Definition of Baharna p.3 A look back at historical origins p.5 History of the religion of the Baharna p.7 Who is Baharna and who is not? p.8 Historical background: Corruption p.9 History of Injustice p.10 History of Protest p.12 The 1920s Reform p.14 1920s: Al Khalifa rule and control p.15 1920s: the political agent p.16 1920s: violence p.17 1920s: Dawasir and Al Khalifa p.20 Sukhra: A history of slavery p.22 The 2011 Uprising p.25 The Women of the Uprising p.28 The Afterman p.29 Bahraini Women p.31 Feminist movement p.31 Education p.32 Women’s education beginnings p.34 Bahraini women’s rights: identity p.34 Bahraini women’s rights: law p.35 Conclusion p.36 Bibliography p.38 iii A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARA IN BAHRAIN Introduction The Baharna people have been recorded in literature to live in Bahrain before the year 36 A.H (Al- Tajir, 1982, p.8). Historians have used numerous ways to identify them and their title as to the land of Bahrain is highly debated amongst scholars. This kind of identity erasure allows for oppressive powers to downplay Baharna’s role in society and their status as “truly Bahraini”, which means that when leaders find Baharna to be too vocal, they can exile them and label them as “not real Bahrainis”. Baharna face numerous kinds of discrimination, socially, politically and religiously that will be discussed in this paper. To begin to understand the political context of the Baharna, I will begin through an extensive analysis of the 1920s, when the Baharna went through a political awakening. I will then briefly summarise the 2011 uprising, because it represented a broad society-wide awakening that included the Baharna. It is also a starting point for a lot of recent interest in Bahrain as an academic interest and as such a good way to contrast against the 1920s. Finally, I will discuss the intersection between the women’s movement and Baharna issues, as a way of understanding the connections between these two subcategories of second-class citizens. Significance of the Research Baharna have had a long history of discrimination in their native country of Bahrain. Even now, their status as native to the land is debated amongst scholars. Their difference from the rest of the Bahraini population separated them from society and sometimes made them invisible. As such, I am researching this topic to collect available information in the English language on Baharna and their lives in Bahrain.1 This research will be the first time a scholar dedicates a body of work to collect all available information and focuses solely on the Baharna and their struggles. 1 Time constraints did not allow for research into Arabic resources. 1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN This paper would hopefully start a discussion on Middle Eastern indigeneity; the stateless people—Abu Eid tribe—of Lebanon, the Bidoon in Kuwait, Marsh Arabs in Iraq, the various native groups of Oman—who speak Mehri, Harsusi, Hoboyat, Bathari and Jibbali, the Assyrians, the Arameans, the Armenians, the Yazidis, the Kurds, the Druze. As such, this research can be used in Gulf studies, Identity studies, Women’s studies, Middle Eastern and Arabic studies, Islam studies, Ethnic studies and Political studies. Overview of the Paper In order to understand the Baharna struggle, looking into the political side of discrimination is very crucial, as laws and orders are some of the easiest ways to understand how a country functions and views its people. To begin with, I will look into the numerous definitions of Baharna throughout history. Next, I will introduce the history of the Al Khalifa family in Bahrain, I will then briefly glance at several protest movements in Bahrain. With that in mind, I will look into the 1920s and Al Khalifa’s actions against the Baharna people. To wrap up, I will review the 2011 uprising. And finally, to conclude, I will look into women’s rights and status in Bahrain. Framework and Methodology By taking much inspiration from Indigenous scholars of Turtle Island, I, a Bahrani woman, am writing this paper to remind Baharna of their history, a history that is hidden by propaganda and one that we are forcing ourselves to forget in order to coexist (Regan, 2010, p.6). We have to allow for space that upsets our “comfortable assumptions about the past”, and tells “counter-narratives” by “Indigenous people themselves” (Regan, 2010, p.6). This paper is not a full account of history nor is it a paper about 2011 or the 1920s, it is a documentation of some discrimination that the Baharna have gone through in the 1920s and 2011. It is not exhaustive. I hope this paper jumpstarts research, a paradigm shift, for Baharna 2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN and other Indigenous groups about their own history. This paper was written with Baharna in mind, which means that is it written in an accessible manner. Definition of Baharna Plot your plots and widen your efforts, for by God you will not erase our memory. --- Sayeda Zainab’s sermon to Yazid My aim in this telling is to be accountable to Baharna. Mahdi Al Tajir is a Bahrani scholar who wrote a thesis and a book on Baharna and their linguistic origins. He was also my inspiration for doing this paper. I believe strongly that the history of a people, in order not to perpetuate oppression, should be written by its people. I believe—as taught to me by Indigenous scholars—that the Baharna should be the ones telling their story, which is why Mahdi Al Tajir is a crucial source in this paper.2 I, am also Baharna, which is why I thought it be important for my voice to guide you through this history. There are many ways to define Baharna (singular: Bahrani), but to follow Al Tajir’s footsteps, let’s start by the wrong ways to define Baharna. Usually, scholars believe Baharna to be of Persian descent. Paul Harrison, who was a missionary in Arabia and died on November of 1962 is quoted in his book to have said that there exists in Bahrain a “semi Persian community known as the ‘Baharna’” (Harrison, 1924, p.92). Abbas Faroughly states twice “Baharinah, that is, members of the Shiite sect of Persia” and then again “Baharinah Iranians Shiites” (Farougly, 1951, pp.18-19). Some historians get creative, claiming that Baharna are of pre-Islamic Jewish ancestry (Belgrave, 1972, p.148). While others go so far as to claim that Baharna are Arab prisoners of Nebuchadnezzar taken into Iraq, who later fled to Bahrain (Belgrave, 1957, p.37).3 More recently Bengio and Ben-Dor in their book published in 1999 claimed that Baharna “originate mainly from Iran and southern Iraq” and later 2 Tracy Coates, an Indigenous scholar, was the one who taught me this lesson. 3 This particular author was born in Bahrain and carried an Arabic name, Hamed. His book was endorsed by the ruler of Bahrain at the time, Sulman bin Hamed Al-Khalifa, which is why this claim is even more strange. It was republished many times, and this baffling story remains there, in every edition. 3 A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BAHARNA IN BAHRAIN “(e)thnically, Shi‘is of Persian origin, collectively known as al-Baharna (the indigenous inhabitants)” (Bengio & Ben-Dor, 1999, p.172, 174). There are current scholars who continue to refuse to ascribe the correct definitions to Baharna, Omar AlShehabi is one of them, and he defined them as “roughly be summarized as Shiʿa Arabs whose roots lie in the agricultural and fishing villages of Bahrain (AlShehabi, 2017; p.335). He goes on to continue by explain how Baharna as a term is “malleable and porous across time, facing contestation from different actors, albeit in different ways”, “the term would sometimes exclude and at others include people identified as ‘Hasawi’, ‘Qatifi’, those with links to areas in Iraq (e.g.